Learning Objectives
1. Identify the unique vocabulary associated with
thermodynamics through the precise definition of basic
concepts to form a sound foundation for the development of the
principles of thermodynamics
2. Review the metric SI unit system that will be used throughout
the text.
3. Explain the basic concepts of thermodynamics such as system,
state, state postulate, equilibrium, process, and cycle.
4. Review concepts of temperature, temperature scales, pressure,
and absolute and gage pressure.
5. Discuss problem-solving techniques that can be used to solve
engineering problems.
1
1-1 Introduction
The science of thermodynamics was born in the
nineteenth century of the need to describe the operation
of steam engines and to set forth the limits of what they
can accomplish
Thus the name itself denotes power developed from
heat, with obvious application to heat engines, of which
the steam engine was the initial example
However, the principles observed to be valid for
engines are readily generalized, and are known as the
first and second laws of thermodynamics
2
1-1 Introduction
These laws have no proof in the mathematical sense;
their validity lies in the absence of contrary experience.
Thus thermodynamics shares with mechanics and
electromagnetism a basis in primitive laws
These laws lead through mathematical deduction to a
network of equations which find application in all
branches of science and engineering
The chemical engineer copes with a particularly wide
variety of problems
3
1-1 Introduction
Among them are calculation of heat and work
requirements for physical and chemical processes, and
the determination of equilibrium conditions for chemical
reactions and for the transfer of chemical species
between phases
So thermodynamics is:-
• The science of energy and in its broader sense, it
includes all aspects of energy and energy
transformations
• e.g., power generation, refrigeration, relationships
among the properties of matter
4
1-1 Introduction
Conservation of Energy
• One of the most fundamental laws of nature
• Energy can change form, but the total amount of
energy must remain the same
i.e., energy cannot be created or destroyed
5
1-1 Introduction
First law of thermodynamics
• An expression of the conservation of energy principle
• Asserts that energy is a thermodynamic property
Second law of thermodynamics
• Asserts that energy has quality as well as quantity
• Processes occur in the direction of decreasing quality of
energy
Validity of laws
• The laws of thermodynamics cannot be proved in a
mathematical sense
• Their validity rests on our experience (experimental
observations)
6
1-1 Introduction
Classical Thermodynamics
• The macroscopic approach
• Does not require knowledge of the
behavior of individual particles
• Provides a direct and easy way to the
solution of engineering problems
Statistical Thermodynamics
• The microscopic or molecular approach
• Based on the average behavior of large
groups of individual particles
• The goal is the understanding and
prediction of macroscopic phenomena
and the calculation of macroscopic
properties from the properties of
individual
7
molecules
1.2 Application Areas of Thermodynamics
All activities in nature involve some interaction between energy
and matter;
thus, it is hard to imagine an area that does not relate to
thermodynamics in some manner
Thermodynamics is commonly encountered in many engineering
systems and other aspects of life,
and one does not need to go very far to see some application
areas of it
The heart is constantly pumping blood to all parts of the human
body, various energy conversions occur in trillions of body cells,
and the body heat generated is constantly rejected to the
environment
8
1.2 Application Areas of Thermodynamics
Engineering Applications
9
1.2 Application Areas of Thermodynamics
Daily Life
10
1.3 Basic concepts and terminologies in
thermodynamics
1.3.1 Dimensions and Units
Any physical quantity can be characterized by dimensions
•The arbitrary magnitudes assigned to the dimensions are called units
•E.g., Dimensions: mass, length, time
Units: kilogram, meter, second
Dimensions are of two types
Primary (fundamental) Units
•Basic Units
E.g., mass, length, time
Secondary (derived) Units
•Expressed in terms of primary dimensions
E.g., velocity, energy, volume
11
1.3 Basic concepts and terminologies in
thermodynamics
Difference between weight and mass
• Mass is a fundamental quantity
• Weight is the gravitational force
applied to a body
W mg
Dimensional Homogeneity
• Basic idea – you can’t add apples and oranges
• Every term in an expression must have the same units
• Valuable tool for spotting errors
• What is wrong with this expression?
12 E 25 kJ 7 kJ/kg
1.3 Basic concepts and terminologies in
thermodynamics
Unit Conversion Ratios
• All secondary units can be formed by combinations of
primary units
• For example, consider a Newton
m
N = kg 2
s
• These relationships can be expressed more conveniently as unity
conversion ratios
N
=1
kg m s 2
• Unity conversion ratios are identically equal to 1 and are unitless
• Such ratios can be inserted conveniently into any calculation to
13properly convert units
1.3 Basic concepts and terminologies in
thermodynamics
1.3.2 Closed and Open Systems
Thermodynamic System
• A quantity of matter or region
in space chosen for study
Surroundings
• Mass or region outside the
system
Boundary
• The real or imaginary surface
that separates the system from
the surroundings
14
1.3 Basic concepts and terminologies in
thermodynamics
Closed System (Control Mass)
• Consists of a fixed amount of
mass
• Mass can NOT cross the
boundary
• Energy can cross the
boundary
• Volume does not have to be
fixed
Isolated System mass = constant
• Special case of a closed Volume = constant
system Energy = constant
• No energy is allowed to
15 cross the boundary
1.3 Basic concepts and terminologies in
thermodynamics
Open System (Control Volume)
• Any arbitrary region in space
• Usually involves a device
through which mass flows
• Mass and energy can cross
the boundary
• Can be fixed in space or have
a moving boundary
• Control volumes can change
in actual volume with time
Control Surface
• The boundaries of a control
volume
• Can be real or imaginary
16
1.3 Basic concepts and terminologies
in thermodynamics
17
1.3 Basic concepts and terminologies
in thermodynamics
1.3.3 Properties of A System
Property
• Any characteristic of a system
• E.g., temperature, pressure, volume
Intensive Property
• Independent of the size of the system
• E.g., temperature, pressure, density
Extensive Property
• Value depends on the size (or extent)
of the system
• E.g., mass, volume, total energy
Specific Properties
• Extensive properties per unit mass
• E.g., specific volume, specific energy
18 v V m eE m
1.3 Basic concepts and terminologies
in thermodynamics
1.3.4 Density and Specific Gravity
Density m
• Mass per unit volume
V
Specific Volume
• Reciprocal of the density v V 1
• Volume per unit mass m
Specific Gravity (or Relative Density)
• The ratio of the density of a substance to the density of some
standard substance at a specified temperature
• Usually the standard is water at 4 oC, for which
H2O = 1000 kg/m3
SG
19 H 2O
1.3 Basic concepts and terminologies
in thermodynamics
1.3.5 State and Equilibrium
State
System is at equilibrium
A set of properties that completely describes the condition of a
system
At a given state, all properties of a system have fixed values
Equilibrium
• Implies a state of balance
• There are no unbalanced driving potentials (driving forces)
• No change in the property values of the system
• Steady state of matter or energy within the system or at the
boundaries of the system
20
1.3 Basic concepts and terminologies
in thermodynamics
There are many types of equilibrium, and a system is not in
thermodynamic equilibrium unless the conditions of all the
relevant types of equilibrium are satisfied
Types of Equilibrium
• Thermal: uniform temperature throughout the system
• Mechanical: uniform pressure or no tendency for the pressure
at any point to change with time as along as the system is
isolated from its surroundings
• Phase: the mass of each phase reaches an equilibrium and stays
there
• Chemical: no tendency for changes in chemical composition
21
1.3 Basic concepts and terminologies
in thermodynamics
Thermodynamic Equilibrium
• Equilibrium with respect to all possible changes of state
** State Postulate **
• As noted earlier, the state of a system is described by its
properties
• The number of properties required to fix the state of a system is
given by the state postulate
• The state of a simple compressible system is completely described
by two independent, intensive properties
Simple Compressible System
• A system in the absence of electrical, magnetic, gravitational,
motion, and surface tension effects
Independent Properties
• One property can be varied while the other is held constant
22
1.3 Basic concepts and terminologies
in thermodynamics
1.3.6 Processes and Cycles
Process
• Any change that a system
undergoes from one
equilibrium state to another
Path
• The series of states a system
passes through during a
process
** To completely describe a process, one must know the initial
and final states as well as the path the process follows
23
1.3 Basic concepts and terminologies
in thermodynamics
Quasi-static (quasi-equilibrium) process
•A process that proceeds in a manner
that the system remains infinitesimally
close to an equilibrium state at all
times
•A quasi-equilibrium process can
be viewed as a sufficiently slow
process that allows the system to
adjust itself internally so that
properties in one part of the
system do not change any faster
than those at other parts
24
1.3 Basic concepts and terminologies
in thermodynamics
25
1.3 Basic concepts and terminologies
in thermodynamics
•It should be pointed out that a quasi-equilibrium process is an
idealized process and is not a true representation of an actual
process
•But many actual processes closely approximate it, and they can
be modeled as quasi equilibrium with negligible errors
•Engineers are interested in quasi equilibrium processes for two
reasons
First, they are easy to analyze;
second, work-producing devices deliver the most work
when they operate on quasi equilibrium processes
Therefore, quasi-equilibrium processes serve as standards
to which actual processes can be compared
26
1.3 Basic concepts and terminologies
in thermodynamics
Cycle
• A process, or series of
processes, that begin and end
at the same state
Iso Processes
• Certain properties can remain
constant during a process
• We use the prefix iso to
describe such processes
• Examples:
isothermal const. T
isobaric const. P
isochoric const.
27
1.3 Basic concepts and terminologies
in thermodynamics
The Steady-Flow Process
• Steady: no change with time
• Uniform: no change with location
• A steady-flow process is one in which a fluid flows through a
control volume steadily
• The fluid properties can change with location/position within
the control volume, but at any fixed point they remain the
same during the entire process, i.e., no change with time
Fig.
During a steady-flow process, fluid properties within the control volume may
change with position but not with time
28
1.4 Temperature and the Zeroth law
of thermodynamics
Observation
• When a body is brought into
contact with another body that is at
a different temperature, heat is
transferred from the body at higher
temperature to the one at lower
temperature until both bodies
attain the same temperature
(thermal equilibrium)
29
1.4 Temperature and the Zeroth law
of thermodynamics
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
• If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they
are also in equilibrium with each other
• It cannot be concluded from the other laws of thermodynamics
and it serves as a validity of temperature measurement
• By replacing the third body with a thermometer, the law can be
restated as two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have
the same temperature reading, even if they are not in contact
30
1.4 Temperature and the Zeroth law
of thermodynamics
Thermodynamic (Absolute) Temperature Scale
• A scale that is independent of the properties of a system
• This thermodynamic temperature scale is the Kelvin scale
designated by K not oK
Temperature Scales
• oC – Celsius, based on freezing and boiling points of water
• K – Kelvin, absolute scale
T K T C 273.15
o
T
K
T o
C
31 Anders Celsius Lord Kelvin
Pressure
Pressure
• The force exerted by a fluid per unit area
Absolute Pressure
• Actual pressure at a given pressure
• Measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure)
Gage Pressure
• Difference between the absolute pressure and the local
atmospheric pressure
Pgage Pabs Patm
Vacuum Pressures
• Pressures below atmospheric pressure
Pvac Patm Pabs
32
Pressure
33
Pressure
Variation of Pressure with Depth
• Via a simple force balance
P P2 P1 gz
• Assumes the fluid is incompressible,
i.e., f z
• In differential form
dP
g
dz
• If a fluid is compressible, i.e., f z
2
P P2 P1 g dz
1
• In general, the variation of pressure with depth is
significant for liquids and negligible for gases
34
The Manometer
Basic Manometer
• By considering the variation of
pressure with depth, we get
P2 Patm gh
• More complicated manometers
arise from placing multiple
immiscible fluids in series
35
The Manometer
Example 1-6
A manometer is used to measure the pressure in a tank. The fluid
used has a specific gravity of 0.85, and the manometer column
height is 55 cm. If the local atmospheric pressure is 96 kPa,
determine the absolute pressure within the tank.
36
Barometer and the Atmospheric Pressure
Basic Barometer
• We make the following
assumptions:
• PC 0 (vapor pressure of Hg)
PB Patm
• Which gives,
Patm gh
37
Problem Solving
1. Problem statement
2. Schematic
3. Assumptions and
Approximations
4. Physical laws
5. Properties
6. Calculations
7. Reasoning, verification
and discussion
38
Problem 1-52
The barometer of a mountain hiker reads 930 mbars at the beginning
of a hiking trip and 780 mbars at the end. Neglecting the effect of
altitude on local gravitational acceleration, determine the vertical
distance climbed. Assume an average air density of 1.20 kg/m3.
39
