Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach

Yunus A. Cengel, Michael A. Boles

McGraw-Hill

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION AND
BASIC CONCEPTS

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Objectives
• Identify the unique vocabulary associated with
thermodynamics through the precise definition of
basic concepts to form a sound foundation for the
development of the principles of thermodynamics.
• Review the metric SI and the English unit systems.
• Explain the basic concepts of thermodynamics such
as system, state, state postulate, equilibrium,
process, and cycle.
• Review concepts of temperature, temperature scales,
pressure, and absolute and gage pressure.
• Introduce an intuitive systematic problem-solving
technique.
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 THERMODYNAMICS AND ENERGY
Thermodynamics: The science of energy.
•Energy: The ability to cause changes.
•The name thermodynamics stems from the Greek
words therme (heat) and dynamis (power).

Application Areas of Thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics: The second law of
An expression of the conservation of thermodynamics:
energy principle, i.e., during an It asserts that energy has quality
interaction, energy can change from one as well as quantity, and actual
form to another but the total amount of processes occur in the direction
energy remains constant. Energy cannot of decreasing quality of energy.
be created or destroyed. The first law
asserts that energy is a thermodynamic
property.

Heat flows in the direction of

decreasing temperature (2nd law).

Energy cannot be created

or destroyed; it can only
4
change forms (the first law).
 TEMPERATURE AND THE ZEROTH LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
• The zeroth law of thermodynamics: If two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with
each other.
• By replacing the third body with a thermometer, the zeroth law can be
restated as two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have the
same temperature reading even if they are not in contact.

Two bodies reaching

thermal equilibrium
after being brought
into contact in an
isolated enclosure. 5
Classical thermodynamics:
•A macroscopic approach to the study of thermodynamics that does not
require a knowledge of the behavior of individual particles.
•It provides a direct and easy way to the solution of engineering problems
and it is used in this text.

Statistical thermodynamics:
•A microscopic approach, based on the average behavior of large groups
of individual particles.
•It is used in this text only in the supporting role.

6
 IMPORTANCE OF DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
• Any physical quantity can be characterized by
dimensions.
• The magnitudes assigned to the dimensions are
called units.
• Some basic dimensions such as mass m, length
L, time t, and temperature T are selected as
fundamental or primary dimensions, while
others such as velocity V, energy E, and volume
V are expressed in terms of the primary
dimensions and are called secondary
dimensions, or derived dimensions.
• Metric SI system: A simple and logical system
based on a decimal relationship between the
various units.
• English system: It has no apparent systematic
numerical base, and various units in this system
are related to each other rather arbitrarily.
7
 MLT FLT UNIT
Common
Quantity Dimension
(Basic unit & Derived
system system
units)
Length (L) L L L m = meter
Time (t) T T T s = second
Mass (m) M M FT2/L kg = kilogram
Temperature (T) Θ Θ Θ °C = deg Celsius
°F = deg Fahrenheit
K = Kelvin
Area (A) L2 L2 L2 m2
Volume (V) L3 L3 L3 m3
Velocity (v or V) L/T L/T L/T m/s
Acceleration (θ) L/T2 L/T2 L/T2 m/s2
Density (ρ) M/L3 M/L3 FT2/L4 kg/m3
Moment, torque (T) FL ML2/T2 FL Nm = kgm2/s2
Force (F) F ML/T2 F N = Newton
Energy, work, heat (E) FL ML2/T2 FL Nm = J = Joule
Power, heat transfer rate (P) E/T ML2/T3 FL/T J/s = W = Watt
Pressure (P) F/L 2 M/LT2 F/L 2 N/m2 = Pascal
Heat flux (q) P/L2 M/T3 F/TL kg/s3
Thermal conductivity (K) P/LΘ ML/T3Θ F/TΘ kgm/s3K 8
Specific heat (Cp) E/MΘ L2/T2Θ FL/MΘ m2/s2K
Dimensional Homogeneity
All equations must be dimensionally homogeneous.

Unity Conversion Ratios

All nonprimary units (secondary units) can be
formed by combinations of primary units.
Force units, for example, can be expressed as

They can also be expressed more conveniently

as unity conversion ratios as

To be dimensionally
homogeneous, all the
Unity conversion ratios are identically equal to 1 and terms in an equation
are unitless, and thus such ratios (or their inverses) must have the same unit.
can be inserted conveniently into any calculation to
properly convert units.
11
 SYSTEMS AND CONTROL VOLUMES
• System: A quantity of matter or a region in
space chosen for study.
• Surroundings: The mass or region outside
the system
• Boundary: The real or imaginary surface
that separates the system from its
surroundings.
• The boundary of a system can be fixed or
movable.
• Systems may be considered to be closed or
open.

• Closed system
(Control mass):
A fixed
amount of mass,
and no mass
can cross its
boundary.
12
 • Open system (control volume): A properly
selected region in space.
• It usually encloses a device that involves
mass flow such as a compressor, turbine, or
nozzle.
• Both mass and energy can cross the
boundary of a control volume.
• Control surface: The boundaries of a
control volume. It can be real or imaginary.

An open system (a
control volume) with one
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inlet and one exit.
PROPERTIES OF A
SYSTEM
• Property: Any characteristic of a
system.
• Some familiar properties are
pressure P, temperature T, volume
V, and mass m.
• Properties are considered to be
either intensive or extensive.
• Intensive properties: Those that
are independent of the mass of a
system, such as temperature,
pressure, and density.
• Extensive properties: Those
whose values depend on the size—
or extent—of the system.
• Specific properties: Extensive Criterion to differentiate intensive
properties per unit mass. and extensive properties.
14
DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Density Specific gravity: The ratio
of the density of a
substance to the density of
some standard substance at
a specified temperature
Specific volume
(usually water at 4°C).

Specific weight: The

weight of a unit volume
of a substance.

Density is
mass per unit
volume;
specific volume
is volume per
unit mass.
15
STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
• Thermodynamics deals with
equilibrium states.
• Equilibrium: A state of balance.
• In an equilibrium state there are no
unbalanced potentials (or driving
forces) within the system.
• Thermal equilibrium: If the
temperature is the same throughout
the entire system. A system at two different states.
• Mechanical equilibrium: If there is
no change in pressure at any point
of the system with time.
• Phase equilibrium: If a system
involves two phases and when the
mass of each phase reaches an
equilibrium level and stays there.
• Chemical equilibrium: If the
chemical composition of a system
does not change with time, that is,
no chemical reactions occur. A closed system reaching thermal
equilibrium. 16
The State Postulate
• The number of properties required
to fix the state of a system is
given by the state postulate:
 State postulated: The state of
a simple compressible system
is completely specified by two
independent, intensive
properties.
• Simple compressible system: If a
system involves:
 No electrical,
 No magnetic,
The state of nitrogen is
 No gravitational,
fixed by two independent,
 No motion, and No
intensive properties.
 surface tension effects.

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PROCESSES AND CYCLES
Process: Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to
another.
Path: The series of states through which a system passes during a process.
To describe a process completely, one should specify the initial and final states, as
well as the path it follows, and the interactions with the surroundings.
Quasistatic or quasi-equilibrium process: When a process proceeds in such a
manner that the system remains infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state at
all times.

200degC
4 bar

100degC
2 bar

18
• Process diagrams plotted by
employing thermodynamic properties
as coordinates are very useful in
visualizing the processes.
• Some common properties that are
used as coordinates are temperature
T, pressure P, and volume V (or
specific volume v).
• The prefix iso- is often used to
designate a process for which a
particular property remains constant.

 Isothermal process: A process during

which the temperature T remains
constant.
 Isobaric process: A process during
which the pressure P remains constant.
 Isochoric (or isometric) process: A
process during which the specific volume
v remains constant. The P-V diagram of a compression
 Cycle: A process during which the initial process.
and final states are identical.

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The Steady-Flow Process
• The term steady implies no
change with time. The
opposite of steady is
unsteady, or transient.
• A large number of engineering During a steady-
devices operate for long flow process, fluid
periods of time under the properties within
same conditions, and they are the control
classified as steady-flow volume may
devices. change with
• Steady-flow process: A position but not
process during which a fluid with time.
flows through a control volume
steadily.
• Steady-flow conditions can be
closely approximated by
devices that are intended for
continuous operation such as
turbines, pumps, boilers,
condensers, and heat
exchangers or power plants or Under steady-flow conditions, the mass
refrigeration systems. and energy contents of a control volume 20
remain constant.
 Temperature Scales P versus T plots
• All temperature scales are based on of the
some easily reproducible states such as experimental
the freezing and boiling points of water: data obtained
the ice point and the steam point. from a constant-
• Ice point: A mixture of ice and water volume gas
that is in equilibrium with air saturated thermometer
with vapor at 1 atm pressure (0°C or using four
32°F). different gases
• Steam point: A mixture of liquid water at different (but
and water vapor (with no air) in low) pressures.
equilibrium at 1 atm pressure (100°C or
212°F).
• Celsius scale: in SI unit system
• Fahrenheit scale: in English unit
system
• Thermodynamic temperature scale: A
temperature scale that is independent of
the properties of any substance.
• Kelvin scale (SI) Rankine scale (E)
• A temperature scale nearly identical to
the Kelvin scale is the ideal-gas
temperature scale. The temperatures
on this scale are measured using a A constant-volume gas thermometer would
constant-volume gas thermometer. read 273.15°C at absolute zero pressure. 21
Attendance

22
 Comparison of
temperature
scales.

Comparison of
magnitudes of
various
temperature
units.

• The reference temperature in the original Kelvin scale was the ice point,
273.15 K, which is the temperature at which water freezes (or ice melts).
• The reference point was changed to a much more precisely reproducible
point, the triple point of water (the state at which all three phases of water
23
coexist in equilibrium), which is assigned the value 273.16 K.
PRESSURE
68 kg 136 kg
Pressure: A normal force exerted
by a fluid per unit area

Afeet=300cm2

0.23 kgf/cm2 0.46 kgf/cm2

P=68/300=0.23 kgf/cm2

The normal stress (or “pressure”) on the

feet of a chubby person is much greater
than on the feet of a slim person.

Some basic
pressure
gages.
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• Absolute pressure: The actual pressure at a given position. It is
measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).
• Gage pressure: The difference between the absolute pressure and
the local atmospheric pressure. Most pressure-measuring devices are
calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and so they indicate gage
pressure.
• Vacuum pressures: Pressures below atmospheric pressure.

Throughout
this text, the
pressure P
will denote
absolute
pressure
unless
specified
otherwise.

25
Pgage = density x gravity x height

26
Variation of Pressure with Depth
When the variation of density
with elevation is known

The pressure of a fluid at rest Free-body diagram of a rectangular

increases with depth (as a fluid element in equilibrium.
result of added weight). 30
 In a room filled with The pressure is the
a gas, the variation same at all points
of pressure with on a horizontal
height is negligible. plane in a given
fluid regardless of
geometry, provided
Pressure in a liquid that the points are
at rest increases interconnected by
linearly with the same fluid.
distance from the
free surface.

31
Pascal’s law: The pressure applied to a
confined fluid increases the pressure
throughout by the same amount.

The area ratio A2/A1 is

called the ideal mechanical
advantage of the hydraulic
lift.

Lifting of a large weight

by a small force by the
application of Pascal’s
law. 32
The Manometer
It is commonly used to measure small and
moderate pressure differences. A manometer
contains one or more fluids such as mercury, water,
alcohol, or oil.
Measuring the
pressure drop across a
flow section or a flow
device by a differential
manometer.

The basic
manometer.

In stacked-up fluid layers, the

pressure change across a fluid layer
of density  and height h is gh. 33
34
35
36
 THE BAROMETER AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
• Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer; thus, the
atmospheric pressure is often referred to as the barometric pressure.
• A frequently used pressure unit is the standard atmosphere, which is defined as
the pressure produced by a column of mercury 760 mm in height at 0°C ( Hg =
13,595 kg/m3) under standard gravitational acceleration (g = 9.807 m/s2).

The length or the

cross-sectional area
of the tube has no
effect on the height
of the fluid column of
a barometer,
provided that the
tube diameter is
large enough to
avoid surface tension
(capillary) effects.
The basic barometer.
38
PROBLEM-SOLVING TECHNIQUE
• Step 1: Problem Statement
• Step 2: Schematic
• Step 3: Assumptions and Approximations
• Step 4: Physical Laws
• Step 5: Properties
• Step 6: Calculations
• Step 7: Reasoning, Verification, and Discussion
EES (Engineering Equation Solver) (Pronounced as ease):
EES is a program that solves systems of linear or nonlinear
algebraic or differential equations numerically. It has a large
library of built-in thermodynamic property functions as well as
mathematical functions. Unlike some software packages, EES
does not solve engineering problems; it only solves the equations
supplied by the user. 39
These pressures are related by
Pgage  Pabs  Patm
Pvac  Patm  Pabs
Or these last two results may be written as

Pabs  Patm Pgage

Where the +Pgage is used when Pabs > Patm and –Pgage is used for a vacuum gage.

The relation among atmospheric, gage, and vacuum pressures is shown below.

40
Both a gage and a manometer are attached to a gas tank to measure
its pressure. If the reading on the pressure gage is 80 kPa, determine
the distance between the two fluid levels of the manometer if the fluid
is:
(a) mercury ( ρ = 13,600 kg/m3), or
(b) water (ρ = 1000 kg/m3).

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