Elsa Cherian

Baskar Gurunathan Editors

Value Added
Products
From Food
Waste
Linkedin: Emily Phuong
Value Added Products From Food Waste
Elsa Cherian • Baskar Gurunathan
Editors

Value Added Products From

Food Waste
Editors
Elsa Cherian Baskar Gurunathan
Department of Food Technology Department of Biotechnology
Saintgits College of Engineering St. Joseph’s College of Engineering
Kottayam, Kerala, India Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
School of Engineering
Lebanese American University
Byblos, Lebanon

ISBN 978-3-031-48142-0    ISBN 978-3-031-48143-7 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48143-7

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Preface

In a world dealing with the consequences of overconsumption and environmental

degradation, the need to reduce waste and maximize resources has never been more
pressing. Food waste, in particular, stands out as a glaring issue, accounting for a
significant portion of the waste generated worldwide. The paradox of hunger juxta-
posed with vast quantities of discarded food raises a moral and ethical challenge
that society must confront. This book, Value Added Products from Food Waste, is a
testament to our commitment to addressing this critical problem. It is a comprehen-
sive exploration of innovative solutions that not only minimize food waste but also
transform it into valuable resources. It is a testament to human ingenuity and the
potential for sustainable practices to reshape our relationship with food. The jour-
ney from surplus and discarded food to value-added products is not merely about
mitigating waste; it is about creating a more resilient, sustainable, and equitable
food system. As we delve into the pages of this book, we embark on a journey that
celebrates creativity, innovation, and the power of collective action. In these chap-
ters, you will find a rich tapestry of ideas, technologies, and case studies that dem-
onstrate the diverse ways in which food waste can be transformed into new,
marketable products. From biodegradable packaging materials derived from fruit
peels to nutrient-rich supplements extracted from vegetable scraps, the possibilities
are boundless. The stories shared here illustrate how individuals, communities, and
businesses are finding novel ways to add value to what was once considered waste.
Part I of this book mainly deals with the need of converting food waste to secu-
rity of food and nutrition. It is stressed that wise use of technology can create a huge
impact in the balance of the society. Part II covers value addition and sustainable
management of dairy industry by-products. Unique nutritional values of various
dairy by-products are explained. Dairy by-products encompass a wide range of
products derived from milk processing, such as cheese, yogurt, butter, and whey.
Each of these products contains a unique set of nutrients, including various vita-
mins, minerals, proteins, and fats, which can be beneficial for human health. Part III
explains the waste utilization from cereals. In this part, the focus shifts to the effec-
tive utilization of waste generated during the processing or consumption of cereals.
Cereals are a staple food for a large portion of the global population and encompass

v
vi Preface

grains like wheat, rice, corn, and oats. The production and processing of cereals
often lead to the generation of by-products or waste materials. This could include
parts like bran, husks, and germ that are not used in the primary food production.
This part likely outlines methods and strategies for making productive use of these
by-products, which might involve repurposing them for other purposes like animal
feed, biofuel production, or even as ingredients in various food products.
Part IV explains waste utilization from fruits and vegetables. This part likely
delves into the various ways in which waste generated during the production and
processing of fruits and vegetables can be put to productive use. This waste may
include parts like peels, seeds, stems, and other non-edible or less-desirable portions
of fruits and vegetables. Part V provides valuable insights into how waste generated
from meat, poultry, and fish processing can be efficiently and sustainably utilized.
This not only helps to minimize environmental impact but also has economic and
agricultural benefits. It encourages practices that align with the principles of a cir-
cular economy, contributing to a more sustainable and responsible food industry.
The last part covers the conversion of food waste into biofuel and electricity. The
conversion of food waste into biofuel and electricity represents a significant step
towards a more sustainable and circular approach to waste management and energy
production. It addresses environmental concerns while also contributing to the
development of renewable energy resources.
Our aim is not only to inspire but also to empower. By showcasing successful
examples and offering practical insights, we hope to encourage readers from all
walks of life to join the ranks of innovators who are turning food waste into a valu-
able resource. Whether you are a researcher, entrepreneur, policymaker, or simply
someone passionate about sustainable living, this book offers something for every-
one. We believe that every grain, peel, or stem that can be rescued from the bin and
transformed into something valuable brings us one step closer to a more sustainable
and equitable future.

Kottayam, Kerala, India Elsa Cherian

Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India Baskar Gurunathan
Contents

Part I Introduction
1 Food Waste to Food and Nutrition Security—Need
of the Hour������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    3
R. Arivuchudar

Part II Waste Utilization from Dairy Industry

2 Value Addition and Sustainable Management of Dairy
Industry Byproducts��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   19
T. Jayasree Joshi, V. Harsha, P. Nandagopal, Asha Ashok,
and Sabitra Pokhrel

Part III Waste Utilization from Cereals

3 Effective Utilization of Agricultural Cereal Grains
in Value-Added Products: A Global Perspective����������������������������������   41
Meroda Tesfaye Gari, Belete Tessema Asfaw, Lata Deso Abo,
Mani Jayakumar, and Gadisa Kefalew

Part IV Waste Utilization from Fruits and Vegetables

4  ruit Peel–Based Edible Coatings/Films�����������������������������������������������   61
F
Veerapandi Loganathan, Nivetha Thangaraj, and J. Suresh Kumar
5  ioenzymes from Wastes to Value-Added Products ����������������������������   75
B
Gamachis Korsa, Chandran Masi, Digafe Alemu, Abera Beyene,
and Abate Ayele
6 Valorization of Fruit Processing Industry Waste
into Value-Added Chemicals ������������������������������������������������������������������ 107
Abas Siraj Hamda, Melkiyas Diriba Muleta, Mani Jayakumar,
Selvakumar Periyasamy, and Baskar Gurunathan

vii
viii Contents

7 Wastes from Fruits and Vegetables Processing Industry

for Value-Added Products ���������������������������������������������������������������������� 127
Abate Ayele, Chandran Masi, Ebrahim Mama Abda,
and Gamachis Korsa
8 Commercial Products Derived from Vegetable
Processing Industrial Wastes and Their Recent
Conversion Studies���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 147
Desta Getachew Gizaw, Selvakumar Periyasamy,
Zinnabu Tassew Redda, Mani Jayakumar, and S. Kavitha
9 Exotic Nutrients Content from Tamarind (Tamarindus indica)
Seed is a Boon of Sustainable Healthy Diets������������������������������������������ 169
S. Parameshwari and C. Hemalatha
10 Valorization of Wastes and By-products of Cane-Based
Sugar Industry ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 185
Tatek Temesgen, Selvakumar Periyasamy, Dinsefa Mensur,
Belay Berhane, Sunaina, and Mani Jayakumar

Part V Waste Utilization from Meat, Poultry and Fish

11 Keratinase: A Futuristic Green Catalyst and Potential
Applications���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 207
Mani Jayakumar, S. Venkatesa Prabhu, C. Nirmala, M. Sridevi,
and Magesh Rangaraju
12  alorization of Aquatic Waste Biomass ������������������������������������������������ 231
V
J. Suresh Kumar and Veerapandi Loganathan

Part VI Conversion of Food Waste into Biofuel and Electricity

13  alorization of Agro-Waste Biomass into Biofuel: A Step
V
Towards Effective Agro-­Waste Management���������������������������������������� 249
Pratyush Kumar Das, Bidyut Prava Das, Patitapaban Dash,
Bikash Kumar Das, and Baskar Gurunathan
14 Food Process Industry Waste Biomass as a Promising Alternative
for Green Energy Production ���������������������������������������������������������������� 275
Anjali Sethumadhavan, Siddh Rajesh Shah, Mani Jayakumar,
Gnanasundaram Nirmala, and Magesh Rangaraju

Index������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 291
About the Editors

Elsa Cherian is a distinguished academician and researcher who presently holds

the position of Associate Professor and Head of the Food Technology Department
at Saintgits College of Engineering, located in Kottayam, Kerala, India. With
15 years of dedicated service in the field of education and research, she has estab-
lished herself as a prominent figure in the domain of food technology. In addition to
her teaching responsibilities, Dr. Elsa Cherian is a prolific researcher. She has
authored a substantial number of research papers and book chapters that have added
to the body of knowledge in food technology. Her contributions to scholarly litera-
ture have helped in disseminating the latest advancements, techniques, and findings
in the field. These publications serve as valuable resources for students, researchers,
and professionals in the food technology sector.

Baskar Gurunathan is currently a Professor in the Department of Biotechnology

at St. Joseph’s College of Engineering in Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India. He has
22 years of rich teaching and research experience in different fields of Biotechnology.
He has published 190 research and review articles in reputed national and interna-
tional journals, authored 37 book chapters and edited 6 books. He has visited Swiss
Federal Institute of Technology (EFPL), Switzerland as visiting researcher in
November and December, 2018. His major research areas include biofuels, bioen-
ergy, technoeconomic analysis, environmental impact analysis, nanocatalysis,
nanomedicine and food safety. He is the Fellow of the Institution of Engineers
(India) and International Society for Energy Environment and Sustainability and is
an active life member of various national and international professional bodies. He
was listed in top 2% Scientist in the world consecutively in 2020 and 2021 by
Elsevier BV and Stanford University, USA. He was bestowed upon ISTE-Periyar
Best Engineering College Teacher award 2020 from Indian Society for Technical
Education-Tamil Nadu Section, Prof. S. B. Chincholkar Memorial Award 2019
from Biotech Research Society, India for the outstanding work in the area of
Biofuels and Food Biotechnology, ISTE-Syed Sajid Ali National Award 2016 for

ix
x About the Editors

his outstanding research on renewable energy from Indian Society for Technical
Education, New Delhi, and Young Scientist Award 2015 from International
Bioprocessing Association, France. He has been actively researching for creating
sustainable bioenergy solutions while contributing towards a greener and circular
bioeconomy environment.
 Part I
Introduction
Chapter 1
Food Waste to Food and Nutrition
Security—Need of the Hour

R. Arivuchudar

Abstract The entire world is marching together toward realizing sustainable devel-
opment goals (SDG) and renewing the globe by 2030. Of the 17 SDGs framed, the
four SDGs, SDG1, SDG2, SDG3, and SDG12, focus on building a healthy realm
with goals of No Poverty, Zero hunger, Good health and well-being, and Responsible
consumption and production, respectively. The increasing population, COVID pan-
demic, unemployment, and increasing inflation have created food shortages and
thereby food insecurity across many parts of the world. Also, in recent years,
because of globalization, urbanization, and increased availability of a variety of
foods, there has been a significant rise in the excessive purchase of food, leading to
wastage on a large scale. This trend poses a significant threat and contributes signifi-
cantly to food waste. Additionally, it raises concerns about food security, particu-
larly in developing countries. To a great extent, this can be overcome by minimizing
wastage while transporting food from farmstead to table, reducing food waste, wise
reuse of the food wastage produced from various food trades, and mobilization of
derivatives generated from food processing industries. As per FAO reports, 25% of
the food is currently lost or wasted in the world; if redeemed, around 870 million
famished population in the world could be fed, of which about 194.6 million, the
highest number, will be benefited from India. The time has come to intuit this gar-
gantuan volume of food waste and act swiftly for the benefit of people and nature.
Thus, this chapter has been reviewed to provide a clear insight into the role of food
waste in food and nutrition security and why it is the need of the hour. The wise use
of technology, the acumen for nutritional perspectives of all parts of food, and inter-
est in formulating novel food products from edible wastes can reduce food waste
and assure food and nutrition security.

Keywords Food Security · Food Waste · Nutrition Security · Waste Management ·

Waste Disposal

R. Arivuchudar (*)
Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Periyar University, Salem, Tamil Nadu, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 3

E. Cherian, B. Gurunathan (eds.), Value Added Products From Food Waste,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48143-7_1
4 R. Arivuchudar

1.1 Introduction

Food waste and food loss are the terms of concern in the current scenario and are
probable topics of research for the next few years until our sustainable development
goals are met. According to FAO (2011), food loss means a reduction in either the
volume or in the nutritional quality of the food actually envisioned for feeding
human population. The damages are mostly because of a lack of efficiency in the
food supply chain, including natural disasters, weak logistics, infrastructure, and
technology, lack of skills in the understanding and managing ability of participants
in the supply chain, and lack of market access. Food waste refers to discarded food
that is suitable for human consumption, either it has been stored past its shelf life or
left to rot. This is usually due to spoiled food but can also be due to market oversup-
ply and consumer buying or eating habits. Food wastage includes food loss and/or
food waste (FAO 2011). However, there is no uniform definition of food loss and
waste for all the stages of the food chain, and there is a need to establish a universal
definition (Nicholes et al. 2019; Chaboud and Daviron 2017; Lebersorger and
Schneider 2011).
Food loss and food wastage have direct implications on the nation’s economy,
food security, and nutrition security. Wasting of food makes it difficult to maintain
a sanitary and hygienic environs due to hitches in food disposal, leading to serious
health risks and the outbreak of several infectious diseases (Arivuchudar 2018). As
spoiled foods cause serious health risks, guidance on wise disposal of spoiled foods
should be given (US Dept. of Health and Human Services 2019). The burden of
hunger, malnutrition, diseases, and food insecurity, when discussed and taken to the
public at large, will serve as a means to moderate food waste and loss (Rutten 2013).
It is likewise studied that the lessening of food waste at every stage aids to lessen the
problem of food insecurity (Saputro et al. 2021). As of Global Hunger Index 2022,
India stands at 107 among 121 countries, and the grade of hunger and under-­
nutrition is seriously high. It should be understood that the real problem arises from
food loss and wastage (Saini and Khatri 2022).
Considering the urgency and importance of stoppage of food wastage as the need
of the hour, the Food and Agriculture Organisation and United Nations Environment
Programme have joined hands to observe the International Day of Awareness of
Food Loss and Waste on September 29 since 2019. The theme for 2022 was “Stop
Food Loss and Waste! For People and Planet.” The importance of commemorating
this day owes to the rising food and nutrition insecurity across the globe, with a goal
to create mindfulness of the significance of the problems related to food loss and
food waste, to find possible solutions, and stimulate inclusive efforts and action to
accomplish the SDGs as mentioned earlier. SDG 12.3 explicitly aims to cut down
individual food waste at the market and consumer level by 50% by 2030 and to
reduce food losses along the production and supply chains (Mirage News 2021).
Similarly, the problems associated with food wastage add to the environmental
damage through the emission of greenhouse gases (Everett 2021). Well-planned
food material purchases and adopting proper storage methods can enormously sup-
port food waste reduction.
1 Food Waste to Food and Nutrition Security—Need of the Hour 5

1.2 Food Wastage: The Contemporary Portrayal

It is appraised that, globally, 14% of the food vanishes between harvest and sale,
which equates to an amount 400 billion dollars in a year, whereas 17% is predicted
to be wasted at retail and at the consumption stage (UNEP 2021).
In the universal food system, the lost and wasted food records 38% of total
energy consumption, which in turn accounts for 8–10% of the Green House Gases
globally, causing rickety climatic conditions, decreased crop yield, reduced nutri-
tive value of crops, interferences in supply chain, and threat to food and nutrition
security.
In the present day, food waste management is a primary global challenge because
of the incompatible effects it poses on the economy, ecology, food security, and also
nutrition security. A study on 165 nations using Ordinary Least-Squares regression
(OLS) and General Linear Model (GLM) techniques has found that food wastage
and poverty have a serious impact on GDP and economic growth (Conrad and
Blackstone 2021), while the reduction in food loss percent and increasing food pro-
duction have raised the GDP. It is also noteworthy that people prefer to raise GDP
by reducing food loss rather than increasing food production (Mobaseri et al. 2021).
The concern is that food wastage will not only influence the economy but will also
equally influence society, and hence global strategies should be devised to find
immediate solutions (Chrobog 2014).

1.3 Food Waste, Food and Nutrition Security

The expedition of food from harvest to our plates is a long mile, and food waste and
loss are obvious at each stage. Food is lost at stages of production, harvest, post-­
harvest, processing, distribution, and consumption (Schuster and Torero 2016). The
wasting of food resources in the agri-food structures influences sustainability on
perspectives like depletion of natural resources, environmental pollution, and econ-
omy. The sways of food loss and waste are significant from an economic perspective
(consumption and retail stages) and, from the societal perspective (reduced access
and availability to food), may undermine food security (Corrado et al. 2019; Kuiper
and Cui 2021).
The possible causes of food wastage at each stage and the strategies to overcome
are elucidated in Table 1.1.
In India, the average food loss comprising all the food groups ranges between
4.6% and 15.8%. Global estimates show that an individual contributes to 65 kg of
food waste (25% of vegetables, 24% of cereals, 12% of fruits, and 4% of other food
groups) in a year, on average, menacing food security. This food waste, as a vicious
cycle, markedly contributes to the wastage of nutrients like vitamin B2, vitamin
B12, calcium, zinc, and choline, predominantly from cereal, fruit, and vegetable
waste, followed by milk and meat product waste. Literature shows that the average
6 R. Arivuchudar

Table 1.1 Sources and prevention of food wastage

Reasons for food
Stages wastage Prevention strategies References
Production, Poor infrastructure Government initiative Gustavsson et al. (2011)
handling, Over-production Improve market access Beretta et al. (2013),
storage Kaipia et al. (2013), and
Garrone et al. (2014)
Time and method of Improve harvesting technique Kumar and Kalita
harvest (2017), Grover and
Singh (2013), and
Kannan et al. (2013)
Pesticides/fertilizers Educate farmers Thompson (2008)
Degradation and Improve workers’ ability to Miller and Welch (2013)
spillage adopt safe food handling
practices
Poor storage Improve storage facilities Willersinn et al. (2015)
infrastructure like warehouses, cold
storage.
Processing, Unprecedented food Improve the capacity of Papargyropoulou et al.
packaging waste process line (2014)
Packaging system Improvise packaging systems Ishangulyyev et al.
to maintain food fresh for a (2019)
long period of time,
Systematize labeling to
support consumers
Distribution, Contamination Improve transportation Martínez et al. (2014)
marketing during vehicles
transportation, poor
road and vehicle
Packaging Improve inventory systems Plazzotta et al. (2017)
management
Commercial Create online market Godfray et al. (2010)
conditions platforms to expedite trade/
donate perishable foods
Consumer reference Collaborate with researchers Lipinski et al. (2013)
to forecast vicissitudes in
consumer demands
Consumption Household size, Enable donation of unused or Parizeau et al. (2015),
composition, income unsold foods from different Jörissen et al. (2015),
establishments, reduce and Thyberg and Tonjes
portion sizes (2016)
Household Avoid bulk purchases Neff et al. (2015)
demographics
Household culture Promote awareness Abiad and Meho (2018)
Individual attitude Educate on the importance of Schanes et al. (2018),
food and avoidance of food Melbye et al. (2017), and
waste Stefan et al. (2016)
Process of cooking Effective use of leftovers Silvennoinen et al.
(2015)
1 Food Waste to Food and Nutrition Security—Need of the Hour 7

Table 1.2 Food grains procurement and food waste in India

Quantity of grains procured by the
Year government Quantity of food waste
2015–16 62.3 million tons 3116 tons (0.005% of total purchase)
2016–17 61 million tons 8540 tons (0.014% of total purchase)
2017–18 68.9 million tons 2664 tons (0.0038% of total purchase)
2018–19 80.2 million tons 4812 tons (0.006% of total purchase)
2019–20 85.95 million tons 1930 tons (0.002% of total purchase)
2020–21 99.24 million tons 1850 tons (0.0019% of total purchase)
2021–22 101.51 million tons 1693 tons (0.0017% of total purchase)
Source: FCI (2023), PiPa News (2022), and National Herald (2020)

amount of food wasted by an individual in a year, globally, is sufficient to meet the

Recommended Dietary Allowance of 25 nutrients for a person for about 18 days.
The amounts of micronutrients like vitamins C and K, zinc, copper, manganese, and
selenium that are wasted every day are even higher, signifying 25–50% of their
RDA value (Chen et al. 2020).
Table 1.2 implies that the procurement of grains by the Government has been
raised in consecutive years with the notion of providing food to each and every
individual. Similarly, the loss of food is also declining, but still, it is to be under-
stood that if this loss is prevented, it can feed many million people. The cause for
food loss can be:
• At the storage level, there is a shortage of firm management structures for ensur-
ing food security.
• Faulty procurement.
• Diversion in crop production.
• Improper accounting.
• Climate change is plummeting agronomic yield, airing a stern danger to food
security.
• During the Covid-19 pandemic, between April 2020 and September 2020, around
1571 tons of food grains were ruined and damaged. The news of concern is that,
parallelly, many lost lives due to starvation.
A nexus between consumer-level food waste, nutrition, and environmental
impacts (Muth et al. 2019; Birney et al. 2017) poses a real challenge for the
nutritionist. Independent initiatives aimed at improving the quality of the diet
can inadvertently lead to wastage of healthy food groups, under-consumed nutri-
ents, agricultural resources, and unnecessary environmental impacts. Conversely,
isolated measures to reduce food wastage may increase domestic accessibility of
certain less healthy foods and over-consumed nutrients, contributing to the
depletion of natural resources and environmental hazards. Nutritionists, in order
to develop these manifold faces, will need to explore beyond the customary focus
of the role of diet in diseases into more inter-dimensional arenas that connect
food with food wastage and ecological sustainability, as the field of nutrition
must ascertain the relevant fields of interest like food systems, food science, and
8 R. Arivuchudar

agricultural studies, which are all interlocked with ecological sustainability

(Finley et al. 2017).
For nutritionists, numerous strategies to reduce food waste are available for
integration into counseling and public health messages. This includes emphasiz-
ing how individuals can save both money and the environment by avoiding food
waste. Nutritionists can also enhance public knowledge on effective strategies
for the selection, preparation, and storage of foods. Additionally, they may pro-
vide guidance on how schools or hostels can adjust food menus, inmates’ food
choices, and meal timings to minimize food waste. The combined and coordi-
nated efforts of nutrition professionals and government policies, with a specific
focus on women and children, can be effective in bringing about a change in food
waste behavior. Campaigns conducted through press and media platforms can
further amplify the impact of these efforts (Pearson-Stuttard et al. 2017; Afshin
et al. 2015).

1.4 Necessity to Reduce Food Wastage

Food wastage, in addition to its insinuations on food security and nutrition security,
emasculates the sustainability of the food systems. While food is being wasted,
along with it, assets like water, land, energy, and labor, which are used for food
production, are also wasted. Food prices also mount up owing to food shortage. The
disposal of food waste in landfills causes greenhouse gas emissions, leading to cli-
mate change and adverse environmental effects.
Food wastage influences environmental sustainability. The major food groups
that cause environmental impacts are cereals, meat, and sugar. Different countries
show capricious nutrients and environmental footprints entrenched in their food
waste, necessitating region-specific waste reduction intrusions (Ishangulyyev et al.
2019). The embedded environmental footprints in a person’s daily food waste are
depicted in Table 1.3.

Table 1.3 Embedded environmental footprints in a person’s daily food waste

Factor utilized Composition
Carbon dioxide equivalent 124 g
Freshwater 58 l
Cropland 0.36 m2
Nitrogen 2.9 g
Pho­sphorus 0.48 g
Source: Foods, 2019
1 Food Waste to Food and Nutrition Security—Need of the Hour 9

1.5 Preventive Measures

Many effective ways to reduce food loss are encouraging and should be explored
further to monitor emerging trends in the food industry (Santeramo et al. 2018),
which includes the following:
• The espousal of new technologies to improve the harvesting, storing, processing,
transport, and selling process of foods
• To establish cooperatives for farmers
• To create awareness for retails and consumers
• To establish more communication platforms for all the partakers in food sup-
ply chains
• To promote reuse and recycling tactics from a circular and green economy stand-
point (Santeramo 2021)
The appreciation of sectoral interconnections might aid in expanding cross-­
sectoral alliances to accomplish long-term financially viable, ecological, and soci-
etal goals (Santeramo and Searle 2019). An eye on the relationship between the use
of water and energy to the food security status would be worthwhile, as the global
agri-food systems utilize huge volumes of water (about 72%) (UN 2021) and energy
(about 30%) (FAO 2020) for the production and supply chains of food. Also, the
knowledge of the link between water, energy, and food security is vital to attain the
United Nations SDGs from a perspective of society, economy, and environment,
which depends on the effectual management of these resources. It is projected by
2050 that due to population increase, swift financial growth, urbanization, the
changes in food habits, and the climate, the need for water may increase by 55%
(OECD 2012; FAO 2014) and the demand for food may increase by 50% to feed the
more than 9 billion people projected (FAO 2020). It is also predicted that energy
consumption may grow by up to 50% by 2035. Bridging the gap in the link between
water, energy, and food will help to face global challenges effectively.
An initiative by the Indian Government is the 6000-crore kick-start project,
Pradhan Mantri Kisan Sampada Yojana. This national proposal is being imple-
mented through public–private partnerships to develop an integrated supply cold
chain for agricultural products. The objectives of the scheme are to:
• Create a contemporary set-up for the processing of foods by means of mega food
parks or groups and individual units
• Create effectual linking of agriculturists, food processors, and food markets
• Create a strong supply chain infrastructure for perishables (india.gov.in 2019)
10 R. Arivuchudar

1.6 Food Loss and Waste to Value-Added Foods—Better

Food and Nutrition Security

Food waste and byproducts can be potentially used as a sustainable alternative to

ensure food and nutrition security in developing countries. Food wastes and byprod-
ucts contain sufficient quantities of macronutrients, micronutrients, nutraceuticals,
and dietary fibers. Proper utilization of food waste and byproducts can address
nutrient deficiency disorders, a life-threatening condition in most of the developing
countries (Torres-León et al. 2018). Table 1.4 lists various food waste byproducts
and details how they are transformed into value-added foods.
Table 1.4 clearly depicts the application of food wastages and derivatives
(byproducts from the food processing industry) by incorporating food wastes to
formulate novel food sources. This approach aims to reduce food insecurities,
improve overall health, and have a direct positive impact on the nation’s economy.
It is necessary to investigate the efficient use of under-utilized food product process-
ing and the use of byproducts from the food industry as edible food ingredients as a
source of value-addition. Investigation of the nutraceutical and functional properties
of bioactive compounds of byproducts is a budding area that further leads to the
devising of valuable commercial food products. Still, numerous procedures are
needed about food laws, feed regulations, and waste disposal rules to properly uti-
lize food products and valorize the byproducts of the food industry from the food
web with no harm to the security of foods and feeds. New technologies will also aid
in the extraction of functional bioactive components from food wastage, instead of
throwing them away, so as to warrant the sustainability of nutrition and diet.

1.7 Future Prospects and Challenges

Numerous processes are underway to reduce food waste, including advancements in

food storage systems, cultivation of stress-tolerant foods, and the development of
packaging materials that integrate sensors. These innovations aim to maintain the
right temperature, ensure leak-proof packaging, preserve freshness, and optimize
the pH within the package (Muller and Schmid 2019, Poritosh Roy et al. 2023). A
number of online applications and social communities have also been developed to
disperse leftover foods to food banks to reduce food waste and assure food security.
Recently, the conversion of food waste into value-added products by black soldier
fly pretreatment-assisted hydrothermal catalysis has been explored to prevent food
waste and protect the environment (Li et al. 2023). Policy initiatives by the govern-
ments can also help reduce food waste through the food chain. At the same time, the
challenge lies in implementing the technologies and educating the public.
 1

Table 1.4 Food waste byproducts and how they are transformed into value-added foods
Food waste/
Food byproduct Nutrients Applications/value-added foods References
Rice/wheat/ Bran Fat, protein ash, dietary fiber, nitrogen-free Rice bran oil, bakery foods, extruded Panoth et al. (2019),
barley/oats/ extract, magnesium, potassium, iron, manganese, food products, chocolates, bran wax and Palmer (2008)
corn B vitamins, choline, inositol, aluminum, calcium,
iron, phosphorus, sodium, zinc, vitamin E
Broken kernels Dietary fibers, phytochemicals, proteins, and Breakfast foods, value added or Huang et al. (2014)
vitamins commercial formulations for
constipation and metabolic disorders
Husk Tocopherols, tocotrienols, folates, dietary fiber, Antimicrobial and medical resource, Papageorgiou and
phytosterols, phenols, tricin biosensing, enzyme immobilization, Skendi (2018), and
green catalysis, production of drug Verma and Mogra
delivery system in therapeutic drugs (2013)
Breakfast cereals, bakery foods
(bread, cakes, and cookies), Pasta
Germs Flavonoids, sterols, octacosanols, glutathione, Bakery foods, extruded food products, Harda et al. (2017)
unsaturated fatty acids, vitamin E, proteins, lipids, breakfast foods, biodegradable films
amino acids
Pulses Brokens (6–13%), Polyphenols, antioxidant minerals, dietary fiber Snacks, bars, bakery foods, extruded Luzardo-Ocampo et al.
powder and germ food products, breakfast foods (2019)
Food Waste to Food and Nutrition Security—Need of the Hour

mixture (7–12%),
husk (4–14%)
Mango Peels (13–16%) Dietary fiber (51.2–78.4%) Can be a part of any food preparation Serna-Cock et al.
(2016)
Seeds (9.5–25%) Carbohydrates (58–80%), protein (6–13%), EAA Food preparation for adults and Diarra (2014)
and lipids (6–16%), oleic and stearic acids infants
Pineapple Stem and pomace Dietary fiber (45.22%) Alternative source of starch Nakthong et al. (2017)
(30–35%)
(continued)
11
Table 1.4 (continued)
12

Food waste/
Food byproduct Nutrients Applications/value-added foods References
Banana Peel (30–40%) Phytochemicals, flavonoids, carotenoids, Chips, bread, sauces, jams, dried Venkateshwaran and
catecholamines, calcium, potassium, magnesium, pulps, beer, wine Elayaperumal (2010)
sodium, phosphorus, iron, zinc, palmitic acid,
stearic acid, arachidic acid, myristicacid,
Linoleic acid, linoleic acid, insoluble dietary fiber,
phytosterols
Grape Grape seed (5–6%) Linoleic acid, tocopherol, proanthocyanidins Grape seed oil, cookies Iliodromiti et al. (2014)
Pomegranate Peel Dietary fiber, total polyphenols, stronger Preservative, cookies, bread, noodles Tito et al. (2021)
antioxidant capacity
Citrus fruits Peel Phenolic acids, flavonoids, (polymethoxyflavones, Dairy and bakery products, pectin, Sormoli and Langrish
flavanones, glycosylated flavanones), vitamin C, vital oils, enzymes, antioxidant, (2016)
fiber packaging film formation Ahmed and Saeid
(2021)
R. Arivuchudar
1 Food Waste to Food and Nutrition Security—Need of the Hour 13

1.8 Conclusion

In India, though 190 million remain undernourished as per UN reports, it is appall-

ing to note that about 40% of the food produced is wasted, which approximates Rs.
92,000 crores in a year. It is thus the need of the hour that we wake up and the nation
is sensitized toward the importance of averting food waste, making valuable food
products from byproducts of the food industry, thereby preventing food deprivation,
and the right to food is enforced to each and every individual. Reduction in food
waste will craft restorative nutritional and environmental outcomes. The prime chal-
lenge is to develop a defensible solution for the management of food waste that will
enable to reap the biotic potential of biomaterials and achieve economic, social, and
environmental benefits. The wise use of food waste and byproducts that are power
packed with nutritional and functional properties for human consumption will help
solve the nutritional problems that the globe faces, proving to be an influential tool
in reducing hunger. Also, the branching out of the productive chains will provide job
opportunities and sustainable income for many unemployed, thereby providing
social benefits. Thus, it can be concluded that minimizing food waste, enhancing
value addition, and augmenting food and nutrition security are the need of the hour.

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 Part II
Waste Utilization from Dairy Industry
Chapter 2
Value Addition and Sustainable
Management of Dairy Industry
Byproducts

T. Jayasree Joshi, V. Harsha, P. Nandagopal, Asha Ashok,

and Sabitra Pokhrel

Abstract Global demand for dairy products is increasing with the population,
changing consumption patterns, and urbanization. The byproduct generation of the
industry has also risen in tandem with this, necessitating the need for its sustainable
valorization. Whey, skim milk, and ghee residue constitute the major byproducts of
the dairy processing industry. The dairy byproducts are rich in organic and inor-
ganic components, with high COD and BOD indices. This makes them a potential
candidate for environmental hazards if improperly disposed of. Consequently, there
is a greater demand for the conversion of these into value-added forms. Whey, a
liquid byproduct produced in large quantities during the cheese-making process, is
an excellent source of macro and micronutrients. Through adequate processing,
whey can be effectively utilized to produce protein concentrates, lactose, and a
range of other substances. The unique nutritional and functional characteristics of
dairy byproduct protein isolates make them an ideal ingredient in various food pro-
cessing applications. Skim milk, which is often used for milk standardization, can
also be used to produce casein and its derivatives. Ghee residue can be used in the
manufacturing of confectionery and chocolate products. Wastewater from a dairy
plant may be utilized as an effective substrate for single-cell protein synthesis.
Bioconversion of byproducts to enzymes, organic acids, biofuels, biopolymers, and
bioactive components is also feasible. This chapter provides insight into various
byproducts of the dairy industry and technologies for their effective valorization.

T. J. Joshi (*) · V. Harsha · S. Pokhrel

Agricultural and Food Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur,
Kharagpur, West Bengal, India
P. Nandagopal
Department of Dairy Technology, College of Dairy Science & Technology,
Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Idukki, Kerala, India
A. Ashok
Department of Dairy Engineering, College of Dairy Science & Technology,
Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Idukki, Kerala, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 19

E. Cherian, B. Gurunathan (eds.), Value Added Products From Food Waste,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48143-7_2
20 T. J. Joshi et al.

Keywords Dairy waste · Byproduct valorization · Whey · Skim milk · Whey

protein concentrate · Lactose · Ghee residue

2.1 Introduction

Liquid milk and other processed milk products are essential constituents of the
human diet. High demand for dairy products and an increase in the number of large-­
scale producers have also contributed to a substantial increase in the quantity of
byproducts. The major byproducts of the dairy processing industry are whey, skim
milk, and ghee residue (Ahmad et al. 2019). Lactose, protein, and fat can all be
derived from the byproducts. Generally, the wastes produced by the dairy industry
can be divided into two categories: fat-rich dairy substrates (e.g., cream) and low-fat
dairy substrates (e.g., skim milk) (Mahboubi et al. 2017). Dairy industries also gen-
erate approximately 6–10 liters of wastewater for every one liter of milk processed.
This effluent water contains fat, minerals, carbohydrates, and whey protein. The
composition of wastewater varies significantly based on the types of products man-
ufactured and the processes involved (Carvalho et al. 2013). If properly utilized, the
wastewater can be effectively utilized for single-cell protein synthesis and biocon-
version to enzymes, organic acids, biofuels, biopolymers, and bioactive compo-
nents. In addition, due to the high amount of proteins and sugars present, dairy
wastes have a high biological oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand
(COD) value. BOD levels in untreated effluents range between 0.8 and 2.5 kg t−1 of
milk, and COD levels are typically 1.5 times BOD levels. Therefore, it is essential
to manage and dispose of waste from the dairy industry properly to maintain envi-
ronmental safety. This chapter presents a review of the various byproducts of the
dairy industry and technologies for their effective valorization.

2.2 Byproducts in the Dairy Industry

The session discusses in detail the different byproducts generated during the pro-
cessing of milk and other dairy products.

2.2.1 Byproducts from Skim Milk

Skim milk (SM) is a byproduct of separating cream from whole milk (WM) using a
cream separator or a centrifugal separator. The average composition of skim milk
from cow milk includes 90.6% water, 5% lactose, 3.6% protein, 0.1% fat, and 0.7%
2 Value Addition and Sustainable Management of Dairy Industry Byproducts 21

ash (Kolhe et al. 2009). Since SM has a lower fat content and high nutrient value,
like whole milk, it has been shown to affect health positively. Whole milk products
contain saturated fat, which may affect cholesterol levels in the body. Compared to
WM, consuming SM has been shown to have positive effects on health, most nota-
bly in preventing cardiovascular problems (Xu et al. 2022). SM is commonly used
to standardize milk for use in a broad range of dairy-based products. Protein hydro-
lysates, casein, and co-precipitates are the byproducts of SM. Table 2.1 shows the
overview of the utilization of SM in different food applications.

2.2.1.1 Casein

Casein is manufactured through acid precipitation (acid-casein (AC)) and rennet

coagulation (rennet-casein (RC)). Acidification occurs when skim milk is mixed
with diluted acids such as HCl, H2SO4, or lactic acid. As a rule of thumb, 60 liters
of sulfuric or hydrochloric acid (1 N) is needed to precipitate casein from 1000 liters
of SM (Carr and Golding 2016). The protein complex gets dissociated when acid is
added to the milk. The precipitation starts at a pH of 5.3, and maximum precipita-
tion occurs when pH reaches 4.6 (isoelectric point). Manufacturing casein at a con-
stant pH of 4.6 requires careful acid addition and thorough mixing. Curd strength
can be improved by cooking the acid curd, which strengthens the hydrophobic
bond. A higher pH value results in a curd that is of rubbery, large, and sticky texture,
and curd with a low pH has soft, small particles, which leads to losses during the
de-wheying and washing process. In rennet casein, the rennet enzyme is used for the
coagulation of SM. This results in the breakage of the peptide bond (Phe-Met, resi-
due 105–106) of k-casein and forms para-κ-casein (PKC) and glycomacropeptide
(GMP). Water-soluble GMP gets into whey, which causes instability of casein mol-
ecules. Moreover, PKC forms a 3D structure with calcium ions. Continuous and
batch methods are usually adopted for manufacturing RC. Heat treatment of SM is
done by the HTST pasteurization method, and after that, it is cooled to 31 °C in the
batch process. Rennet is added and mixed with SM in a ratio of 1:4500 in the batch
process. Furthermore, in a continuous process, rennet is added to SM in a ratio of
1:7000 to 1: 8175 and agitated properly (O’Sullivan et al. 2002). After the cooking

Table 2.1 Overview of the utilization of skim milk in different food processing applications
Principle manufacturing operation
involved Products
Concentration Plain, sweetened, or low-lactose condensed skim milk
Fermentation Acidophilus milk, cultured buttermilk
Drying Skim milk powder
Coagulation Cottage cheese, baker’s cheese, sapsago cheese, quarg
cheese, casein
Pasteurization Flavored milk
Sterilization Sterilized flavored milk
22 T. J. Joshi et al.

Table 2.2 Application of casein products in various food products

Food product Form of casein Function Reference
Cheese Acid casein, rennet casein, Binding agent Warncke et al. (2022)
caseinates Texture enhancement Soloshenko et al.
(2016)
Pasta Sodium caseinate Nutritional enhancement Kumar et al. (2019)
Improvement of sensory
qualities
Ice cream Sodium caseinate Texture enhancement Kumar et al. (2016)
Stabilization
Meat Sodium caseinate Emulsification Petridis et al. (2010)
products Texture enhancement
Infant foods Caseinates Nutritional enhancement Raikos and Dassios
(2014)
Bakery Casein and caseinates Stabilization Crowley et al. (2002)
products Nutritional enhancement

stage, whey has to be removed from curd as earliest to avoid difficulties in washing
out acid, salts, and lactose. Efficient washing is necessary to achieve better recovery
of casein. Curd is then pressed to minimize the water content, followed by milling
to form uniform particle size. Then, it is dried using any of the drier to achieve a
moisture content of less than 12%. Furthermore, it is allowed to cool before the
tempering stage. In the tempering phase, casein is kept for 8–24 h to ensure that the
moisture of the coagulated particles is consistent. Afterward, casein is kneaded and
stored. The utilization of SM in industrial and edible forms is well established. In
the initial times, casein is used in the textiles, rubber, and paint industries. The edi-
ble casein is isolated from SM to use in food and pharmaceutical applications by
taking proper precautions in quality, hygiene, and storage aspects. Casein and
caseinates are used in various beverages as a stabilizer (fizzy drinks, fruit, and choc-
olate beverages) in the beer and wine industry to minimize bitterness and color and
in dessert foods like ice cream, pudding, and frozen products as an emulsifier. It is
highly recommended for use in burger patties, nuggets, and sausages due to its high
emulsion stability (Petridis et al. 2010). Some of its applications in various food
formulations are explained in Table 2.2.

2.2.1.2 Co-precipitates

The heating and coagulation of milk results in the development of complex byprod-
ucts. Co-precipitates contain a mixture of whey and casein proteins. Because of its
high protein content, it can be used in a wide range of food production processes.
The co-precipitates have low lactose content and can be a good option for lactose-­
intolerant people and infant food formulations (Macej and Jovanovic 2002).
Processing methods and the amount of calcium present highly influence the charac-
teristics and functions of co-precipitates. Co-precipitates are categorized into three
2 Value Addition and Sustainable Management of Dairy Industry Byproducts 23

groups based on their amount of calcium (Ca). They are low, medium, and high Ca
co-precipitates, in which Ca content is 0.5–0.8%, 1.5%, and 2.5–3%, respectively
(Gawande et al. 2022). Co-precipitates are prepared by heating skim milk to a
degree to achieve denaturation of whey protein, followed by the formation of com-
plexes of whey and casein. The complex protein matrix is precipitated by either
acidification (4.6 pH) or a combination of acidification and the addition of calcium
chloride. The precipitation is followed by whey separation, washing, pressing, and
drying. The co-precipitates contain a higher quantity of sulfur-containing amino
acid and cysteine. The color (whiteness) value of co-precipitate is dependent on the
amount of calcium and pH. Co-precipitates can be used as a fat replacer (up to 2%)
in meat products like pork sausages. Also, it has been reported to enhance the sen-
sory attributes of the product, like flavor, juiciness, etc. (Eswarapragada et al. 2010).
It can also be used in the fortification of breakfast cereals and can also be blended
with other protein sources. Hence, an improved nutritional profile and functional
properties can be achieved.

2.2.1.3 Protein Hydrolysates (PH)

Protein hydrolysates are another important byproduct of skim milk. Generally, two
methods are adopted in the manufacturing of PH: enzyme and acid hydrolysis.
During acid hydrolysis, casein or caseinates are treated with an acid (HCl or H2SO4)
for 4–18 h at 80–100 °C. The pH of the product obtained was made up to 6–7 by
using an alkali. The product is cooled to 15–25 °C, followed by centrifugation and
filtering. The liquid can be spray-dried at 95–100 °C into a fine powder easily solu-
ble in water. The protein hydrolysate powder thus obtained comprises 41–41.5%
NaCl, 53.5–53.7% amino acids, and 2.0–2.5% other minerals. The loss of amino
acids during processing is a significant drawback of the acid hydrolysis approach.
The enzymatic hydrolysis method overcomes this drawback. In this method, proteo-
lytic enzymes such as pepsin, rennin, trypsin, neutrase, pronase, ficin, papain, etc.,
are used for the production of hydrolysates. The protein hydrolysates thus produced
are utilized in the fields of human nutrition, functional foods, fermentation, cosmet-
ics, and biotechnology (Abd El-Salam and El-Shibiny 2017).

2.2.2 Byproducts from Whey

2.2.2.1 Whey and Its Composition

Whey is the liquid fraction obtained after paneer, cheese, chhana, and casein pro-
duction. In ancient times, whey was consumed as a health drink and even used to
treat various gastrointestinal ailments and skin conditions. With the industrializa-
tion and modernization of the dairy industry, milk production increased drastically.
This has resulted in the conversion of liquid milk into dairy products like cheese,
24 T. J. Joshi et al.

resulting in significant increases in the amount of whey. In many European coun-

tries like Greece, where traditionally the cheese consumption is very high (greater
than 20 kg of feta cheese per capita), partial utilization of whey solids has been done
through the production of whey cheeses (Philippopoulos and Papadakis 2008). The
amount of whey produced is increasing nearly at the same rate as milk production
(Smithers 2008). If not appropriately managed, whey is a highly polluting by/co-
product with a very high COD and BOD (50,000–80,000 mg/L and
40,000–60,000 mg/L, respectively) (Lappa et al. 2019; Smithers 2008).
The protein present in whey can be categorized as major and minor proteins.
Major proteins include serum albumin, α-lactalbumin, and β-lactoglobulin. Minor
proteins include glycomacropeptide, lactoferrin, bovine serum albumin, immuno-
globulin, and phospho-lipoproteins. The coagulation techniques used will be the
main determinant of the type and composition of whey. Rennet coagulation of milk
produces sweet whey (SW) and is low in acidity. The enzyme breaks down the
k-casein at 105–106 Phe-Met bond into para-k-casein and glycomacropeptide.
Glycomacropeptide, being hydrophilic, dissolves in whey and makes up roughly
20% of the whey protein fraction of SW, whereas it is absent from acid whey (AW).
The calcium ions attach to the paracasein, neutralizing the negative charges and
forming salt bridges for gel formation (Walstra et al. 2005). Acid coagulation of
milk is accomplished through the addition of organic or inorganic acids into milk,
and casein coagulation occurs at its isoelectric pH of 4.6. Acid whey has a higher
Ca, P, and lactic acid content than SW, which has a higher protein and fat content
(Silviya et al. 2016). AW and SW have similar protein contents, but the amount of
free amino acids can differ depending on how much casein is hydrolyzed when
cheese is being manufactured. SW may have four times the amount of free amino
acids as milk, and acid whey may have ten times the amount (Božanić et al. 2014).
Another emerging type of acid whey is produced as a byproduct of Greek-style
yogurt and traditional Indian dairy products like Shrikhand. The fermented curd is
strained to remove the whey and obtain a thick, high-protein product. The whey
produced so is highly acidic and contains very few solids (Elliott 2013).
Characteristics of initial milk and seasonal variations can affect the volume and
physicochemical properties of whey and derivatives produced (Philippopoulos and
Papadakis 2008). Table 2.3 depicts the typical constituents in SW and AW.

Table 2.3 Typical Component Acid whey (%) Sweet whey (%)
constituents of acid and Water 94–95 93–94
sweet whey
Lactose 3.8–4.3 4.5–5
Total protein 0.8–1 0.8–1
Whey protein 0.60–0.65 0.60–0.65
Minerals 0.5–0.7 0.5–0.7
Citric acid 0.1 0.1
Lactic acid 0.8 Traces
2 Value Addition and Sustainable Management of Dairy Industry Byproducts 25

2.2.2.2 Whey Processing

Whey is nutrient-rich and has a highly perishable nature. So, it must be quickly
processed by either chilling or pasteurization to prevent undesirable changes. The
first stage of whey processing involves the separation of fat and casein fines; this
improves the overall economy of the process and also prevents these components
from negatively affecting the final quality of whey derivatives. Separation of whey
is carried out using centrifugal separators, cyclones, or rotating filters. The fat and
curd fines recovered can be incorporated into the cheese or used to manufacture
other special cream products. The schematic diagram showing the overview of
whey processing and its end products is shown in Fig. 2.1. Advances in membrane
technology have contributed significantly to making whey processing viable; vari-
ous membrane technologies are used as a separation or concentration process.
Advanced membrane technologies like microfiltration (MF), ultrafiltration (UF),
reverse osmosis (RO), nanofiltration (NF), and diafiltration (DF) have been
employed recently for the fractionation and concentration of different whey compo-
nents. The UF process can separate macromolecules weighing between 1000 and
200000 Da. UF membrane pore sizes range from 1 to 100 nm and pressures less
than 1000 kPa. The permeate obtained from UF contains water, milk sugar, soluble
minerals, water-soluble vitamins, protein retentates, lipids, and colloidal salts. With
the use of UF, it is possible to obtain a whey protein concentrate of 45% protein
content from sweet rennet whey (Bejarano et al. 2022). Nanofiltration can permeate
molecules in the range of 10–100 Da and can be effectively used for the

Fig. 2.1 Overview of whey processing and its end products

26 T. J. Joshi et al.

demineralization of whey, particularly monovalent ions. A combination of water

dilution of NF retentate with diafiltration can help in an almost 50% reduction in ash
content (Burling 2003).

2.2.2.3 Whey Cheese and Whey Powder

A well-established conventional method of whey utilization in various European

nations is the manufacturing of whey cheeses, which recovers some fat and proteins
from the whey. The process involves denaturation and coagulation of the proteins.
Due to the low solid content, whey may be pre-concentrated with the addition of
milk or other dairy-based products (Božanić et al. 2014; Philippopoulos and
Papadakis 2008). Whey powder is another important byproduct that is made by
concentrating whey to a total solid content of 40–70% and then spray/roller drying
to less than 5% moisture. The concentration process is typically carried out in two
or more stages in a falling-film evaporator. RO can also be used for preconcentration
before evaporation. Lactose must be converted to its α-monohydrate crystalline
form to reduce water absorption properties and thus prevent defects during storage
(Bylund 2003).

2.2.2.4 Whey Proteins

Whey protein concentrates, isolates, and fractionates are produced by separating the
proteins from the other whey components. Heat treatment can precipitate whey pro-
teins under the optimal pH and ionization values. Lactalbumin is produced by heat
precipitation of whey proteins and is a mixture of denatured β-lactoglobulin,
β-lactalbumin, and other proteins. Whey is heated during the manufacturing process
to denature, coagulate, and precipitate the proteins. Settling and decantation are
used to recover sediment (or centrifugation). During washing, impurities such as
salt and lactose are removed, and the product is recovered using centrifugation and
filtering prior to drying, pulverizing, and packing. The precipitated protein formed
is either insoluble or sparingly soluble, depending on the conditions at denaturation.
As a result, lactalbumin can be best used in products where protein fortification is
vital (Tsakali et al. 2010).
The most viable process for the manufacture of WPC is the use of ultrafiltration.
Whey protein powder with different protein concentrations and low lactose and ash
contents can be produced using UF by concentrating native/pre-denatured whey
proteins. Lactose and mineral content can be reduced further through a subsequent
diafiltration (DF) process in which deionized water is continuously added to the
retentate (Tsakali et al. 2010). Whey protein isolates (WPI) contain 90% protein and
4–6% water, and the remaining portion comprises fat, lactose, and ash. The high
protein content and solution clarity are the main reasons. WPIs find application in
nutritional supplements, protein-based drinks, and sports drinks (Foegeding et al.
2011). WPIs are highly purified membrane retentates. Methods like ionic exchange,
2 Value Addition and Sustainable Management of Dairy Industry Byproducts 27

electrodialysis, nanofiltration, and diafiltration can be used for the purification pro-
cess. After purifying, the retentate is concentrated and spray-dried.

2.2.2.5 Lactose

Lactose, also known as milk sugar, is the major component of whey solids. The
main application of lactose is in the manufacture of infant milk formulas and the
pharmaceutical industry as an active ingredient for the manufacturing of tablets.
The lactose is recovered by crystallization from concentrated whey or deproteinized
whey (Bylund 2003). NF and DF are essential for effective demineralization and for
ensuring the purity of the final product. Whey is concentrated to 60–62% solids by
evaporation, and lactose crystallization is achieved through seeding. Lactose crys-
tals are then separated using centrifugal techniques, and the impurities are removed
through washing. The lactose crystals obtained were dried at temperatures below
93°C to prevent the formation of β-lactose, and the dried powder was immediately
packed. Lactose can be further converted into value-added derivatives like galacto-­
oligosaccharides, lactulose, lactitol, hydrolyzed lactose, and lactobionic acid.

2.2.2.6 Whey Beverages

Several alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages have been produced from whey over
the years. Whey beverage processing began in the 1970s, and Rivella from
Switzerland is one of the oldest whey beverages. These beverages are a rich source
of branched-chain amino acids such as isoleucine, leucine, and valine, giving them
a high nutritional value. The major operations involved in the production of low-­
alcohol whey beverages include deproteinization, concentration, fermentation (typ-
ically by Kluyveromyces fragilis and Saccharomyces lactis), flavoring, sweetening,
and bottling (Barukcic et al. 2008). The addition of fruit and vegetable extracts to
whey enhances its sensory and nutritional qualities. Alane et al. (2017) developed a
whey-mango beverage with ginger extracts with high sensory attributes. In another
study, Purkiewicz and Pietrzak-Fiećko (2021) combined whey from different fruit
and vegetable mixes, and the bioactive properties were assessed. They obtained the
highest flavonoid content in orange whey beverages (63.06 mg/100 g).

2.2.3 Ghee Residue

Milk fat is processed into ghee, butter oil, and anhydrous milk fat (Illingworth et al.
2009). Ghee is heat-clarified butter fat and has excellent organoleptic properties,
which makes it an excellent ingredient in many food formulations (Battula et al.
2020). Different ghee preparation methods are practiced, in which the basic princi-
ple involved is the concentration of milk fat (cream or butter), heat clarification of
28 T. J. Joshi et al.

milk fat, reduction of moisture content to less than 0.5%, and then removal of resi-
due. During the manufacturing process, the solid not fat (SNF) in butter or cream
turns to brownish moist particles known as ghee residue (GR), which is obtained in
the final stage of molten ghee filtering. The quantity of residue obtained during the
process varies with the type of milk used. However, the average yield of ghee resi-
due is 10–12% (Varma and Narender Raju 2008). GR has a smooth and soft texture
and is a potential source of minerals (mainly Ca and P), protein, fat, and lactose
(Selvamani et al. 2017). GR contains 11, 132, and 10 times more free fatty acids
(FFA), lactones, and carbonyl compounds than ghee (Varma and Narender Raju
2008). In addition, it has good antioxidant properties and flavor potential (Wani
et al. 2022). Compared to fat-soluble compounds, fat-insoluble components of GR
show higher antioxidant properties. GR is one of the major byproducts used in the
chocolate and confectionery industries. Thermal treatments associated with ghee
production significantly influence the compositions of ghee residue. Heat treatment
is generally carried out at a temperature of 110°C–120 °C for 10–20 min. Along
with the raw materials, the ghee preparation method also affects the yield of ghee
residue. Milk with high SNF content yields more ghee residue (Wani et al. 2022).
The applications of ghee residue are presented in Fig. 2.2.
GR loses its fine, delicate texture after prolonged storage, so pre-processing is
required to maintain the soft texture. The loss of moisture causes an increase in the
total solid content, which is a primary cause of the hardening. Treatments com-
monly used are (a) soaking in boiling water (30 min), (b) soaking in sodium

Fig. 2.2 Applications of ghee residue

2 Value Addition and Sustainable Management of Dairy Industry Byproducts 29

bicarbonate solution (1%, 30 min), (c) washing in alcohol (50%) and then soaking
in boiling water or sodium bicarbonate solution (1%, 30 min), and (d) GR from
treatment “c” added with 2% vinegar and autoclave. The treatment “d” extends the
shelf life of residue up to 3 months (Wani et al. 2022).
The utilization of GR in bakery products like cakes, biscuits, cookies, and muf-
fins enhances the nutritive value of the product while maintaining market sustain-
ability. In a study, Ranjan et al. (2020) utilized the ghee residue at four compositions
from 10–40% along with other ingredients (refined wheat flour, sugar, salt, butter,
milk, and egg) in the preparation of cake and muffins. Based on the sensory charac-
teristics, the incorporation of 40% GR in 60% maida showed better acceptance in
terms of flavor, color, texture, and mouthfeel. In addition, the amount of protein, fat,
and calcium increased while the amount of carbohydrates and energy decreased as
the percentage of GR increased. The concentrations of flavor compounds like FFA,
carbonyl compounds, and lactones are high in ghee residues, which enhances the
flavor profiles of bakery products. It can be used as a 50–100% replacer of butter in
the preparation of cakes (Subbulakshmi et al. 1990). Ghee residue contains approxi-
mately 37% fat and can be used as a fat replacer in biscuits and cookie productions.
Also, 10% ghee residue can be used as a fat substitute in cookie recipes (Sojan et al.
2019). Incorporating the ghee residue reduces production costs, making for more
economical products with high consumer acceptability (Ranjan et al. 2020).
Ghee residue is a promising ingredient in the preparation of the confectionery
industry, similar to bakery products, due to its flavor and brownish color. It can be
used in the preparation of candy, chocolate, and milk-based sweets like burfi, khoa,
etc. Hirpara et al. (2020) studied the incorporation of ghee residue in the milk-based
sweet “thabdi,” which is a locally available fat-rich sweet in brownish color, grainy
texture, and ghee flavor (Hirpara et al. 2015). The GR is incorporated into milk and
ghee for preparing thabdi. Adding 6% GR in the preparation showed better sensory
qualities and enhanced storage life 28 days and 14 days at 20 °C ± 1 °C and
37 °C ± 1 °C (room temperature), respectively. Meanwhile, thabdi prepared without
ghee residue had 12 days of shelf life at room temperature. Furthermore, the consis-
tency of ghee residue aids in shortening processing time throughout production.GR
is also used in other industries for biodiesel, wastewater treatment, lipase produc-
tion, and animal feed production.

2.2.4 Organic Acid Production

Organic acids (OAs) are weak acid-property compounds generally produced from
non-renewable sources. Due to the unavailability and depletion of these sources,
renewable methods of production are being explored. One of these includes the
production of organic acid from the bioconversion of agro-waste like citrus, banana,
potato peels, dairy wastes, molasses, etc. OAs are generally used for food preserva-
tion, food additives, cleaning purposes, and pharmaceutical applications. The pro-
duction of OA from dairy waste is described in this section. The fermentation of
30 T. J. Joshi et al.

whey produces lactic acid, propionic acid, and acetic acid. Lactic acid has various
applications in food (mainly as a preservative), chemical, and pharmaceutical indus-
tries. The major lactic acid-producing microorganism family is Lactobacillaceae.
Cheese whey, the byproduct obtained during cheese making, is the major substrate
of acetic acid and lactic acid production. Acetic acid was produced from whey
cheese using the membrane-integrated fermentation method (Pal and Nayak 2016).
Similar to cheese whey, skimmed whey can also be used as the substrate for the
production of OA. Fermentation with Lactobacillus helveticus and gram-negative
Propioni bacterium freudenreichii using skimmed whey as substrate was used for
propionic acid production (Ngome et al. 2017). Cheese whey is a remarkable agro-­
waste that can be used to produce OA, and it is readily available in large quantities
from cheese-making industries. However, more research is needed to identify suit-
able microbial strains and standardize the processing methodologies.

2.2.5 Enzymes

Enzymes are soluble, colloidal, and delicate organic catalysts (Bhatia 2018). The
major enzymes in milk are proteinase, lipase, alkaline phosphatase, lysozyme, and
lactoperoxidase (Fox et al. 2015). Dairy industry waste is a low-cost resource for the
production of enzymes (Ryan and Walsh 2016). Furthermore, the production of
enzymes from these substrates may offer a long-term solution to the dairy industry’s
pollution issues. Some bacteria, yeast, and molds can grow on lactose waste and
produce enzymes such as galactosidase, amylase, protease, penicillin acylase, peni-
cillin amidase, polygalacturonase, cutinase, inulinase, and lipase. Another option is
a unique strain of Paracoccus marcusii that can convert lactose into β-galactosidase.
The α-amylase can be produced using dairy waste along with agro-waste with the
help of a semi-solid state fermentation. Aspergillus and Mucorcan grow in whey
and produce protease enzymes. Manganese peroxidase, a ligninolytic enzyme, can
be produced by Bjerkandera sp. strain BOS55 from cheese whey (Sar et al. 2021).

2.2.6 Bioactive Compounds

Microbial fermentation of dairy byproducts can be used to produce healthy products

that provide functional and nutritional properties. The galacto-oligosaccharides
(GOSs) are produced by the conversion of lactose using the endoenzyme
β-galactosidase and can serve as a prebiotic by promoting the growth of bifidobacte-
rial for colon health. There are still several challenges related to yield, productivity,
and final product quality in the microbial production of GOSs. Microalgae have also
been used in the production of GOSs from whey (Sar et al. 2021). Lactobionic acid
(LBA) is a bioactive compound obtained by the oxidation of lactose using
Pseudomonas taetrolens strain. This gluconic acid derivative has chelating,
2 Value Addition and Sustainable Management of Dairy Industry Byproducts 31

anti-aging, antioxidant, acidulant, and humectant properties and has found use in
the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and food industries. The environmentally friendly
manufacture of LBA from inexpensive raw materials is a focus of research due to
the high cost of chemical processes and the potential for side reactions to produce
numerous hazardous byproducts. LBA can be produced from cheese whey and
bovine scotta through microbial fermentation. Microbial species like Myriococcum
thermophilum, Acetobacter orientalis, Microdochium nivale, Zymomonas mobilis,
Pseudomonas graveolens, and Sclerotium rolfsii have also been identified for the
production of LBA (Sar et al. 2021).

2.2.7 Single-Cell Protein

Single-cell protein (SCP) refers to the protein-rich, dehydrated cells of bacteria,

yeast, algae, and fungi that are used as dietary supplements to combat the growing
protein deficiency in the human population. For the production of SCP, various
substrates of agro-waste have been used as starter material (Bratosin et al. 2021).
According to Suman et al. (2017), dairy waste could also be used as a potential
substrate for the growth of microbial culture and biomass production. The different
yeasts used for the industrial production of SCP are Kluyveromyces fragilis,
Kluyveromyces marxianus, Candida pintolopepsii, Debaryomyces robertsiae, and
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and common fungal genera mainly used are Aspergillus,
Rhizopus, Neurospora, Monascus, and Fusarium. Different researchers investigated
the potential use of different dairy wastes (such as chees, whey, milk, and cream) for
the formation of fungal biomass using Neurospora intermedia and Aspergillus ory-
zae strains. N. intermedia produced 7 g/L of biomass from expired milk, while
A. oryzae produced 11 g/L (Thunuguntla et al. 2018). According to recent studies,
the biomass produced by these fungi contains 30–40% protein and can be used as
animal feed. However, bioconversion of materials with high-fat content, such as
cream, may be difficult.

2.2.8 Biofuels

Byproducts of the dairy industry have a high organic content. The byproduct can be
used as a substrate for the generation of methane gas. The anaerobic digestion of
dairy effluents with other wastes such as straw, cattle dung, poultry, manure, and
livestock wastes is recommended. This enables maintaining the carbon/nitrogen
(C/N) ratio, promotes methanogen growth, and increases biogas production.
Biohydrogen is a clean energy alternative to the combustion of fossil fuels. Dairy
byproducts with high organic act as a suitable substrate for the generation of biohy-
drogen under anaerobic conditions. Theoretically, a unit of lactose on consumption
generates 8 mol of hydrogen. With the current technological developments, a unit of
32 T. J. Joshi et al.

lactose on consumption can generate only 3 mol of hydrogen (Ryan and Walsh
2016). Microbial electro-hydro genesis cells (MECs) produce biohydrogen under
controlled conditions from cheese whey. As low pH values can interfere with the
function of exoelectrogens, pH must be strictly controlled in the system. Biodiesel
consists of the extracted methyl ethyl esters from the plant, microalgal, or oily fun-
gal biomass. Microalgae and fungal species in dairy waste can produce oily biomass
and generate bioenergy. Microalgae species like Chlorella, Scenedesmus,
Chlamydomonas, Anabaena, and Acutodesmus and fungal species like Mortierella
isabellina, Mucor sp., Thamnidium elegans, and Fusarium species are commonly
used for biogeneration (Chan et al. 2018; Cherian et al. 2022).

2.3 Sustainable Management of Dairy Industry Waste

Milk is processed into a diverse array of milk products in the industry, such as fresh
milk, pasteurized milk, long-life milk or UHT milk, paneer, khoa, curd, yogurt, but-
ter, ghee, milk powder, and cheese. Cheese production is steadily increasing com-
pared to other dairy products as the fast food chain market expands. The world is
trending toward demand-driven value-added dairy products such as cheese rather
than supply-based bulk commodities such as skim milk powder. For every one kg of
cheese produced, 9 liters of whey is generated (Durham and Hourigan 2007). In a
typical dairy manufacturing industry, the inputs are the milk and milk products,
water, compressed air, refrigerants, acids and alkali, ingredients like sugar, salt,
stabilizers, emulsifiers, coloring agents, flavoring agents, and packaging materials.
The output generated is milk spills, milk product spills, whey, liquid effluents from
cleaning in place, air emissions like combustion gases, milk powder dust, damaged
packaging material, and expired stock. The discharge of large quantities of liquid
effluent is the main environmental concern in the industry (Durham and Hourigan
2007). The effluent load mainly depends on the nature of the product manufactured,
the scale of operation, and the continuity of operation. Sources of wastage in the
dairy industry include overfill, spillage, product purge prior to or after CIP, retained
products in poorly drained pipelines, defective/returned products, milk stone, sam-
pling for laboratory, whey, cheese/curd fines, milk powder fines, de-sludge/separa-
tors, salt whey, brine, wastewater from flushing pipelines, and deposits of heating
surfaces (Hale et al. 2003). Casein, fat, whey proteins, sodium, phosphorus, potas-
sium, high levels of organic matter, fatty acids, oil, grease, and nitrogen compounds
are present in dairy sludge (Porwal et al. 2015). It also contains dissolved organic
compounds like whey proteins, lactose, fat, and minerals. Dairy wastes have high
BOD and chemical COD with increased concentrations of organic and inorganic
solids. The characteristics of dairy waste are shown in Table 2.4.
Wetland treatment, physicochemical, biological, and biotechnological methods
can be incorporated into the treatment of dairy effluents. An overview of the differ-
ent treatment methods for dairy effluents is presented in Table 2.5. The physico-
chemical methods mainly focus on the removal of fat and protein colloids from the
2 Value Addition and Sustainable Management of Dairy Industry Byproducts 33

Table 2.4 Characteristics of dairy wastewater and effluents

Dairy waste
type Characteristics Range of values Reference
Dairy BOD 40–48,000 mg L−1 Slavov (2017)
wastewater COD 80–95,000 mg L−1
pH 4.7–11
Color White (wastewater)
Whey (yellowish green
color)
Odor Unpleasant
Annual temperature 17–25 °C
Industrial temperature (dairy 22–25 °C (winter)
effluents) 17–18 °C (summer)
Dairy effluents BOD 0.8–2.5 kg per metric ton Jaganmai and Jinka
of milk (2017)
COD 1.5 times BOD
Total suspended solids 100–1000 mg/l
Nitrogen About 6% of BOD level
Phosphorus 10–100 mg L−1

effluents, while the biological treatment effectively removes organic matter from
dairy waste. Aerobic and anaerobic treatments are used in combination to attain the
desired effluent limit. Biotechnological processes are used to derive essential
byproducts such as whey-based products, biofuels, bioplastics, organic acids, bio-
energy, bioactive peptides, and enzymes (Ahmad et al. 2019). Because there is a
growing interest in using dairy waste to reduce pollution, it is critical to investigate
the composition and characteristics of dairy waste and to develop long-term solu-
tions for its effective management. Most recent treatment techniques are advancing
the conversion of dairy waste into valuable products. However, further research is
still needed for the large-scale adoption of these techniques. However, more scien-
tific research is required to develop standardized methodologies for the widespread
adoption of these techniques.

2.4 Future Prospects

The high organic and inorganic constitutions of diary waste make them a potential
candidate for environmental hazards. By proper treatment, they can be converted
into value-added forms. Whey, which is produced in large quantities, is often dis-
posed of along with the effluents. Research needs to be strengthened for the conver-
sion of whey to protein concentrates, lactose, and a range of other substances.
Isolation of macro and micronutrients from the whey can also be explored.
34 T. J. Joshi et al.

Table 2.5 Overview of different treatment methods for dairy effluents

Treatment method Mode of action Key features Reference

Wetland treatment Aerobic treatment Economical, eco-­ Slavov (2017)
friendly, and energy
efficient
Utilizes hydrophyte plants, Offers considerable risk
aggregate materials, and to ground and surface
microorganisms water due to the
presence of
microorganisms and
dangerous, volatile
substances
Physicochemical Destruction/reduction of lipids Reduces suspended Carvalho et al.
treatment and protein colloids are particles and colloidal (2013)
achieved through coagulation materials responsible
for water turbidity
Coagulation is achieved using Helps in the reduction Sarkar et al.
lactic acid bacteria, organic and of COD and BOD (2006)
inorganic coagulants contents
Biological Utilized microorganisms to Most promising method Yonar (2018)
treatment (aerobic/ reduce complex organic for separating organic
anaerobic) substrate and adsorb heavy material
metals
Trickling filters, activated Disposal of sludge Dąbrowski
sludge, aerated lagoons, up-flow formed during aerobic et al. (2017)
anaerobic sludge blanket, biodegradation is a
sequencing batch reactor, major concern
biofilm reactor, anaerobic
filters, membrane bioreactor,
and rotating biological
contactor are employed
Biotechnological Utilizes microbial fuel cell, The method is used to Chokshi et al.
methods aerobic/anaerobic microbial produce biofuels, (2016),
fermentation, anaerobic biomass, biofertilizers, Ozmihci and
digestion enzymes, organic acids, Kargi (2007)
etc. and Wan et al.
(2008)

Understanding the nutritional and functional characteristics of dairy byproduct pro-

tein isolates and their applicability in various food formulations needs to be explored
further. Another major underutilized byproduct is ghee residue, which can be used
in the manufacturing of confectionery products. The utilization of wastewater from
a dairy plant and its bioconversion to produce SCP, enzymes, organic acids, biofu-
els, biopolymers, and bioactive components need to be investigated.
2 Value Addition and Sustainable Management of Dairy Industry Byproducts 35

2.5 Conclusion

The increased demand for dairy products has increased the amount of waste pro-
duced by the industry. Dairy byproducts are high in macro and micronutrients.
Proper treatment methods can convert them into enzymes, organic acids, biofuels,
biopolymers, and bioactive components. Whey can be used to make protein concen-
trates, lactose, and a variety of other products. Casein and its derivative can be
produced from skim milk. Ghee residue is used in the formulation of confectionery
and chocolate products. The chapter summarizes the byproducts generated in the
dairy industry and their processing and utilization through value addition. Besides
the nutritional attributes, high organic and inorganic matter content in dairy byprod-
ucts makes them a potential source of environmental hazards. Therefore, proper
treatment is required prior to disposal. Wetland treatment, physicochemical, bio-
logical, and biotechnological methods are currently employed for the treatment of
dairy effluents. Despite this, further studies are needed to standardize the method-
ologies and make them cost-effective for large-scale production.

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 Part III
Waste Utilization from Cereals
Chapter 3
Effective Utilization of Agricultural Cereal
Grains in Value-Added Products: A Global
Perspective

Meroda Tesfaye Gari, Belete Tessema Asfaw, Lata Deso Abo,

Mani Jayakumar, and Gadisa Kefalew

Abstract For many years, cereal grains from agricultural sources have been the
main food sources for human diets and animal feeds. All throughout the food-­
production chain, more byproducts are now produced in greater amounts. These
byproducts are made up mostly of the germ and outer layers of wheat, rice, oat,
barley, and corn that are removed through the operations of wet and dry milling,
which also include other products obtained through the bread and starch-making
processes. Cereal manufacturing byproducts are abundant and cheap sources of
phytochemicals, such as carbohydrates, dietary fibers, lipids, proteins, and trace
elements and antioxidants, polyphenols, and vitamins, which are essential chemi-
cals for living beings. These phytochemicals also have potential nutraceutical and
pharmaceutical applications. Most frequently, the byproducts derived from numer-
ous cereal processes are utilized as cattle feed or as organic fertilizers; otherwise,
they are discarded into the environment as waste materials. The world’s population

M. T. Gari
College of Biological and Chemical Engineering, Addis Ababa Science and Technology
University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
B. T. Asfaw
College of Biological and Chemical Engineering, Addis Ababa Science and Technology
University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Department of Chemical Engineering, Haramaya University, Haramaya Institute of
Technology, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia
L. D. Abo · G. Kefalew
Department of Chemical Engineering, Haramaya University, Haramaya Institute of
Technology, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia
M. Jayakumar (*)
Department of Chemical Engineering, Haramaya University, Haramaya Institute of
Technology, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia
e-mail: drjayakumarmani@haramaya.edu.et

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 41

E. Cherian, B. Gurunathan (eds.), Value Added Products From Food Waste,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48143-7_3
42 M. T. Gari et al.

is increasing day by day, as is awareness of environmental sustainability. Industry’s

top priority is to meet the growing needs of the global market, which include devis-
ing innovative and sustainable methods for managing the byproducts derived from
cereals while maintaining healthy modern lifestyles and promoting community wel-
fare. This chapter addresses in detail the numerous cereals and their sources, value-
added products from cereals, and the advantages and disadvantages of their
applications and future prospects.

Keywords Cereals · Human diets · Cattle feed · Utilization · Value-added

products

3.1 Introduction

Nowadays, directly through human consumption and indirectly through livestock

feed (used in the production of meat), grain crops are among the most widely con-
sumed products. The average person’s diet also includes vital minerals and energy
from such grain crops. In 2016, 2577.85 million tons of crops were produced, but
only 1330.02 million tons of nonwheat and nonrice cereal grains were utilized
largely for animal feed or brewing (Papageorgiou and Skendi 2018). Cereals include
any of the nine species of plants in the Gramineae family, namely corn, barley, oats,
rice, millet, sorghum, wheat, rye, and triticale, a rye and wheat hybrid (Skendi et al.
2020). Large-scale cereal farming, including the production of wheat, rice, and
maize, adds to the global food supply (Garg et al. 2021). Better-known varieties
such as buckwheat, amaranth, and quinoa but also lesser-known varieties such as
chia, caihua, pit seed goosefoot, breadnut, celosia, and wattle seeds make up just a
few examples of pseudocereals, which are either actual grasses or nongrasses with
end uses similar to those of cereals (Skendi et al. 2020).
Cereals have long been important parts of livestock feed and critical components
of human diets, and their processing heavily contributes to the value of the food
supply chain. According to epidemiological research, eating whole grains is associ-
ated with a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease and chronic conditions like can-
cer, diabetes, and obesity. Cereal grains’ high concentrations of dietary fiber, lipids,
proteins, vitamins, and tocopherols have been linked to these foods’ positive health
effects (Galanakis 2022). Micronutrients such as vitamins are crucial for healthy
growth, metabolism, reproduction, and overall wellbeing. Vitamins are divided into
two groups on the basis of their solubility: fat-soluble vitamins like A, D, E, and K
and water-soluble vitamins like B and C (Garg et al. 2021). Additionally, the cereal
germ, hull, and bran that are removed from foods during processing contain sub-
stantial concentrations of these composites.
Moreover, even though cereals are crucial components in the food-production
cycle, cereal processing is also crucial to nonfood industries. Milling, either dry
milling or wet milling, is the primary process of the grain-processing sector
3 Effective Utilization of Agricultural Cereal Grains in Value-Added Products… 43

(Papageorgiou and Skendi 2018; Souza et al. 2022). A wide range of feedstuffs
produced by the following processes are included in byproducts: cleaning, milling,
or extracting cereal grains and oilseeds; brewing, distilling, or producing ethanol;
and processing vegetables, fruits, and sugars (Ominski et al. 2021).
Wet milling is appropriate for maize; dry milling is typical for wheat; and pearl-
ing is appropriate for rice and barley. Biomasses of bran, cob, germ, gluten, and
husks make up maize wastes (Souza et al. 2022). The grain endosperm’s byprod-
ucts, the outer fibrous components and germ, separate during dry milling. Dry mill-
ing can also refer to a process that uses abrasion to polish grains like rice, oats, and
barley to create byproducts that have high concentrations of bioactive compounds.
Through this method, the seed coat, aleurone, and subaleurone layers and the germ
are gradually removed. These grain byproducts are rich in bio-functional ingredi-
ents like phytoestrogens, phenolic compounds, minerals, lignans, vitamins, and
fiber. The other wet-milling techniques are employed mostly to produce bran, germ,
and starch, along with coproducts of bran and germ that contain nutrients valuable
to the pharmaceutical sector (Papageorgiou and Skendi 2018). According to Véha
and Balázs (2012), the bran is the top layer of the pericarp of brown rice. In addition
to being used as feed, the components obtained through dry or wet milling can be
utilized in a numerous food and nonfood items. Through the processes of malting
and brewing, cereals can be fermented and distillated to create a plethora of highly
sought-after raw materials for other industries (Papageorgiou and Skendi 2018).
The primary components of cereal grains are carbohydrates, which include
starches, soluble sugars, and other carbohydrates. Humans cannot digest dietary
fibers, but we can digest complex polysaccharides such as starches, lignin, pectin,
hemicellulose, and cellulose (Jayakumar et al. 2023; Gundupalli et al. 2022). Starch
makes up 40–70% of grain polysaccharides. Dietary fibers include contents like
water-soluble pentosans and glucans and water-insoluble fibers like lignin, cellu-
lose, and certain hemicelluloses. Fibrous materials such as hemicelluloses, proteins,
polysaccharides, lipids, and phytochemicals are examples of plant-based substances
that can be extracted for use in industry. Cereals are composed of 7–12% proteins
and 1.7–5.7% lipids. In some cases, the extraction rates and the predominant con-
stituents including glycol, and phospholipids, depending on the type of grain and
flour (Skendi et al. 2020). However, current management systems release environ-
mental waste from the manufacturing of grain, a process that remains unsustainable
(Galanakis 2022).
This chapter analyses the uses of grain byproducts by focuses on their com-
pounds, specifically those compounds’ key traits and their applications in many
fields and industries.

3.2 Methods of Processing Cereal Byproducts

Milling, which can be separated into two classes, namely dry milling and wet mill-
ing, is the first process in the cereal industry (Papageorgiou and Skendi 2018; Souza
et al. 2022). Both wet-milled grains and dry-milled grains have uses in the food
44 M. T. Gari et al.

sector, provided that their physical and functional characteristics are properly
understood. This study sought to examine how different rice flours’ physical and
chemical characteristics were affected by the wet- and dry-milling processes
(Leewatchararongjaroen and Anuntagool 2016).

3.2.1 Dry Milling

One of the earliest techniques employed by the milling sector to provide milled frac-
tions of cereal grains was dry milling. Before grinding grains, they must be cleaned
and conditioned. Cleaning is crucial because bulk grains often have contaminants, at
levels that vary depending on the cereal. Shriveled grains, grains with discolored
germs, sprouting grains, other cereals, damaged grains, and rotted grains and various
impurities like husks, seeds, extraneous matter, ergots, and dead insects are among the
main grain contaminants. Cleaning removes impurities by using disk separators,
sieves, magnets, and aspirators (for removing dust) and uses processes like condition-
ing (also known as tempering—moistening the kernels) (Galanakis 2022).
Tempering is the technique of moistening the kernels with a regulated addition
of water to make the bran tougher and the inner endosperm softer. This procedure
seeks to prevent the breakdown of bran, promotes progressive separation during
milling, and improves the efficiency of sieving. To ensure thorough hydration, the
grains are kept for 3 h in containers designed for this purpose. The type of grain,
variety, and starting moisture content can affect the amount of time during which
and temperature at which grain kernels need to be soaked. Conditioning, also known
as tempering, is carried out in two successive processes for hard kernels such as
durum. These requirements are higher for hard wheat because it needs more final
moisture and conditioning time than soft wheat does. Some grains, like rye and triti-
cale, are dried to have lower moisture contents because their endosperms are softer
than those of durum wheat. Before resting in tempering chambers, corn kernels may
need to be moistened up to three times to reach the required final moisture level of
18–27%. The grain’s size, shape, hardness, and outer-layer adherence level to the
endosperm are all crucial factors in milling. Two procedures make up dry milling:
grinding and sifting (Papageorgiou and Skendi 2018). Compared to wet milling,
which produces wheat with significantly reduced crystallinity and a significantly
lower level of gelatinized enthalpy, dry milling results in the loss of a grain’s crys-
talline structure (Leewatchararongjaroen and Anuntagool 2016).

3.2.2 Wet Milling

Wet milling, unlike dry milling, entails grinding the soaked grain and then separat-
ing the chemical constituents of the grain, such as fiber, oil, proteins, and starch. The
primary goal of wet milling maize is to remove as much undamaged starch as
3 Effective Utilization of Agricultural Cereal Grains in Value-Added Products… 45

possible. As a result, the main byproduct of wet milling is starch. The byproduct can
form as waxy starch, regular starch, or higher-amylose starch, depending on how
much amylose is present in the parent source. Maltodextrin and glucose syrups,
other modified starches, soups, thickeners, baby meals, confectionery goods, and
brewing adjuncts are the principal uses of starch in the food business. The principal
purpose of the starch generated during the wet milling of corn is to convert it into
sweets and ethanol. The products manufactured from starch are also exploited by
the pharmaceutical industry. Additionally, starch serves a variety of nonfood pur-
poses in the textile-processing sector, such as packing, and as a component in the
manufacture of adhesives (Papageorgiou and Skendi 2018).
The flour produced via the wet-milling technique has significantly greater carbo-
hydrate levels and reduced ash and protein contents. Additionally, flour that has
been wet milled typically has less lipid and more amylose. Furthermore, compared
to samples of dry-milled rice flour, samples of wet-milled rice flour on average have
smaller granules. Wet-milled samples have larger swelling activity and significantly
poorer solubility than flour samples dry milled at 90 °C (Leewatchararongjaroen
and Anuntagool 2016).

3.3 Processing Cereal Byproducts

The principal byproducts of the wheat-milling industry, wheat germ and bran, have
been found to be great sources of antioxidants, dietary fiber, proteins, phytonutri-
ents, trace minerals, and other micronutrients (Emire 2015). The major components
of dry-milling byproducts are the cereal grain’s bran, endospermic tissue (aleurone
layer), and germ, which are discarded during the milling process. The lignans in
these grain fractions, such as phytoestrogens, phenolic compounds, fiber, minerals,
vitamins, and bio-functional molecules, are abundant. The ultimate nutritional con-
tent of the byproducts significantly varies depending on the method of milling used
(dry milling or wet milling). Aside from being used as feed, the grain fractions
produced during dry or wet milling have a variety of uses in both food and nonfood
products. Various byproducts from the processes of malting, brewing, and distilling
cereals are highly sought-after raw materials for various industries (Papageorgiou
and Skendi 2018).

3.3.1 Corn Byproducts

During dry milling, maize is ground between stones in a hand-driven plate mill, a
hammer mill, or a powered plate mill on a larger scale. Before milling with a man-
ual plate mill, the grain is soaked and allowed to gently ferment to increase its flavor
(Ballester-Sánchez et al. 2020). The residual starch left over after the milling pro-
cess and the maize hulls are byproducts of the corn wet-milling business. If the
46 M. T. Gari et al.

value of the corn fiber as an animal feed product is not seriously compromised, the
conversion of the starch and lignocellulosic components of corn fiber into ethanol
would boost the output of ethanol from a maize wet-milling process by 13%
(Arvanitoyannis and Tserkezou 2008). Wet milling is a method used with maize to
separate the starch from other elements, like protein, germ, fiber, and tiny foreign
particles. Separation can be improved by steeping or soaking the grain in warm
water that contains sulfur dioxide. Following the starch’s separation from the other
ingredients, several procedures are needed to extract pure starch, such as screening,
washing, and ultimately drying (Liu et al. 2023).

3.3.2 Rice Byproducts

Animals are given the majority of rice byproducts, including rice husks and rice
bran. Some breweries also almost entirely make their beer from rice: a mixture of
broken rice, rice bran, and rice germ. Because of their higher values of vitamins,
minerals, and fiber and because of their phenolic base compounds, which can help
decrease cholesterol and exert antiatherogenic activity, rice byproducts have recently
attracted more attention as functional foods (Mohd Esa and Ling 2016).
Before being consumed by people, rice grains must go through a variety of pro-
cessing steps. Harvesting is the first step in the operations used to produce graded
and polished white rice. For every kilogram of harvested paddy, the ratio of leftover
product to usable product ranged from 0.41 to 3.96. The steps in the rice-milling
process include cleaning, hulling, and post-hulling processing, which itself includes
whitening, polishing, and grading. The type of rice and the pace of milling affect the
percentages of rice byproducts: 20% husk, 8–12% bran (depending on the level of
milling), and 68–72% milled rice or white rice (depending on the type) (Mohd Esa
and Ling 2016). Figure 3.1 depicts the many parts of a rice grain.

3.3.3 Wheat Byproducts

When wheat is milled, significant volumes of bran and germ are created as byprod-
ucts. The endosperm is reduced to tiny particles during milling, while the bran and
germ are eliminated. With recognized antioxidant capabilities concentrated mostly
in the bran, wheat is a key agricultural and dietary commodity around the world.
Wheat germ, a byproduct of the flour-milling sector, is one of the best and most
affordable sources of critical nutrients, including calories, proteins, dietary fiber,
and various beneficial microcompositions (Jiang and Niu 2011). The average con-
centration of waste produced by milling wheat is between 25% and 40%, and this
waste is used to make bioethanol, animal feed, and succinic acid, which is blended
with other ingredients to maximize the nutritional value of baked goods and to be
3 Effective Utilization of Agricultural Cereal Grains in Value-Added Products… 47

Fig. 3.1 Components of rice grain

used in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and meat substitutes, among many other things
(Dey et al. 2021).
Different methods are used to extract the oil from wheat germ, including mechan-
ical pressing, which extracts around 50% of the oil, and the usual method of organic
solvent extraction recovers about 90% of the oil. In other words, the disadvantages
can be offset by oil produced through critical extraction methods (Yılmaz Tuncel
2023). In actuality, the oils don’t need to be refined, because they don’t contain any
solvents, and the extraction yields are comparable to those that typically need to be
refined. The first two processes in extracting wheat germ oil have been shown to
reduce free fatty acid and tocopherol levels (Parczewska-Plesnar et al. 2016). The
quantities of natural antioxidants present in wheat grains are substantial and con-
centrated mostly on the outer surface. Wheat is a significant agricultural product and
a staple dietary item, and it has many healthy nutritional contents. Wheat and wheat-­
based food ingredients rich in naturally occurring antioxidants can be optimal for
the development of functional foods designed to improve the health of millions of
consumers (Kosík et al. 2014).
Milling cracks wheat rather than crushes it by spacing milling stones more apart.
At the same time, the rotational speed of the millstones is slowed. Gradually reduc-
ing the heat from friction and grinding and then repeatedly grinding and bolting the
wheat separates the bran from the white flour. The amount of flour extracted from a
given amount of wheat was similar to current extraction rates: 72–75% flour and
26–28% mill feed (Kanojia et al. 2018). Table 3.1 presents the functional compo-
nents from processing cereal byproducts.
48 M. T. Gari et al.

Table 3.1 Functional components from processing cereal byproducts

Functional
Cereal Byproducts compounds Health benefits Examples Reference
Rice Bran and Vitamins, Proteins exhibit 179–389 mg/kg of Galanakis
husk proteins, hypoallergenic tocopherols and (2022)
dietary fiber, qualities, tocotrienols
and oils vitamins have (compounds made
antioxidant up of vitamin E)
characteristics, are found in rice
and fiber lowers bran.
the risk of
cardiovascular
disease.
Sorghumand Bran Phenolic Phenolic Policosanol content Carr et al.
millet compounds, compounds and hexane extracts (2005)
phytosterols, possess significantly
and policosanols, and reduced cholesterol
policosanols phytosterols absorption, by up
reduce to 17%.
cholesterol levels
and antioxidant
properties.
Corn Corncob Oils and Refining Corn kernels and Singh et al.
insoluble technology can fiber contain (2001)
dietary fiber be modified to 21.48–
maintain the 24.30 mg/100 g,
natural constituting
phytosterols and 13.36–11.90%.
derivatives in
order to produce
more “good” oil,
considered good
because of the
recently
acknowledged
health advantages
of phytosterols.
The refined
phytosterol-­
enriched corn
germ oil made
from the listed
crude oils might
be sold at a
higher price to
increase the
incomes of corn
refiners and
ethanol
producers.
(continued)
3 Effective Utilization of Agricultural Cereal Grains in Value-Added Products… 49

Table 3.1 (continued)

Functional
Cereal Byproducts compounds Health benefits Examples Reference
Wheat Bran and Fiber and Bran fiber helps The prebiotic Onipe
germ arabinoxylans the intestinal effects of et al.
transit move arabinoxylans on (2015);
more quickly and obesity and other Stevenson
increases fecal metabolic et al.
bulk. disorders, as well (2012)
Arabinoxylans as their capacity to
reduce the reduce blood-­
blood’s glucose cholesterol level
level. and the post-­
prandial (PP)
glycemic response,
are credited with
providing health
benefits.
Oat Bran, oat Soluble Dietary fiber Oat bran has Galanakis
biomass dietary fiber increases fecal 16.0% dietary fiber (2022)
and β-glucans volume, and level per dry matter
studies have and 5.5% glucans
shown that per dry matter.
glucan lowers
blood cholesterol.
Barley Spent β-Glucans and Dietary fiber At safe Moreau
grains dietary fiber lowers blood concentrations, et al.
sugar spikes after phytosterols in (2007)
meals, and glucan barley oils can
lowers blood considerably
cholesterol. reduce low-density
lipoprotein
cholesterol.
Rye Bran Condensed The addition of The bran in rye Capanoglu
tannins, grain flour and gain been shown to et al.
lignans, bran, as sources make up between (2022)
stilbenes, of numerous 65 and 300 mg per
coumarins, beneficial 100 g of the grain.
and flavonoids bioactive
components, to
food products
enhances the
health-promoting
properties of
those goods.
50 M. T. Gari et al.

3.4 Applications of Cereal Byproducts

As discussed earlier, many high-value chemicals can be found in the primary and
secondary byproducts of processing cereals, and they can be turned into a variety of
commodities for a variety of industries. Wheat-processing byproducts are rich in
nutrients and may be used in place of conventional carbon sources in medium-size
formulations for microbial and industrial enzyme production (Ravindran and
Jaiswal 2016). They might be used to produce, for example, single-cell proteins and
microbial enzymes cheaply and at high yields (Naibaho et al. 2022).
One of cereal bran’s most popular uses is to increase the nutritious fiber content
of baked foods. Depending on the use, the intended amount of fiber, the appropriate
glycemic index, and the required sensory qualities, different amounts of cereal bran
may be used in bread. Because of the existence of phenolic compounds like pin-
oresinol and syringic acid, the inclusion of bran in baked goods may have negative
effects on their quality and sensory characteristics, such as by altering porosity and
elasticity, intensifying bitterness, and reducing nutrient absorption because of an
increase in phytic acid content (Heiniö et al. 2016). Similarly, wheat bran’s high oil
content renders it susceptible to oxidation, which gives baked goods a disagreeable
flavor. Consequently, the oil from the bran needs to be removed before including
the bran.
For instance, adding wheat bran to dough at a high concentration of 15–20%
leads to decreased crumb volume and textural quality, increased water immobiliza-
tion, and increased water immobilization. Wheat bran has decreased stability, dough
development time, extensibility, and viscosity. When wheat bran is added to dough,
the gluten network is altered, becoming weaker and thinner. Amylase and wheat
bran work best together to maximize the bioavailability of the minerals and reduce
the detrimental effects of bran on the dough’s functional characteristics (Zhuang
et al. 2022).
Extruded snacks have also been created by using byproducts from the production
of cereal. For instance, researchers created extruded snacks with qualities that were
more desirable than those produced solely from rice flour, by combining brewers’
spent grains (BSGs) with up to 30% of the dough (Nascimento et al. 2017).
Contrarily, despite having comparable sensory characteristics and textures, adding
wheat bran to extruded food products has problems. For instance, the hardness and
density of the combination increased as the amount of bran increased, but the crisp-
ness and expansion volume decreased. Therefore, it’s crucial to maximize the
amount of wheat bran applied (Vandana Mishra 2013).
Using cereal bran to augment pasta had also been suggested. However, because
of the higher cooking temperatures, increased cooking losses, and decreased water
absorption, their integration is known to have a negative impact on the way pasta
cooks (Laureati et al. 2016). However, to create gluten-free spaghetti, maize flour
and oat bran rich (22%) in glucans have been used. Padalino et al. discovered that
adding the mentioned hydrocolloids made the pasta more elastic and stiff, which
reduced its bulkiness and adhesiveness (Padalino et al. 2011).
3 Effective Utilization of Agricultural Cereal Grains in Value-Added Products… 51

The manufacture of seasonings and tastes as well as the fortification of cookies

have been suggested as potential uses for additional cereal manufacturing byprod-
ucts, such as rice-distilling lees (Anisha et al. 2023). To increase the nutritional
value of cookies, several processing methods have also been applied, including sta-
bilization in the oven, microwave, and autoclave. The results showed that autoclave
treatment caused the greatest loss of phytic acid in the cookies, while adding 30%
microwave-treated bran resulted in cookies with a lot of minerals (Galanakis 2022).

3.5 Value-Added Products from Cereals

The possibilities of using the wastes from cereals as some of the basic components
of value-added products are covered in the preceding paragraphs. Waste cereals are
a versatile refuse material that works well in place of other wastes like rice and other
starchy grains (Lorente et al. 2023). These products have either been proven effec-
tive or are currently being used to increase finger millet intake. However, few scien-
tific studies have been conducted on how to prepare them and meaningfully
popularize them (Verma and Patel 2013).
Industrial cereal waste can provide value-added goods, including xylogalacturo-
nans, arabinoxylans, organic acids, polysaccharides, industrially valuable enzymes,
and more. Table 3.2 details the value-added products generated from cereal grains
and shows the pros and cons of the extraction process.

3.6 Future Prospects and Challenges

3.6.1 Prospects

By 2050, a projected 9.7 billion people will live on the planet. To attain food secu-
rity, food production must be increased and losses along the agri-food chain
decreased. To lessen the effects of climate change and global warming, green mate-
rials and technologies must replace nonrenewable resources. Over time, industry
experts and scientists have collaborated to investigate grains to identify possible
applications for grain byproducts. Additionally, health-promoting hemicelluloses
such AX and -ꞵ-glucan, which have been found in cereal brans specifically, should
be incorporated into tailored cosmetics, foods, feed, and medicines. Aside from
using grain byproducts as feed and biomass, no method has been formulated to use
them to their full potential. This is because no new pilot- or industrial-scale fraction-
ation technique has been more affordable or more ecofriendly.
The molar mass (MM) of AX and glucan may also be reduced via various pro-
cessing techniques, as discussed in this review. The functioning of these hemicel-
luloses and their potential health benefits may differ depending on their molar mass.
52 M. T. Gari et al.

Table 3.2 Value-added products from cereals: pros and cons

Methods and
Products conditions Pros Cons Reference
Pea hulls Acidic Hemicellulose and Processing Le Goff
(xylogalacturonans) hydrolysis of lignin reduction. concentrated acid is et al.
HCl (0.1 mol/l, Higher solubility of destructive and risky. (2001)
80 °C, 24 h) hemicellulose. Specialized
As a result of its nonmetallic
effectiveness, dilute construction is in
acid pretreatment is demand.
widely utilized. At low pH, inhibitors
Sugar recovery for can form.
xylose and glucose Salt disposal,
is high. neutralization, and
Increase sugar-content losses.
accessibility of
cellulose for
enzymatic
saccharification.
Wheat bran Hydrothermal Products produced High temperatures or Aguedo
(arabinoxylans) treatment with alkaline an alkaline pH causes et al.
(180 °C, 3 min extractions were compounds that (2014)
and 5 pH) somewhat less degrade the
brown. development of sugar,
The enzymatic producing brownish/
reaction produced reddish tones.
lighter yellowish Tiny quantities of
powders. lignin and phenolics
may also be
extracted, which
darken the final
products.
Rye bran Extraction Because of their Arabinoxylans (AXs) Bender
(arabinoxylan) solvent and interactions with may have their et al.
enzymes pentose sugars, functional (2017)
some divalent characteristics
bases, including diminished via the
barium hydroxide, degradation of their
have a stronger functional groups,
selectivity toward caused by alkaline
arabinoxylans AXs. solvents.
Enzymes
(xylanases) have
high catalytic
efficiency, good
substrate
selectivity, and the
capacity to
hydrolyze xylose
linkages near the
side-chain residues.
(continued)
3 Effective Utilization of Agricultural Cereal Grains in Value-Added Products… 53

Table 3.2 (continued)

Methods and
Products conditions Pros Cons Reference
Wheat bran Twin-screw This is an excellent Compared to batch Jacquemin
(arabinoxylan) extrusion technique for extraction, this et al.
extracting method provides (2015)
hemicelluloses lower extraction
from wheat bran by yields and selectivity.
using an alkaline Complex solutions
solution. containing the
It requires less biopolymers are
reagent and water. created via twin-­
screw extrusion.
The price and
security issues
associated with
alcohol recycling
impede the
commercialization of
manufacturing
xylans.
Brewers’ spent Solid–liquid Commonly used Can cause impurities. Bonifácio-­
grains (total extraction (80% and the easiest Can introduce Lopes
phenolic ethanol water, method. analytical errors. et al.
compounds) 60% ethanol (2020)
water, 2 min at
1900 rpm)
Flax shives, wheat, Alkaline Major removal of Minimal digestibility Buranov
and corn bran hydrolysis lignin and some for softwoods. and Mazza
(ferulic acid) (0.5 M of removal of A large amount of (2009)
NaOH, 4 h at hemicellulose. water is required for
50 °C, Reduces washing.
neutralized polymerization
with 6 M of level and
HCl) crystallinity.
Brewers’ spent Alkaline Easily dissolves A large amount of Mussatto
grains (ferulic and hydrolysis (2% lignin. water is needed for et al.
p-Coumaric acid) NaOH Allowing for the the washing process. (2007)
concentration, complete utilization High chemical
at 120 °C for of the recovery cost.
90 min) lignocellulose with Long pretreatment
low environmental residence time.
impact.
54 M. T. Gari et al.

ꞵ-glucans, with their high molar mass, can lower cholesterol and act as glycemic-­
control agents, whereas lower-MM ꞵ-glucan is an anticancer agent (Choromanska
et al. 2015; Schmidt 2022). Future investigations should concentrate on a variety of
techniques to economically and sustainably fractionate pure AX and ꞵ-glucan while
closely monitoring any changes in their respective physicochemical properties. If
scaling up the separation of pure cereal byproduct hemicelluloses is not sustainable,
economically viable, or fast enough for development, the use of impure fractions
should be prioritized.
Cereal side streams can significantly reduce industrial expenses while enhancing
the circular economy. They are made up of hemicellulose, lignin, and cellulose
components. Cereal side streams, particularly in brans, are good sources of miner-
als, vitamins, saponins, proteins, AXs, and ꞵ-glucans (Patel 2019). Impure cereal
byproducts can be employed as food additives and in bio-refineries. The uses of the
impure fractions of these hemicelluloses in diverse fields should be covered in more
detail in future research. Valoppi et al. (2021) demonstrated that local soluble oat
bran fractions (composed of mixtures of 5% AXs, 11% proteins, and 78% glucans)
and native insoluble oat bran fractions (composed of equal fractions of AXs,
ꞵ-glucans, and proteins, with a trace % of cellulose and fat mixtures) can be used in
combination to create stable emulsions and suspensions over time. This makes it
possible to use native oat side-stream fractions for packaging, food, drinks, medi-
cines, and cosmetics, among other uses. Additionally, scientists have found pheno-
lic acids in oat bran in its natural state (Verma et al. 2009). These phenolic
compounds, especially diferulic acid and ferulic acid, have been linked to in vivo
and in vitro antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant effects (Bautista-­
Expósito et al. 2020). Lie-Piang et al. (2021) suggested using the entire grain of
wheat, meaning the husk, bran, and straw. These authors claim that in addition to
maximizing resource use and promoting a circular economy, this idea has also been
demonstrated to reduce the likelihood of cancer in humans, future global warming,
water use, and issues with the supply of fossil fuels. The mild fractionation of
impure traces of legumes, like peas and lupins, has been shown in studies to offer
promising thickening and emulsifying capabilities. This shows that outstanding
physicochemical properties, in addition to purity, are additional factors that deter-
mine whether a substance is sustainable (Lie-Piang et al. 2021).

3.6.2 Challenges

The development of technologies; designing efficient, ecofriendly, and sustainable

extraction methods; the characteristics and compositions of cereal grains; and
weather conditions are just a few of the challenges that had to be overcome in this
study to effectively convert agricultural cereal grains into value-added end products.
Additionally, the transformation of cereal grains into goods with value-added prod-
ucts has indirect or direct impacts on the human food chain. Given that humans
consume the majority of cereal grains, conflict might ensue between people and
3 Effective Utilization of Agricultural Cereal Grains in Value-Added Products… 55

businesses, particularly in developing and underdeveloped nations. Moreover, it can

be difficult to turn cereal grains into goods with added value, especially at the indus-
trial level, when steam-explosion treatment is utilized as an extraction process.
However, steam-explosion treatment does not work well in isolating polymers,
because it severely degrades the polymers, leading to low recovery yields.
Monomeric sugar is desirable for subsequent alcoholic fermentation or xylose
transformation, and it is effective at recovering monomeric sugar, which is desirable
for those processes as well.

3.7 Summary

Cereal processing makes up a significant portion of the food-production chain.

Malting and wet or dry milling are the two main processes used in the cereal indus-
try. The byproducts of the cereal business are used as feed, fuel, or rubbish, despite
their potential to be utilized for the extraction of bioactive components or the cre-
ation of functional foods. These days, using cereal byproducts as food additives
requires that they adhere to the standards set for the safety and quality of foods
intended for consumption by humans. To enable the utilization of former foodstuffs
and to add value to other products by using cereal byproducts from the food chain
without compromising food safety and feed safety, significant improvements need
to be made in waste, food, and feed legislation. Additionally, new techniques are
needed to recover food waste rather than dispose of it. Conventional techniques only
partially utilize the waste generated by the cereal business, where animal feed is the
primary use.

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 Part IV
Waste Utilization from Fruits and
Vegetables
Chapter 4
Fruit Peel–Based Edible Coatings/Films

Veerapandi Loganathan, Nivetha Thangaraj, and J. Suresh Kumar

Abstract Convenience and lifestyle changes have spurred food-processing indus-

tries to produce consumable products such as fruit juices, jams, jellies, marmalades,
etc. The byproducts of these fruit-processing industries are enormous, mostly the
underused parts of the fruit, which are discarded as waste. Such waste includes fruit
peels, seeds, rinds, pomaces, and kernels obtained during the various processing
stages. These byproducts, when examined, consist of bioactive components such as
dietary fibre, antioxidants, polyphenols, flavonoids, anthocyanins, etc. When these
waste byproducts are properly utilised, they find diverse applications as edible coat-
ings/films, fortified probiotics, derived metallic nanoparticles, derived carbon dots,
microbiological media, biochars, derived biosorbents, etc., as discussed in the pre-
vious chapters. This chapter studies the uses of fruit peel–based edible coat-
ings/films.

Keywords Edible coatings · Byproducts · Food processing · Waste utilisation

4.1 Introduction

A balanced diet that influences the body’s overall activity and wellness has to
include vegetables and fruits. Fruits and vegetables have finite postharvest lives
because they are perishable. Even after the harvesting and processing, plants remain
in a continuous phase of permeability and respiration, which causes their quality to

V. Loganathan (*)
Department of Food Technology, Nehru Institute of Technology,
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
N. Thangaraj
Department of Food Technology, Hindusthan College of Engineering and Technology,
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
J. S. Kumar
Department of Food Technology, Saintgits College of Engineering, Kottayam, Kerala, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 61

E. Cherian, B. Gurunathan (eds.), Value Added Products From Food Waste,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48143-7_4
62 V. Loganathan et al.

deteriorate and storage stability to decrease (Ali et al. 2019). Fruit ripening is a
complex process distinguished by significant physiological and biochemical
changes. This process includes the synthesis of ethylene, an increase in metabolic
activity, changes in the amount of sugar, the transcription of cell wall–degrading
enzymes, chlorophyll stability, and the biosynthesis of aromatic compounds (Lee
and Hwang 2017; Perotti et al. 2014).
The edible films and coatings (primary packaging) are made from the edible
components of plants (Tahir et al. 2019). Packaging materials can be classified into
two categories, according to the working process: coatings or films. Coating is
defined as the use of the thin layer of materials applied on food products to extend
shelf life and improve the quality of food. Usually, these coating materials, formed
with a thickness of 0.3 mm from natural sources, are applied directly on the surface
of food products. Alternatively, various layers can be applied between food surfaces
to prevent external factors such as the migration of air (oxygen, moisture) (Ferreira
et al. 2016). Packaging films are prepared before products are ready for them. Many
differences separate coatings from films, but in all cases, both coatings and films act
as protective layers between food products and the environment, ensuring quality
and a long shelf life (Pavlath and Orts 2009).
Once, citrus fruits were coated by using waxes to increase their shelf life. The
packaging materials (coatings and films) are developed from the edible compounds
of plants. Films are used to protect the food components after they have been
formed, where coatings are applied directly on the surface of food materials (Kang
et al. 2013). These packing materials plays major roles in maintaining the nutri-
tional properties of food products that they are applied on, so more research on
methods that could improve the development of coatings and films and their appli-
cations are needed. Newer methods do not aim to replace the traditional packaging
process, but they can be used with other packing materials to reduce the production
quantities (Pardo-Ibáñez et al. 2014). Various components are used as the edible
films and coatings, such as polysaccharides, hydrocolloids, proteins, and lipids
(Hassan et al. 2018). These components may be hydrophilic and may come in com-
binations of lipids to form complex edible films and coatings with more advanced
functional properties (Corbo et al. 2015; Mehyar et al. 2014). The key function of
an edible film or coating is to act as a protective barrier between food material and
environmental conditions, such as moisture, oxygen, and contaminants, to preserve
their flavour, aroma, and oil level while also maintaining food integrity (Menzel
et al. 2020).
Because of various external factors, food products take a substantial amount of
time to reach the consumer, and damage may occur during transportation, handling,
and storage (Embuscado and Huber 2009). Such damage causes the product to dete-
riorate; dehydrate; change its colour, flavour, and appearance; and lose some of its
nutritional value. Edible coating materials can protect food from microbial contami-
nations and physical contamination, minimise the spoilage period, reduce oxida-
tion, and overall extend the product’s shelf life. These materials are biodegradable,
nontoxic, protective, affordable, and easily available (Fagundes et al. 2015).
4 Fruit Peel–Based Edible Coatings/Films 63

4.2 The Mechanisms and Functions of Coatings/Films

The major functions of packaging materials include providing a barrier against

external factors such as O2, CO2, moisture, pathogens, and the movement of water
molecules. Edible coatings and films are used for food packaging, as capsules in the
pharmaceutical industry for drug delivery, and in tissue engineering. In the biomedi-
cal field, edible coating materials are widely used because they have or confer
numerous functional properties, including flexibility, easy biodegradability, pollu-
tion reduction, recyclability, and ecofriendliness. Also, edible films and coatings are
made purely from natural sources like polysaccharides, lipids, proteins, and combi-
nations of these components, making these edible materials safe to consume and
easily digestible.
The fruit peels of apples, citrus fruits, guavas, strawberries, papayas, apricots,
jackfruits, pomegranates, and raspberries are widely known for their medicinal and
nutritional value. Pomegranate peels and orange peels contain high concentrations
of carotenoids, enzymes, oils, vitamins, phenols, polyphenols, tannins, antidiabetic
properties, antioxidants, antimicrobial properties, and other properties (Khalid
et al. 2018).

4.3 Fruit Peel–Based Edible Packaging Materials

Coatings and films for foods are developed from lipids, proteins, polysaccharides,
and combinations of these components. Macromolecules such as proteins and poly-
saccharides may be utilised to produce biodegradable packaging alternatives.
Researchers have studied a variety of polysaccharides, includes starch (Vilas
Dhumal et al. 2019), cellulose substitutes (Francisco et al. 2020), gum (Vilas
Dhumal et al. 2019), chitosan (Vásconez et al. 2009), and alginate (Mahcene et al.
2020). Proteins also used as edible packaging alternatives include whey (Vilas
Dhumal et al. 2019), gelatin (Scartazzini et al. 2019), soy proteins (dos Santos
Paglione et al. 2019), and maize zein (Vahedikia et al. 2019).
The daily production of plant byproducts from the agricultural sector is signifi-
cant, and all these resources might be investigated to find new materials for eco-
friendly food packaging (Goncalves et al. 2017). Such resources include peels
(Menzel et al. 2020), piths (Torres-León et al. 2018), kernels (González et al. 2019),
rinds (Khalid et al. 2018), pomaces (Kurek et al. 2018), shells (Tóth and Halász
2019), and straws (Menzel et al. 2020). These plant-based byproducts used in bio-
degradable food packaging are also rich sources of beneficial nutrients like poly-
phenols and flavonoids. The antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and
antiproliferative characteristics of the polyphenolic constituents in plants have been
well documented, as has their potential to enhance the structural characteristics of
foods (Lund 2021).
64 V. Loganathan et al.

Fig. 4.1 Types of coatings used on fruits and vegetables

These materials help to protect fruits and vegetables from pathogens and insects
when under preharvesting and postharvesting conditions and throughout transporta-
tion. More recently, thanks to new technologies, new edible coatings now contain
various nanosize compounds such nanoparticles, nanoemulsions, and nanocompos-
ites, which confer antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. Thanks to their renew-
able natures, which minimise toxicity and promote biodegradability and
biocompatibility, these plant byproducts are excellent raw materials for biodegrad-
able packaging. The use of byproducts in biodegradable packaging can reduce envi-
ronmental impacts such as industry’s negative contributions to climate change,
which would usually be increased via the processes of decomposing and dumping
plastics (Maraveas 2020). As a result of such plant-based products’ ecofriendliness,
recent years have witnessed an increase in research on the advantages of using
plant-based byproducts in packaging materials (Fig. 4.1).

4.4 Classification of Edible Films and Coatings

Edible films and coatings can be divided into four categories on the basis of their
respective compositions. Edible films and coatings include protein-based varieties,
polysaccharide-based varieties, lipid-based varieties, and varieties combining lip-
ids, proteins, and polysaccharides (Falguera et al. 2011; Miller and Krochta 1997).
The main purpose of edible films and coatings is to increase the shelf life of the food
4 Fruit Peel–Based Edible Coatings/Films 65

products they are applied to and to act as strong, protective barriers against moisture
migration, texture loss, respiration, oxidation, contamination, and pathogens
(Maqbool et al. 2010; Song et al. 2011).
Furthermore, compared with conventional artificial films, they have a high selec-
tive gas permeability ratio (CO2–O2 ratio) and are excellent fat and oil barriers.
Additionally, they can enhance the structural stability of the food by operating as
carriers for food additives such as antioxidants (Song et al. 2011) and/or antibacte-
rial agents (Maqbool et al. 2010). In some applications, the excellent mechanical
and physical properties of standalone edible films might replace the use of synthetic
packaging.

4.5 Protein-Based Edible Materials

Proteins are covalently bonded through peptides and in this way form the subunits
of natural polymers (Hanani et al. 2014). Protein materials are made from combina-
tions of protein components, such as gelatin/pectin, collagen, whey, gluten, starch,
and keratin (Khalid et al. 2018; Moreira et al. 2011; Pardo-Ibáñez et al. 2014; Ramos
et al. 2016). The main properties of protein confer physical stability to a structure.
But it has weak tensile strength and puncture strength. Also, preventing the diffu-
sion of moisture, O2, and CO2 is sometimes difficult. Such diffusion depends mainly
on the composition of proteins and factors such as molecular weight, lipophilicity,
hydrophobicity, permeability, cross-linkages, isoelectric points, and interactions
between amino acid groups and carboxyl groups (Coltelli et al. 2015).

4.5.1 Gelatin

Gelatin is the only lignocellulosic material that produces a thermoreversible sub-

stance with a melting point close to room temperature. It is especially significant in
the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and food industries. Collagen, a fibrous insoluble
protein that makes up the majority of the skin, bones, and connective tissues of
animals, is hydrolysed under controlled conditions to produce gelatin. The amino
acids in gelatin are organised in a specific manner. Gelatin is distinguished by its
high concentrations of amino acids, glycine, proline, and hydroxyproline. Moreover,
gelatin has a combination of single- and double-unfolded strands, which confer
hydrophilicity (Ross-Murphy 1992). It is used as a gelling agent and a foaming
agent in the food industry. The main sources of gelatin and pectin are apples, pine-
apples, citrus fruits, guavas, carrageenan, agar, guar gums, konnyaku (konjac), and
animals like fish. Gelatin has good mechanical strength, protective properties, and
low wettability. The lack of a sufficient vapour barrier in gelatinous films, like most
protein films, restricts their use as edible coatings and composites. Using
66 V. Loganathan et al.

cross-­linking polymer molecules to alter the nanocomposition of protein films can

make these films more effective.

4.5.2 Collagen

Collagen is a major protein component of plant and animal connective tissues.

Almost 80% of the protein in animal tissues is composed of several varieties of col-
lagen. A substantial proportion of these varieties contains a triple-helix structure,
though each type has a distinct composition of amino acids. Type I collagen is a
prominent cellular membrane thanks to its biological features and availability for
production. Many structures are produced with collagen, such as sponges, films,
and membranes (Sisken et al. 1993). It acts as a strong barrier against O2 and CO2
thanks to its polar nature. Collagen is insoluble in water, but decreasing its pH
increases its solubility. It can be used to protect citrus fruits by applying a layer on
the surface of fruits, thereby reducing the transfer of gases between fruit and
environment.

4.5.3 Starch

To make sustainable films that are clear or translucent, colourless, and unflavoured,
starch, a natural polysaccharide, is used as the major ingredient (Skurtys et al.
2015). Starch granules are typically hydrophilic and semicrystalline. The granules
absorb water molecules in their nearby environment thanks to the free hydroxyl
groups in the subunits of starch, which results in swelling that lasts until a threshold
level has been reached. The minimum quantity of starch has to be present for the
swelled granules to fill a given volume at 95 °C, and the starch turns into a gel upon
cooling (Pelissari et al. 2019). A fruit peel contains large amounts of cellulose,
sugar, and starch. It is insoluble in water, but starch can become somewhat soluble
under heat. The gelatinisation of starch depends on the type of starch molecule,
heating temperature, and level of water content. Heating starch with a low concen-
tration of fruit peel changes the concentrations of its contents in a way that increases
its water-vapour permeability. Films and coatings made from the peels of starches
have been shown to be odourless, transparent, and tasteless and to confer gas-barrier
properties, structural stability, hydrophilicity, antimicrobial properties, oxidation
properties, and protection against vitamin and mineral losses. Modified starch is
also used to fortify rice with vitamins and minerals to increase its nutrition and
market value.
4 Fruit Peel–Based Edible Coatings/Films 67

4.6 Polysaccharide-Based Edible Materials

Polysaccharides are carbohydrate macromolecules containing two or more mono-

saccharides (Saberi et al. 2016). These monosaccharides connect via glycosidic
linkages. The glycosidic linkages of monosaccharides determine the physical prop-
erties of the polysaccharides that they form. The cellulose, starch derivatives, pectin
derivatives, carrageenan, agar, alginate, acacia, guar, microbial fermentation gums,
pullulan, and chitosan in polysaccharides are utilised in edible films or coatings
(González et al. 2011). These are available in the form of stabilisers, gelling agents,
binding agents, and thickening agents. Polysaccharides have various functions:
They confer low permeability to oxygen, partial permeability to CO2, and protection
against moisture loss and water transmission.

4.6.1 Pectin

In many vegetables and fruits, the central layer is typically an abundant collection
of high-molecular-weight polysaccharides called pectin. Pectin can be obtained
from the cell walls of fruits and vegetables and is extracted mainly from citrus peels
and apple pomaces. Pectin may be isolated from plant cell walls and is a component
of plant fibre (Valdés et al. 2015). The carboxyls in uronic acid are either completely
(high-methoxy pectin) or substantially (low-methoxy pectin) methyl-esterified,
generating a complex polysaccharide residue of 1,4-linked D-galacturonic acid
(Antoniou et al. 2015; Chen et al. 2020). Pectin is soluble in water with anionic link-
ages and is cross-linked with polyvalent cations. It is classified into two types on the
basis of its level of methylation. High-methoxy pectin exhibits more than 50%
methylation, whereas low-methoxy pectin exhibits less than 50% methylation
(Coffin and Fishman 1994); in other words, when more than 50% of the carboxyl
groups in pectins are methylated, they are called high-methoxy pectins, whereas
when less than 50% of the carboxyl groups in pectins are methylated, they are called
low-methoxy pectins. Pectin-based films and their derivatives confer numerous ben-
efits, such as mechanical strength and good barriers against water, oil, and oxygen,
but they have poor moisture properties (Al-Tayyar et al. 2020). Pectin is used as a
coating material on citrus fruits, raspberries, apricots, yoghurts, ice creams, and
jams. In addition, pectin can act as a stabilising agent, a thickening agent, a gelling
agent, and a plasticising agent (Jahromi et al. 2020).
68 V. Loganathan et al.

4.6.2 Cellulose and Its Derivatives

The most abundant organic molecule in nature is cellulose, which also seems to be
the most widely used polymer. In plants and their tissues, it acts as the main struc-
tural component. The naturally occurring long-chain monomer called cellulose has
a positively significant impact on the human food chain. The pharmaceutical and
cosmetic industries make considerable usage of cellulose’s mainly semisynthetic
polymers. Cellulose derivatives come in two primary classes: cellulose ethers and
cellulose esters, each of which has a unique physicochemical composition and
unique mechanical behaviours (Krässig 1996). More important in the pharmaceuti-
cal industry are organic cellulose esters. For example, cellulose acetate (CA), cel-
lulose acetate phthalate (CAP), cellulose acetate butyrate (CAB), cellulose acetate
trimelitate (CAT), hydroxypropyl methylcellulose phthalate (HPMCP), and others
are utilised in commercial products or pharmacological studies (Heinämäki et al.
1994; Lecomte et al. 2003; Liu and Williams III 2002).

4.6.3 Chitosan

Chitosan is a consumable material that is synthesised from chitin. The shells of

crabs, for example, are composed mostly of chitin. According to Shahidi et al.
(1999), chitosan is the most widely utilised natural, nontoxic substance in the devel-
opment of edible films. Chitosan has excellent characteristics alone—without add-
ing any compounds or inhibitors—such as a high O2 barrier, CO2 permeability, and
antimicrobial activity against pathogens. Outstanding mechanical properties have
also been observed in chitosan. Chitosan has an exceptionally high viscosity that is
comparable to that of natural adhesives. Fruits and vegetables have longer shelf
lives thanks to translucent or invisible chitosan coatings. Its surface is typically
smooth, sparkly, cohesive, and free of surface fractures (Ribeiro et al. 2007).

4.7 Lipid-Based Edible Materials

For decades now, edible films derived from lipids have been used to prolong the
shelf life of vegetables and fruits. They give food a glossy appearance. Lipids are
derived from plants such as herbs and are composed of paraffins, glycerides, resins,
waxes, and fatty acids (Debeaufort et al. 1998). The functional groups in lipids
include phospholipids, glycerides, monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides,
fatty alcohols, and phosphatides (Morillon et al. 2002). Lipids have both hydropho-
bic properties and hydrophilic properties, acting as excellent barriers against water
and oils (Galus and Kadzińska 2015). Lipids reduce the rate of oxidation, gas trans-
portation, and anaerobic respiration (Robertson 2009). Finally, lipid-based films
4 Fruit Peel–Based Edible Coatings/Films 69

improve product quality, flavour, ripening, and structural stability. Applying lipids
to food surfaces coats them with a strong barrier because of their high level of adhe-
sion when mixed with emulsions like emulsified proteins and dual-coating
emulsions.

4.8 Characterizations of Edible Coatings/Films

Improving the structural properties of food can improve its overall quality. Various
methods are available for analysing the structural properties of coatings and films.
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) (Keshani-Dokht et al. 2018),
nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy (Pawar and Jadhav 2015), confo-
cal laser scanning microscopy (CSLM) (Pawar and Jadhav 2015), scanning electron
microscopy (SEM) (Shiku et al. 2003), and atomic force microscopy (AFM) are
used for analysing the physicochemical properties of molecules and the internal and
external structures of materials.
Coatings and films have and confer properties such as mechanical strength, bar-
riers against pathogens, thermal properties, colours, and sensory and textural prop-
erties. The rheological properties of coating materials can be assessed by using a
compact modular rheometer during oscillatory tests. The moisture content of coat-
ings has been analysed via gravimetric methods and the thickness has been mea-
sured with a Fowler micrometer (with an accuracy value of 0.0001 mm). Water
activity (aw) tests have been carried out with a water-activity meter (Zhang and Han
2006). Colour is one of the main properties of any food material, determining the
product’s transparency and appearance. The colour of films has been measured by
using a colorimeter and an ultraviolet-visible (UV-vis) spectrophotometer with
parameters L* (lightness), a* (red/green), and b* (yellow/blue) (Rhim et al. 1999).
The mechanical properties of edible films include tensile strength, breakability,
elasticity, and toughness. Tensile properties can be assessed via the standard method
that measures the relationship between stress and strain during stretching. Tensile
strength is the maximum force that a material can withstand during stretching. The
film-puncture test has been calculated by using an analyser. Finally, toughness is a
material’s capacity to absorb energy while deforming without fracturing (Sánchez
Aldana et al. 2015).

4.9 Conclusion

Coating materials come with many advantages, but also many limitations, such as
weak tensile strength, weak puncture strength, fragility, weak moisture barriers, and
weak oxygen barriers. The number and the degree of these drawbacks depend on the
material’s components. The polysaccharide based edible films and coatings are
hydrophilic in nature and have very poor moisture prevention properties. The lipid
70 V. Loganathan et al.

based coating materials give positive influence on food products. The outstanding
properties and performance levels of edible films and coatings have improved the
products of the food industry. Research in this area has recently improved, but sev-
eral problems remain unsolved in food packaging, particularly processing compli-
cations. The latest approach to packaging food in the packaging sector applies
edible films via edible-film technology, which minimises food waste. The sub-
stances used to develop these films, whether they are organic or synthetic, are edi-
ble. Carbohydrate, protein, lipid, paraffin, and oil constitute the majority of their
structural elements, and they all form effectively. Edible films are made from natu-
ral edible ingredients and are quickly replacing synthetic packaging materials
because the former are safe to consume. However, several problems still need to be
solved to expand the commercial value of using edible films and coatings.

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Chapter 5
Bioenzymes from Wastes to Value-Added
Products

Gamachis Korsa, Chandran Masi, Digafe Alemu, Abera Beyene,

and Abate Ayele

Abstract Bioenzymes are defined as garbage enzymes or fruit enzymes that are
natural, multi-purpose cleaners made from waste or vegetable/fruit peels (often cit-
rus). Bioenzymes contribute to reducing some waste and transforming it into a
material that is affordable, readily available, and has a wide range of potential uses
for society at large. The location of biomass waste, with a focus on various waste
items in different areas, is highlighted for consumption technologies aimed at pro-
ducing enzymes for value-added products.. Innovations in the bioenzyme industry
are introducing a portfolio of sustainable and eco-efficient enzyme products to com-
pete in a market currently dominated by valuable-based products, and therefore, this
has become a subject of intensive exploration. Due to its nutrient-rich and organic
composition, ideally agricultural, industrial, and food waste can be consumed as a
useful resource for the production of enzymes through various fermentation pro-
cesses. Such conversion of each waste is potentially more profitable than its conver-

G. Korsa · D. Alemu · A. Ayele

Department of Biotechnology, Addis Ababa Sciences and Technology University,
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Center of Excellence for Biotechnology and Bioprocess, Addis Ababa Science and
Technology University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
C. Masi (*)
Department of Biotechnology, Addis Ababa Sciences and Technology University,
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Center of Excellence for Biotechnology and Bioprocess, Addis Ababa Science and
Technology University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Department of Food Technology, Dhanalakshmi Srinivasan Engineering college
(Autonomous), Perambalur, India
e-mail: biochandran@gmail.com.in
A. Beyene
Department of Industrial Chemistry, Addis Ababa Sciences and Technology University,
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Center of Excellence for Nanotechnology, Addis Ababa Science and Technology University,
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 75

E. Cherian, B. Gurunathan (eds.), Value Added Products From Food Waste,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48143-7_5
76 G. Korsa et al.

sion to plants, animal feed, soils, health, and fuel for transportation environments.
As a result, multiple approaches for generating energy from wastes are being
explored worldwide. The potential for advanced forms and improvements to trans-
form complicated, natural-rich biomass waste into a variety of bioenzymes and bio-
products with an advanced circular low-cost has been demonstrated in this paper.

Keywords Bioenzyme · Enzyme · Fruit · Waste · Vegetable waste

Abbreviations

AChE Acetylcholinesterase
CAT Catalase
CFU Colon forming unit
DM Dry mass
EE Ecoenzyme
E-Pt Pt nanoparticles
FW Food waste
GA Glucoamylase
LCA Life cycle assessment
LCC Life cycle cost
MSW Municipal solid waste
OFMSW Organic fraction municipal solid waste (OFMSW)
ProK Proteinase K enzymes
Pt Platinum
SDG Sustainable Development Goal
SmF Sub-merged fermentation
SSF Solid-state fermentation

5.1 Introduction

The majority of waste generated in the agriculture and food industries is high in
proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids, which provide a breeding ground for a wide
range of microorganisms (Gaur et al. 2020; O’Connor et al. 2021). Food waste will
continue to gain market share in the creation of high-value items in the future. Bio-­
based chemicals are expected to account for 15% of the global chemical market by
2025 (Van Dorst et al. 2019; Sharma et al. 2020; Mamo et al. 2021). Household or
municipal trash is typically created from a variety of sources as a result of various
human activities. Fruit waste peels, pomace, and seed fractions are suitable feed
stocks for recovering bioactive substances such as phenolics, pectin, lipids, dietary
fibers, and so on. Only recently has the extraction of active compounds from waste
moved closer to environmental certifications and LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) and
5 Bioenzymes from Wastes to Value-Added Products 77

LCC (Life Cycle Cost) studies, which are likewise geared toward environmental
product certifications (Shaddel et al. 2019; Lucarini et al. 2021). According to the
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), global corn production exceeded 1 bil-
lion tons in 2019. Food Waste Explorer contains 27,069 data points from various
sources, including scientific peer-reviewed papers, manufacturer data, and other
data sources, covering 587 nutrients, 698 bioactives, and 49 toxicants (Suri
et al. 2022).
Organic fraction municipal solid waste (OFMSW) is one of many anthropogenic
biomass residues that are widely available. Through various thermo-chemical and
bio-chemical conversion pathways, several alternative energies (biogas, electricity,
and heat) and material products (renewable diesel, fertilizer, bio-oil) can be derived
from wastes and biomass residues that are currently at various stages of economic
and technical maturity (Liu and Rajagopal 2019; Kumar et al. 2020a; Salah
et al. 2021).
Over 120 companies are known to manufacture industrial enzymes worldwide,
with more than 80% of the companies holding up to 90% of the market in Europe
and North America and none in Africa (Fernandes et al. 2022; Streimikyte et al.
2022). East Africa has a diverse microbial population that could provide new
enzymes for industrial use (Arun and Sivashanmugam 2015; Singla et al. 2019).
Researchers are working to increase the productivity of food items, particularly
fruits, vegetables, and cereals, to fulfill the need as the world’s population grows.
For example, India is the world’s second-largest producer of fruits and vegetables,
contributing for 10% and 14% of worldwide production, respectively (panda et al.
2016; Bharathiraja et al. 2017; Di Donna et al. 2020).
Ecoenzymes are derived from fruit and vegetable fermentation, which can also
be coupled with vegetables, non-chlorinated water, and molasses, and contain anti-
microbial/pathogenic protease, amylase, and lipase enzymes. Ecoenzyme can also
regulate both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria (Agarwal and Kaur 2014;
Arun and Sivashanmugam 2015; Rasit et al. 2019; Yong et al. 2021). Environmental
pollution has become a serious problem in the age of globalization as the world’s
population has grown (Aktamovich and Mirzayevich 2022; Erdoğan et al. 2022). To
meet the need, more food resources, particularly fruits, vegetables, and cereals, are
produced. The global production of fruits and vegetables is expanding, yet roughly
30–40% of the overall production is discarded as waste due to a variety of factors
(Pandey et al. 2020; Srivastava et al. 2021). Sustainable Development Goal (SDG)
12 advocates for sustainable consumption and production patterns. One of the goals
is to reduce food waste and losses by half by 2030. According to the Food Wastes
Index 2021 study (UNEP, 2021), worldwide food waste totaled 931 million tons in
2019, with the majority of the waste coming from households (61%), food service
(26%), and retail (13%) (Birwal et al. 2017; Yong et al. 2021).
According to a study by Capanoglu et al. (2022), the production of solid trash has
recently increased. This includes waste from agriculture, industry, households, and
animals as well as waste from the home. Waste valorization using biotechnological
methods is evolving into a sustainable, environmentally friendly method of han-
dling this issue in the face of these challenges. Natural resources are under a lot of
78 G. Korsa et al.

stress, as reported by Zhu et al. (2023), because of imbalances in the rise of the
human population and the quickening urbanization process. Particularly, there is a
large increase in trash. The United Nations has forecast that the worldwide demand
for food might rise by 70%, with the majority of this growth occurring in developing
nations. By 2050, the current global population of 8 billion people might reach a
maximum of 9.7 billion (Yong et al. 2020; Li Y et al. 2020a).

5.2 Sources of Bioenzymes from Wastes

Agricultural, domestic, and industrial wastes as well as food preparation waste are
all sources of waste, as given in Table 5.1 (Awasthi et al. 2022; Chilakamarry et al.
2022; Karić et al. 2022).

Table 5.1 Some sources of bioenzymes from different areas

Bioenzymes from different
S.No. substrates Enzyme products Reference
1 Oil palm empty fruit bunch Cellulase Kim et al. (2014)
wastes
2 Agro-industrial products Cellulase Ortiz et al. (2015)
3 Agricultural wastes Cellulase Saratale et al. (2014)
4 Fruit wastes Cellulase Ferraz et al. (2018)
5 Waste date palm seeds Cellulase Swathy et al. (2020)
6 Citrus wastes Cellulase O’Shea et al. (2015)
7 Fruit wastes Cellulase Esparza et al. (2020)
8 Agriculture waste Cellulase Chaudhary and Padhiar
(2020)
9 Fruit wastes Cellulase Srivastava et al. (2021)
10 Agriculture waste Cellulase Biswal and Mandavgane
(2021)
11 Municipal solid waste (MSW) Cellulase Zhao et al. (2011)
12 Green tea waste Laccase Sermyagina et al. (2021)
13 Agro wastes Laccase Dave et al. (2021)
14 Agricultural wastes Laccase Liu et al. (2011)
15 Black gram residue Laccase Kumar et al. (2016)
16 Kitchen waste biomass Laccase Janveja et al. (2014)
17 Saw dust wastes Laccase Daâssi et al. (2016)
18 Corn cob Laccase Nuhu et al. (2020)
19 Wheat straw Laccase Birhanli and Yeşilada (2013)
20 Orange peel Invertase Nehad and Atalla (2020)
21 Molasses and sugar cane Invertase Veana et al. (2014)
bagasse
22 Garbage and citrus wastes Invertase Nazim and Meera (2017)
(continued)
5 Bioenzymes from Wastes to Value-Added Products 79

Table 5.1 (continued)

Bioenzymes from different
S.No. substrates Enzyme products Reference
23 Fruit and vegetable wastes Invertase Rasit and Mohammad (2018)
24 Fruit and vegetable wastes Invertase Galintin et al. (2021)
25 Poultry droppings Invertase Hauwa and Ahmed (2019)
26 Red sword bean Invertase Zhou et al. (2019)
27 Fruit and vegetable wastes Invertase Das and Mondal (2013)
28 Ragi husk Xylanase Manasa et al. (2020)
29 Rice straw Xylanase Kumar et al. (2017b)
30 Rice bran L-Asparaginase Prabhu and Jayadeep (2017)
31 Agro wastes L-Asparaginase Xie et al. (2022)
32 Cow dung Xylanase Vijayaraghavan et al. (2014)
33 Waste paper recycling Cellulase and xylanase Pathak et al. (2014)
34 Palm kernel cake Mannanase Chen et al. (2022)
35 Lignocellusic agro waste Mannanase Ja’afar and Shitu (2022)
36 Coffee grounds and tea waste Mannanase Pangsri and Pangsri (2017)
37 Coffee industry wastes Mannanase Favaro et al. (2020)
38 Açaí seed Mannanase Lima et al. (2021)
39 Agro waste Pectinase Thangaratham and
Manimegalai (2014)
40 Gut waste of sardines Alkaline protease Ramkumar et al. (2018)
41 Agricultural wastes Protease De Castro et al. (2014)
42 Tannery solid waste Alkaline protease Ravindran et al. (2011)
43 Food waste Protease Escaramboni et al. (2022)
44 Grass carp scale waste Protease Li et al. (2022)
45 Fish waste-derive waste Protease Akyüz A and Ersus S (2021)
46 Wheat bran waste Protease Espoui et al. (2022)
47 Agroindustrial wastes Protease De Castro et al. (2014)
48 Soy fiber residue waste Protease Abraham et al. (2013)
49 Shrimp waste Protease Gaonkar and Furtado (2021)
50 Orange peel waste Protease Chimbekujwo et al. (2020)
51 Fruit and vegetable waste Amylase Chakraborty and Mohan
(2019)
52 Vegetable, grape tomato Amylase Kumar et al. (2017a)
pomace and waste
53 Citrus fruit peels waste Amylase Srimathi et al. (2020)
54 Meat industry waste Amylase Chen et al. (2020)
55 Marigold flower wastes Amylase Liu et al. (2020)
56 Tomato pomace Amylase Kumar et al. (2017a)
57 Soy and bread waste Amylase Cerda et al. (2016)
58 Sago industrial waste Amylase Melnichuk et al. (2020)
59 Kitchen waste or organic waste Amylase Mojumdar and Deka (2019)
60 Kitchen waste or organic waste Amylase Bhatt et al. (2020)
61 Domestic food waste Glucoamylase Kiran et al. (2014)
(continued)
80 G. Korsa et al.

Table 5.1 (continued)

Bioenzymes from different
S.No. substrates Enzyme products Reference
62 Agricultural wastes Alpha-amylase Afrisham et al. (2016)
63 Cassava bagasse Alpha-amylase Sivamani and Baskar (2018)
64 Agro-industrial waste Amylase Saxena and Singh (2011)
65 Bread pieces waste Glucoamylase Melikoglu et al. (2015)
66 Tomato skin and pomace Pectinase Sengar et al. (2020)
67 Citrus and bagasse waste Pectinase Biz et al. (2016)
68 Sawdust waste Pectinase Sethi et al. (2016)
69 Pomelo peel waste Pectinase Jalil and Ibrahim (2021)
70 Organic solid waste Lipase Selvakumar and
Sivashanmugam (2017)
71 Corn oil Lipase Coradi et al. (2020)
72 Malt bagasse waste Lipase Eichler et al. (2020)
73 Organic solid waste Lipase Selvakumar, P., &
Sivashanmugam (2019)
74 Vegetable oil-refining wastes Lipase Santis-Navarro et al. (2011)
75 Waste from castor bean waste Lipase Herculano et al. (2016)
76 Garbage and citrus wastes Lipase Nazim and Meera (2017)
77 Sweet potato leaves waste Lipase Mesa et al. (2020)
78 Soybean meal waste Lipase Mesa et al. (2020)
79 Tobacco waste Lipase Banoˇzi’c et al. (2019)
80 Durian leaf waste Lipase Kam et al. (2020)
81 Kitchen waste Lipase Bolzonella et al. (2018)
82 Coffee waste Lipase Battista et al. (2016)
83 Fruit and vegetable wastes Lipase Li et al. (2013)
84 Persian lemon Lipase Medina-Torres et al. (2019)
85 Fruit and vegetable wastes Amylase, protease, and Neupane and Khadka (2019)
lipase
86 Organic waste Amylase, cellulase, and Gopinath et al. (2014)
lipase
87 Animal food carcass wastes Bio-organic fertilizer Liu et al. (2016)
88 Tomato and orange residues Protease, amylase, and Rasit et al. (2019)
lipase

Recycling wastes provides a number of benefits, including reducing garbage dis-

posal, saving natural resources, particularly nonrenewable ones like petroleum,
lowering the amount of energy necessary to make new things, and reducing pollu-
tion (Sharma et al. 2021).
For example, every year, 1.3 billion ton of food is thrown away globally, account-
ing for 28% of all agricultural land. The amount of gray water produced is deter-
mined by the amount of water available and local practices. This includes factors
such as whether activities like personal and clothes washing occur at home or at the
water source (Nazim and Meera 2017; Sharma et al. 2020).
5 Bioenzymes from Wastes to Value-Added Products 81

5.3 Production Mechanisms of Wastes for Bioenzymes

(Fig. 5.1)

Solid state fermentation (SSF) refers to any biotechnological process in which

organisms grow on non-soluble materials or solid substrates in the absence or near
absence of free water (Masaphy et al. 2022; Meftahi et al. 2022; Yafetto 2022). The
best and most effective pretreatments for biowastes are those that do not require
particle size reduction, preserve the pentose (hemicellulose) fraction, avoid the for-
mation of possible inhibitors of hydrolytic enzymes and fermenting microorgan-
isms, use minimal energy, have low operating costs (operating costs, capital costs,
and biomass costs), use little or no chemicals, and use cheap chemicals (Castro and
Sato 2013; Gunam et al. 2019). For maximum production, batch, fed-batch, and
continuous fermentation modes can be selected. During fermentation processes,
fed-batch and continuous modes can overcome substrate limitations. Cell immobi-
lization can also boost productivity by increasing the biomass content in the biore-
actor, resulting in a higher concentration of bioprocesses in the reactor (Fig. 5.1)
(Naiket al. 2020; Galintin et al. 2021; Ding et al. 2022). By conversion of biomass
to biological products and biofuels, such as agriculture and cattle waste, food waste,
kitchen waste, green waste, seaweed, algae, sewage sludge, agro-industries, forestry
residues, and other organic industrial waste, fermentation, as shown in Fig. 5.2,
provides a sustainable way to manage degradable biowaste (Agarwal and Kaur
2014; Sodhi, P. S., & Ocean, Y. K. 2018; Jain et al. 2022; Prabhu et al. 2022).

Fig. 5.1 The production mechanisms of bioenzyme (Dinget al. 2022; Karimi et al. 2022)
82 G. Korsa et al.

Fig. 5.2 Different applications of bioenzymes (Sivakumar et al. 2022)

Higher moisture content is required for the maturation of microscopic microor-

ganisms, resulting in a reduced output (Bolte et al. 2022; Fan et al. 2022; Negi et al.
2022). The steps of SSF are as follows: substrate pretreatment entails increasing the
mechanical or biological binding of polymeric substrates, such as polysaccharides
and proteins, in order to minimize the size of the components. It is crucial to note
that the composition, chemical nature, mechanical properties, particle size (includ-
ing inter and ­intra-­particle gaps), water retention capacity, and surface area of the
substrates employed in SSF vary considerably (Hong et al. 2019; Shi et al. 2020).
Given that enzymes boost the extraction yield of secondary metabolites due to their
release from complicated substrates, they are used as part of a pretreatment in a
SmF as a downstream process (Verduzco-Oliva and Gutierrez-­Uribe 2020; López-
Gómez and Venus 2021). The cultivation of microorganisms in liquid nutrient broth
is known as submerged fermentation. This method can be used to make industrial
enzymes (Gupta et al. 2022; Lübeck and Lübeck 2022; Mitri et al. 2022). This
entails culturing carefully selected microorganisms in controlled vessels with a
nutrient-rich broth (fermentation medium) and a high oxygen content.
Microorganisms release the desired enzymes into the solution while they break
down the nutrients (Castro and Sato 2014; Yankey et al. 2022). Amylases, proteases,
lipases, pectinases, and other enzymes that accelerate biological reactions are
widely used in both domestic and industrial applications, as illustrated in Table 5.2.
 5

Table 5.2 The raw materials for bioenzyme production mechanisms and optimization
Optimization
Enzyme
Raw materials Mechanisms Strain Temp pH Conc. Dosage Time Reference
Laboratory-cultured Precipitation and – – – 5.4 U/mL Ratio of 2 hrs. Jung et al. (2002)
activated sludge re-suspension 1:1
Agro-industrial Solid-state fermentation Penicillium restrictor – – 0.1% w/v 1200 mg/L – Damasceno et al. (2008)
wastes
Fruit peel waste Fermentation 35 °C 7 – – 60 hrs. Arun and
Sivashanmugam (2015)
Pulp and paper Anaerobic digestion Bacillus licheniformis – – – – – Bonilla et al. (2018)
biosludge
– – – 55 ± 2 °C – 30 mg/g 7.5 μg/L 360 hrs. Zhou et al. (2018)
Organic waste (fruit AF and ASP – 35 °C – 56.5 U/m – 16 hrs. Selvakumar and
peels) Sivashanmugam (2019)
Hair waste Fermentation, – – – 7556– – 24 hrs Abu Yazid et al. (2016)
Bioenzymes from Wastes to Value-Added Products

ultrafiltration, and 9373 U/cm2

lyophilization
– – Bacillus licheniformis 40 °C – 7 mg/mL – 1 hr El Hadj-Ali et al. (2007)
Flower waste – – – – 10 to 15% – 120 hrs. Kumar et al. (2020a)
Fruit and vegetable – – – 6–8 10% – 240 hrs. Chakraborty and Mohan
waste (2019)
Citrus fruit peel Agar well diffusion E. Coli, 37 °C 3.6 15% – 24 hrs. Srimathi et al. (2020)
method Pseudomonas
aeruginosa
– – – –
AF Anaerobic Fermentation, ASP Ammonium Sulfate Precipitation, °C Celsius, U/g unit per gram, U/mg unit per milligram, U/ml/min unit per milliliter per
minute, U/cm2 unit per centimeter square, Hr hours, SSF Solid State Fermentation, SF Submerged State Fermentation
83
84 G. Korsa et al.

These hydrolytic enzymes, also known as bioenzyme or garbage enzymes, can be

easily prepared at home from vegetable and fruit whey (Kanwar et al. 2012; Liu and
Smith 2021; Raheem et al. 2020). Bioenzyme has recently attracted considerable
attention as the most cost-effective and environmentally friendly alternative, as
given in Table 5.2. Bioenzyme, also known as garbage enzyme or fruit enzyme, is a
multi-purpose, natural cleaner made from wastes such as citrus peels or a mixture of
complex organic substances such as proteins, salts, and other materials that are nat-
urally occurring byproducts of the bacteria/yeast that will be used to make the bio-
enzyme (Agarwal and Kaur 2014; Raheem et al. 2020; Aartheeswari and
Kirthiga 2021).

5.4 Application of Bioenzymes for Different Purposes

One of the most important needs of food science and technology to achieve Global
Sustainability Goals is the introduction of different bioprocesses, such as enzymatic
and microbiological exploitation of food waste to ensure safe food production
(Singhania et al. 2021; Wohlgemuth et al. 2021; Torres - Lenon et al. 2021; Melendez
et al. 2022). The selection of an appropriate substrate has an impact on the success
of enzyme synthesis for various applications (Lillford and Hermansson 2021;
Wiltschi et al. 2020; Mamimin et al. 2021; Sharma et al. 2021).

5.4.1 Bio Adsorbent

Adsorption is a prominent and cost-effective approach for eliminating a variety of

contaminants. In terms of initial cost, elasticity and simplicity of layout, ease of
operation, and insensitivity to harmful contaminants, adsorption has been demon-
strated to be superior to alternative strategies for water reuse, as shown in Fig. 5.2
(Sirajudheen et al. 2021; Solanki et al. 2022). Activated carbon is the most promi-
nent and commonly exploited adsorbent material for the treatment of many pollut-
ants, particularly organic pollutants (Jamil et al. 2020; Li Z et al. 2020b).
The synergetic effect produced from using rich bio-waste as a substrate for bio-
logical treatment is a promising protocol for environmental health and pollution
reduction, as well as the development of green, environmentally friendly activated
materials for dye adsorption (Abdelraof et al. 2019; Hasanin et al. 2020; Youssef
et al. 2019). As a result, improving the binding and adsorption efficiency of pectin-­
derived or other polymer bio adsorbents through enzymatic or chemical modifica-
tion of pectin structure is advantageous (Li and Buschle-Diller 2017; Luo et al.
2020; Panwar et al. 2021).
5 Bioenzymes from Wastes to Value-Added Products 85

5.4.2 Biosurfactant Production

Biosurfactants (e.g., rhamnolipids, surfactin, sophorolipids, and peptidolipids) are

produced as secondary metabolites by fungi, yeasts, and bacteria during their
growth, as given in Fig. 5.2 (Nadaf et al. 2021; Banerjee et al. 2022). Pleurotus
djamor has been known to produce biosurfactants (surfactin and rhamnolipids) on
sunflower seed shells as substrates supplemented with sunflower seed oil as a car-
bon source underneath the SSF (Jimenez-Penalver et al. 2016; Velioglu, Z., & Urek,
R. O. (2016).
Biosurfactant production has received a lot of attention in recent years because
of its environmentally beneficial characteristics, such as low toxicity, high effi-
ciency, and high biodegradability, as compared to chemical surfactant synthesis,
which is mostly based on petroleum (Jimémenz-Peñalver et al. 2019; Domínguez
Rivera et al. 2019). The yield of biosurfactant is related to the decomposition of
hydrocarbons, as the cell retains the biosurfactant and the outer cell surface reduces
the hydrophobic cell surface, enabling the alkanes to attach and be transferred to the
interior of the cells (Jimoh and Lin 2019; Lopez-Prieto et al. 2019). Microbial spe-
cies such as Rhodococcus, Pseudomonas, Bacillus, and Candida spp. produce a
variety of biosurfactants (Litvinenko et al. 2019; Cazals et al. 2020; Markande
et al. 2021).

5.4.3 Bioethanol and Biofuel Production

Bioconversion of organic solid wastes instead of food as a source of bioethanol

using solid-state fermentation (SSF) is appropriate and desirable for sustainability
and renewable energy production, as given in Fig. 5.2 (Chilakamarry et al. 2022;
Molina-Peñate et al. 2022; Khalid et al. 2022). In order to attain zero waste genera-
tion, the researchers suggested a fascinating integrated bioconversion of potato peel
by SSF for the production of bioethanol and manure employing yeast and fungus
(Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus variabilis, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae) (Liu et al.
2015; Song et al. 2019; John et al. 2020).
Municipal solid wastes, which can solve domestic garbage disposal and so limit
environmental concerns that may arise as a result of such problems, are a viable
choice for raw materials that have the potential for bioethanol production as an
alternative to agricultural cellulosic residues (Nikku et al. 2019; Alio et al. 2020;
Baramee et al. 2020). Continuous depletion of fossil-derived crude oil increases
environmental issues due to greenhouse gas emissions from conventional fuel burn-
ing and the disposal of food waste (FW) in landfills, illuminating the approach to
biofuel generation. Food waste biofuel production is the most promising, cost-
effective, and environmentally benign alternative to sustainable development and
circular bioeconomy (Li and Yang 2016; Kannah et al. 2020). Thermal approaches
86 G. Korsa et al.

have received a lot of attention in the previous few years for converting biomass into
biofuels, including bio-oil, biogas, and biochar (Qin et al. 2021; Ren et al. 2022).
Wet biomass conversion techniques such as hydrothermal carbonization (HTC)
are commonly used to convert food waste, municipal sludge, animal manures, and
water-containing waste feedstock into a solid product, termed hydrochar, with
improved calorific value, hydrophobicity, and homogeneity. Hydrochar appears to
be a good solid-fuel alternative with enormous potential (Huang et al. 2018; Paul &
Joshi 2022).
The ultimate quality of hydrochar is strongly influenced by the production
parameters (Karmee et al. 2015; Wang et al. 2018; Pal et al. 2019). Corn is being
used for a broad range of applications, from food to biofuels. Under optimal condi-
tions, co-culturing Aspergillus niger and Saccharomyces cerevisiae on potato peel
and mash wastes yields 6.18% v/v and 9.3% v/v of bioethanol, respectively, as a
step toward sustainable potato waste management and contributing to the circular
bioeconomy (Hosseinzadeh-Bandbafha et al. 2022; Narisetty et al. 2022).
After 72 h of incubation, E. aerogenes-mediated saccharification and fermenta-
tion of pineapple ethanol stillage yields 1.67%, or 1.42 g ethanol/g sugar, whereas
co-culturing of Enterobacter aerogenes and S. cerevisiae yields around 1.762 g
ethanol/g sugar from the same substrate and incubation period (Selvakumar and
Sivashanmugam 2019; Kumar et al. 2020b; Qureshi et al. 2020; Sharma et al. 2021).

5.4.4 Biopesticide Production

Citrus waste-based bio-fertilizers have good antibacterial qualities and eliminate

hazardous heavy metals from the soil due to their high pH and lignocellulose (Zema
et al. 2018; Inam et al. 2022; Suriet al. 2022). Chemical pesticides have long been
known to have serious health consequences as well as environmental consequences.
In recent years, the shift to biopesticides has become more attractive. Bacillus
thuringiensis is a typical biopesticide producer that produces a crystalline protein
called -endotoxin. Several investigations examined SSF and sub-merged fermenta-
tion (SmF) synthesis of -endotoxin by B. thuringiensis (Jisha & Benjamin, 2014;
Mejias et al. 2020; Sala et al. 2020).
The use of soy fabric residue as a substrate for the production of viable cells
(3.8 × 109 colony forming unit (CFU)/g dry mass (DM)) and spores (1.3 × 108
spores/g DM) of B. thuringiensis under non-sterile environments facilitated the
scale up to 10 L SSF reactors (9.5 × 107 CFU/g DM; 1.1 × 108 spores/g DM),
reduced production costs, and simplified waste management (Ballardo et al. 2016;
Mishra et al. 2016). Some nanomaterials possessing peroxidase or oxidase-like
catalytic properties have been investigated and employed in pesticide analysis, as
shown in Fig. 5.2. Despite the fact that the development of inorganic nanoenzymes
has made pesticide detection more sustainable and affordable, bioenzymes such as
acetylcholinesterase (AChE) are still required in these circumstances (Huang et al.
2019; Liu et al. 2020).
5 Bioenzymes from Wastes to Value-Added Products 87

Pesticide residue identification is important since it affects food and environmen-

tal safety. Although several sensors for pesticide analysis have been produced and
used, the majority of them rely on the usage of fragile bioenzymes, which decreases
the sensors’ advantages (Mahawar et al. 2020; Liu et al. 2021). Future studies will
need to replicate the study on bigger scales and field test the finished product’s pes-
ticide activity before it can be incorporated into the expanding global market for
biopesticides, which is supposed to hit USD 11,438.1 million in 2026 (Mahawar
et al. 2020; Molina-Penate et al. 2022).

5.4.5 Biofertilizer

Rose waste compost was made from a variety of rose waste, poultry manure, and
sawdust combinations (Mahapatra et al. 2022; Yadav et al. 2022). When combined
with fertilizer application, the compost significantly increased organic matter,
accessible potassium and phosphorus, nitrogen, and other micronutrients in the soil,
resulting in increased cut rose yield and quality. By substituting this recycled fertil-
izer (biofertilizer) for traditional synthetic fertilizers used in hydroponic cultivation,
it may be possible to achieve sustainable urban food production in proximity to
retailers and customers (Liu et al. 2016; Idrovo-Novillo et al. 2019).
Liquid organic fertilizers made from organic products produced from household
waste, such as vegetable and fruit waste, are known as ecoenzymes (EEs). EEs can
improve physical qualities, soil chemical and biological properties, and product
quality by adding organic matter (Rani et al. 2020; Novianto 2022).
Organic acid content plays an important role in correcting physical attributes,
soil chemicals, and microbes for plants. It acts as a soil amendment for soil, provid-
ing nutrients, substance, and growth regulatory metabolites for plants, as well as
protecting the roots from pests and diseases and stimulating the root system to grow
in an optimal way (O’Connor et al. 2021). In comparison to the use of mineral fertil-
izers, biofertilizers added to nutritional composition in tiny amounts for plants
shown are shown in Fig. 5.2. Organic fertilizer, on the other hand, must be applied
at frequent intervals and must be maintained continuously. Liquid organic fertilizer
created from domestic waste fermentation, such as leftover vegetables and fruits,
can be converted into material for producing liquid natural fertilizers in the form of
EE (Rasit et al. 2019; Novianto 2022).

5.4.6 Nanomedicines for Enhanced Cancer Therapy

Bioenzymes, which accelerate events inside living systems, have a lot of potential
for cancer therapy, especially when combined with nanoparticles to increase tumor
site accumulation (Liu et al. 2022). Nanomedicines can carry harmful bioenzyme
straight into cancer cells, causing them to die. This can be used to cure cancer.
88 G. Korsa et al.

Bioenzyme-based nanomedicine improves the therapeutic efficacy of treatments by

modifying the tumor microenvironment, such as pH, glucose concentration,
hypoxia, redox levels, and heat shock protein expression (Qin et al. 2021; Ding
et al. 2022). Because bioenzyme activity is easily affected by temperature, the pho-
tothermal effect induced by NIR light can be exploited to adjust the activity of bio-
enzyme nanomedicine for precision cancer treatment. Cheng’s team attempted to
encapsulate glucoamylase (GA), catalase (CAT), and proteinase K (ProK) enzymes
by using platinum (Pt) nanoparticles. This process resulted in the formation of
enzyme-embedded Pt nanoparticles (E-Pt) (Wang et al. 2017; Hu et al. 2021;
Mitchell et al. 2021).
Due to their non-cytotoxicity and biodegradability, biopolymers and their com-
posites have immense potential in the creation of biocompatible medical devices,
implants, and drug delivery carriers, as shown in Fig. 5.2. They replicate a body part
and can successfully replace a damaged organ or structure that is impairing normal
body functionality, such as a braided vascular prosthetic blood vessel and a PLA-­
based simulating ligament (Rebelo et al. 2017; O’Connor et al. 2022).
To make therapeutic soap, researchers used Citrus sinensis seed oil that had been
re-covered using the Soxhlet extraction process and saponified it with natural lye
solution in various proportions. The seed oil included 36% linoleic acid and 27%
oleic acid, according to the study. Citrus seed oil soap has remarkable antimicrobial,
antifungal, antiparasitic, and antioxidant characteristics (Mancini et al. 2018;
Atolani et al. 2020; Li et al. 2020a). Nanomedicines have been commonly used to
increase the effectiveness of cancer therapy, as demonstrated in Fig. 5.2.
Exemplifying enzymes in this nanoparticle improves their stability and circulation,
providing for high bioavailability and efficient tumor accumulation (Ke et al. 2019;
Zhang et al. 2020; Bahreyni et al. 2020; Liao et al. 2020).
Chito-oligosaccharides (COSs) are the partially hydrolyzed products of chitin,
which is abundant in the shells of crustaceans, the cuticles of insects, and the cell
walls of fungi. These oligosaccharides have received immense interest in the last
few decades due to their highly promising bioactivities, such as their antimicrobial,
antitumor, and anti-inflammatory properties (Liang & Han, 2020; Taokaew and
Kriangkrai 2023).

5.4.7 Bio Soil Stabilization

Many bioenzymes have recently been introduced to be cost-effective soil stabiliz-

ers. Terrazyme, a bioenzyme, was employed in this investigation to see how it
affected the Black Cotton soil’s unconfined compressive strength, as shown in
Fig. 5.2. With a longer curing period, Terrazyme-treated Black Cotton soil exhibits
a significant improvement in Unconfined Compressive strength (Agarwal and Kaur
2014). Soil stabilization is a strategy for improving the qualities of soil using alter-
native techniques such as chemical, biological, or mechanical means to transform
soil into a substance with acceptable attributes. The bearing capacity and shear
5 Bioenzymes from Wastes to Value-Added Products 89

strength of the stabilized soil have increased, whereas permeability and compress-
ibility have decreased (Rahayu & Situmeang. 2021; Heidemann et al. 2020).
The current period of ground improvement began in the 1960s and 1970s, when
generalized limitations of aggregates and fuel resources pushed engineers to inves-
tigate alternatives to the traditional method of replacing bad soils on construction
projects with shipped-in aggregates with better engineering properties. Modern
practices are characterized by recurrent endeavor to ensure adequate subgrade sta-
bility, particularly in weaker soils (Mekonnen et al. 2020; Fazal et al. 2021;
Mupambwa et al. 2022).

5.4.8 Biohydrogen

Biohydrogen biomass is divided into three generations: first, second, and third. The
first generation of biomass includes crops and starches with high sugar content,
such as potato, sweet sorghum, sugar beet, pumpkin, wheat, oily plants, and seeds,
as well as their wastes after treatment, that are grown for plants and animals. Acid
pretreatment breaks the polymeric linkages and increases cellulose availability and
biodegradability by converting hemicellulose into monomers (Yadav et al. 2020;
Zhang et al. 2020; Sampath et al. 2020). Mechanical comminution and irradiation
are two physical pretreatment techniques of biohydrogen production (Donkor et al.
2022; Nahak et al. 2022). Ozone does not leave out hazardous, acidic, or alkaline
residues in the treatment of resources, yet it is regarded as a powerful oxidizing
agent (Hitam and Jalil 2020).
The production of biohydrogen was also found to be 30% greater when only
food waste was used as a substrate, as shown in Fig. 5.2. When flowers were mixed
with sewage sludge, the investigations demonstrate increased microbial activity,
which accounted for the enhanced bio-hydrogen generation (Yang and Wang 2018;
Mohan et al. 2020; Sharma et al. 2021).

5.5 Future Prospective of Bioenzyme Products

Cost-effective solutions for the industrial synthesis of value-added compounds are

provided by the manufacturing of industrially significant enzymes from the abun-
dantly available agro-industrial food waste. The most recent advancements in bio-
catalytic systems aim to either improve the catalytic efficiency of existing
commercial enzymes or generate new enzymes with unique characteristics (Castro
et al. 2015; Sharma et al. 2022). The development of fermentation techniques in the
latter decades of the previous century, specifically intended for the manufacture of
enzymes, made it possible to produce enzymes as processed, well-characterized
preparations even on a large scale (Zhang et al. 2017; Muthusamy et al. 2022).
90 G. Korsa et al.

Microbial transformations based on biotechnology offer effective, affordable,

and sustainable methods for producing products with added value. Harnessing
organically abundant leftovers brings up new opportunities for the development of
enzymes, pigments, biofuels, bioactive substances, biopolymers, and other products
with extensive commercial and therapeutic uses. The use of cutting-edge technolo-
gies is possible, including strain improvement, enzyme immobilization, genome
editing, morphological engineering, ultrasound/supercritical fluid extraction, pulse
electric field extraction, etc. (Jeno et al. 2021; Sodhi et al. 2022).
Global population growth has significantly increased the need for sources of
food as well as the sectors that manufacture food, which routinely produce signifi-
cant volumes of food waste. Waste from the food processing industry includes
peels, seeds, straws, stalks, and other materials. Since ancient times, agro-industrial
waste has drawn a lot of attention from people all over the world since it is typically
burned or dumped, threatening both human health and the environment (Souza et al.
2022; Naik et al. 2023).
There are possible applications for waste materials obtained from coffee manu-
facturing, such as spent coffee grounds (SCGs) from post-consumption and coffee
leaves and blossoms from cultivation and processing, as well as coffee pulps, husks,
and silverskin. By creating an appropriate infrastructure and networks between
researchers, industries, and policymakers, it is possible to fully utilize these coffee
byproducts and reduce the environmental and financial burdens of processing coffee
in a sustainable way (Banožić et al. 2019; Lee et al. 2023).
Agro wastes are essential substrates that can be used to make enzymes at a mini-
mal cost as opposed to being dumped and left to naturally degrade. Additionally, it
has been determined that soil is a significant resource for microbial production of
significant products. Five bacteria species, including E. coli, B. subtilis, S. aureus,
E. faecalis, and P. aeroginosa, were isolated and biochemically characterized
(Hussain et al. 2023).
The production of millions of tons of leftovers by the fruit and vegetable sector
might result in significant financial losses. The wastes and byproducts from fruits
and vegetables are rich in bioactive compounds that have antioxidant, antibacterial,
and other effects. The development of biorefinery methods is crucial for the long-­
term synthesis of important chemicals. The byproducts and trash from fruits and
vegetables can be used to make biofuels, food bioactive chemicals, and other items
(Rasit and Kuan. 2018; Biundo et al. 2023; Zhu et al. 2023).

5.6 Conclusion

Bioenzyme production may be done with a variety of resources, and it is regarded

as one of the most sustainable resources on the planet. Food waste, agricultural
waste (bagasse, molasses, husks, seeds, stems, leaves, straw, tails, shells, mash,
stubble, strip, and roots), and some industrial waste have all played a significant role
in the industry and ecology. The best and most effective pretreatments are those that
5 Bioenzymes from Wastes to Value-Added Products 91

do not require particle size reduction, preserve biomass and fermenting microorgan-
isms, use the least amount of energy, have low operating costs (operating costs,
capital costs, and biomass costs), use little or no chemicals, and use inexpensive
chemicals. According to the findings of the study, a wide range of high-titer indus-
trial enzymes can be produced from a variety of sources, and the enzymes produced
can be used in industrial applications and value-added product development pro-
cesses to create biobased/bioenzyme products that can be used as a sustainable
resource for stuff like bio adsorbent, biopesticide, biofuel or bioethanol, bio soil
stabilizer, biohydrogen, biofertilizer, and biosurfactant for sustainable environ-
ment life.

Acknowledgments The authors express their gratitude to Addis Ababa Science and Technology
University for their support. We extend our sincere gratitude to Addis Ababa Science and
Technology University for their invaluable support in the creation of this chapter. Their support
extended beyond the chapter’s development, encompassing the facilitation of various workshops
dedicated to honing the scientific art of writing for journals and articles. We appreciate the univer-
sity’s commitment to fostering academic excellence and research skills among its community.
Author’s Contribution All authors, Gamachis Korsa, Chandran Masi, Digafe Alemu, Abera
Beyene, and Abate Ayele, have equally contributed to this chapter. Furthermore, these authors have
approved the latest version of the manuscript and agree to be held accountable for the content
therein.
Availability of Data and Materials The datasets used or analyzed during the preparation of the
manuscript are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate are not applicable.
Competing Interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Consent for Publication Not applicable.
Funding No fund was received from any funding agency or organization toward making this
manuscript.

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Chapter 6
Valorization of Fruit Processing Industry
Waste into Value-Added Chemicals

Abas Siraj Hamda, Melkiyas Diriba Muleta, Mani Jayakumar,

Selvakumar Periyasamy, and Baskar Gurunathan

Abstract Food production, processing, and preparation produce larger amounts of

waste that endanger human health by polluting the environment. Approximately
25–30% of the final product, solid and liquid, is wasted in the fruit processing
plants. Each year, waste fruits and vegetables amounting to over 100 billion tons are
thrown. Fruit and vegetable wastes have a higher moisture content, making them
unsuitable for burning. At the same time, there are so many organic components
present in the stacking or landfilling practices that will generate many leachates,
seriously polluting the environment. Understanding how to utilize these resources
and convert waste fruits and vegetables into useful products is essential. Because of
the generation of significant amounts of byproducts from fruits at various stages of
the sequence, the recycling of waste from the industries that process fruits has
emerged as one of the most challenging elements globally. This garbage can be
utilized to generate a valuable product, which is a fresh step toward its sustainable

A. S. Hamda · M. D. Muleta
Department of Chemical Engineering, Haramaya Institute of Technology, Haramaya
University, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia
M. Jayakumar (*)
Department of Chemical Engineering, Haramaya Institute of Technology, Haramaya
University, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia
Department of Biotechnology , Faculty of Engineering, Karpagam Academy of Higher
Education, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India
e-mail: drjayakumarmani@haramaya.edu.et
S. Periyasamy
Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Mechanical, Chemical and Materials
Engineering, Adama Science and Technology University, Adama, Ethiopia
Department of Biomaterials, Saveetha Dental College and Hospitals, SIMATS, Saveetha
University, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India
B. Gurunathan
Department of Biotechnology, St. Joseph’s College of Engineering, Chennai,
Tamil Nadu, India
School of Engineering, Lebanese American University, Byblos, Lebanon

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 107
E. Cherian, B. Gurunathan (eds.), Value Added Products From Food Waste,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48143-7_6
108 A. S. Hamda et al.

application. This chapter offers an in-depth analysis of recent developments in the

utilization of waste materials generated during fruit processing. In addition, the
source of fruit waste, characteristics of fruit waste, byproducts of fruit processing
industries, and opportunity challenges related to fruit waste are discussed.

Keywords Fruit waste · Food processing · Value-added products · Biomass

valorization

6.1 Introduction

Fruits are the most widely consumed food products among horticulture crops. Fruit
is a fundamental component of our meals and human life. Consequently, there is a
higher demand for these fundamental food items as the world’s population has
increased and dietary preferences have changed (Sagar et al. 2018a). The estimates
by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, a total of
84.63 MMT of apples, 114.08 MMT of bananas, 124.73 million metric tons (MMT)
of citrus, 74.49 MMT of grapes, 45.22 MMT of mangoes, mangosteens, and guavas,
and 25.43 MMT of pineapples are harvested annually. A significant quantity of
waste is generated during many steps of processing these fruits, including gathering,
handling, shipping, and industrial processing, which accounts for about 40% of all
food produced (Swetha et al. 2023). Fruits that have been processed produce a con-
siderable number of leftover pods, peels, pulp, stones, and seeds (Nirmal et al. 2023).
Various byproducts of the fruit and fruit processing industries are an abundant
supply of bioactive substances, including phenolic and antioxidant substances, that
can increase the stability of meals by avoiding lipid peroxidation (Dos Santos et al.
2023). According to the location and processing method, the average quantity of
solid wastes produced by the fruit processing industry is often very high (for exam-
ple, mango waste can range from 30 to 50%, banana waste from 20 to 50%, and
citrus waste from 30 to 50%) (Banerjee et al. 2017). These fruit effluents include a
sizable amount of moisture as well as a wide range of biological components, some
of which may be harmful due to their potential to generate phytotoxicity symptoms
(Zema et al. 2019). These substances cause gastrointestinal problems in animals fed
the wastes, contaminate aqueous media, degrade drinking water quality, interfere
with plant growth, kill delicate marine species, and impede the germination of
seeds. These wastes are disposed of in municipal dumpsters or allowed to degrade
because the infrastructure is unable to handle such a big amount of biomass or
because there is no known commercial use for them. Processors may incur addi-
tional costs when disposing of these wastes, and direct disposal in landfills or the
soil may have detrimental environmental effects. However, the price of drying, stor-
ing, and shipping byproducts is an economic barrier (Bisht et al. 2020). Particularly
in developing nations, there are financial, spatial, and sometimes strict
6 Valorization of Fruit Processing Industry Waste into Value-Added Chemicals 109

governmental rules about trash disposal. Because the bulk of these businesses is
small and informal, processing waste is viewed as having less value than processed
fruit (Banerjee et al. 2017).
Utilizing trash or residues from the fruit processing sector has recently become a
significant challenge for agro-processing businesses and has a negative influence on
the environment (Jameel et al. 2023). The fruit processing industry produces a lot of
waste dumped in landfills or rivers, threatening the ecosystem. Therefore, there is a
need for such disposal techniques that recycle it, provide resources for livestock
feed, or extract or create goods with added value (Jayakumar et al. 2023a). It is pos-
sible to lessen environmental degradation, increase energy security, and cut green-
house gas emissions by turning wastes collected from the fruit processing industry
into valuable products. It is believed that using fruit waste from processing can help
the food industry recover value-added products and make operations commercially
viable. In light of this, it is a promising field of research to use wastes from the pro-
cessing of fruit to create goods with value added.

6.2 Sources and Characteristics of Waste from the Fruit

Processing Industry

Fruit processing waste is divided into two categories: liquid waste (juice and washed
water) and solid rubbish (peel, skin, seeds, stones, etc.). The seedling development,
maturity, collection, listing, and processing produce these wastes. Fruit garbage is
mostly produced in sectors of fruit transportation, manufacturing, and trash collec-
tion (Peng et al. 2019). The primary sources of waste from the industries that pro-
cess fruit include waste from washing water, remaining fruit after sorting, and peel,
seed, and pomace after juice extraction. Numerous types and quantities of waste
produced by fruit processing activities are presented in Table. 6.1.
These wastes provide a plentiful source of essential elements like carbs, proteins,
lipids, minerals, fibers, etc. (Sadh et al. 2018). Additionally, compared to agricul-
tural wastes like maize stover, wheat straw, rice straw, etc., fruit-related wastes are

Table 6.1 Types and quantity of waste generated from fruit processing industries
Commodities Percentage weight basis Nature of waste
Apple 12–50 Peel, pomace, and seed
Pineapple 32–65 Peel, skin, core, and coarse solid
Mango 45–70 Peel, pulp, and stone
Peach 11–25 Stone
Pear 4–47 Peel, pomace
Citrus fruit 55–60 Peel, rag, and seed
Banana – Peel
Apricot 11–35 Stone
Source: Bisht et al. (2020)
110 A. S. Hamda et al.

higher in glucan, lignocellulose, pectin, and minerals. They are also lower in lignin
than agricultural wastes like maize stover (Fierascu et al. 2020). Additionally, waste
from the fruit processing industry is distinct from other wastes because it is organic
and decomposes quickly. They are enormous in volume and have a high water con-
tent, which helps them degrade without causing pollution or return to the soil in the
majority of cases. Despite their high volume, they have dispersed origins, which
makes gathering and using them difficult and expensive; third, they have a tendency
to degrade over time, which reduces the amount of time they can be stored, even
when stored under the right conditions, such as low temperatures, controlled humid-
ity, and dark, dry locations. These characteristics make the residue left over after
digesting fruit into enzymes suitable substrates. However, it is unheard of to find
commercial companies or pilot plants that exclusively use the fruit processing
byproduct waste as a substrate when producing enzymes.
Although articles that have been published have documented the synthesis of
industrially relevant enzymes utilizing fruit processing waste as a substrate (Sharma
et al. 2016), BOD, COD, and other suspended solids are present in high concentra-
tions in the waste produced by the fruit processing businesses (Okeke et al. 2022).
Most of these wastes are not recovered or handled, which harms both the environ-
ment and the health of people and animals. Although these fruit wastes contained a
lot of organic substances, this enabled the creation of a variety of products with
better market values and reduced production costs (Esparza et al. 2020). Table 6.2
presents the major constituents of fruit processing wastes. The processed fruit has
an effect on the chemical composition of the wastes, which varies. Mango seeds, for
example, are high in lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, and minerals; melon, orange,
and pumpkin seeds may also include lipids and minerals. These characteristics of
the fruit processing waste have the potential to make them the ideal substrate for the
production of enzymes and biochemical digestion procedures that result in useful
products like biogas, bioethanol, and other readily marketable goods (Duan
et al. 2021).

6.3 Pollution Prevention and Control in Fruit

Processing Industries

High levels of moisture and a wide variety of biological substances that may be
dangerous to humans can be found in the waste from the fruit processing businesses.
Depending on this, various researchers suggested measures for preventing and con-
trolling fruit processing wastes. These measures are
• Using cleansed raw fruit, reducing the concentration of undesirable components,
and using organic insecticides, for example, in the effluents.
• For dry cleaning of raw fruit, use air jets or vibration. The organic load is reduced
by up to 25% using dry peeling procedures, which also reduces effluent volume
by up to 35%.
 6

Table 6.2 Chemical constituents of industrial fruit waste (w/w)

Chemical constituents
S. Waste Composition of Composition of Composition of Composition of Composition of total Composition of
no. source cellulose hemicellulose lignin ash solids moisture
1. PP 2.2% – – 7.7% – 9.89
2. OP 9.21% 10.5% 0.84% 3.5% – –
3. PinPe 18.11% – 1.37 – 93.6 91
4. Cs 23.77 (g/100 g) 16.68 (g/100 g) 28.59 (g/100 g) 5.39 (g/100 g) – –
PP potato peel, OP orange peel, PinPe pineapple peel, Cs coffee skin
Valorization of Fruit Processing Industry Waste into Value-Added Chemicals
111
112 A. S. Hamda et al.

• Recirculate treated wastewater after separation.

• When washing is required, use countercurrent systems.
• To lessen the amount of wastewater that needs to be treated, use steam instead of
hot water.
• Eliminate solid wastes without using water.
• Utilize solid waste and concentrated wastewater to produce byproducts.
For example, recycling processed water from fruit processing decreases the
requirement by 95% and the organic burden by 75%. Similarly, it is feasible to
decrease by 80% the liquid waste burden from the manufacturing of apple juice
(measured in terms of BOD or biochemical oxygen demand).

6.4 Utilization of Fruit Processing Waste

and Related Challenge

During fruit preparation, a lot of waste is produced, including leaves, pomace, peels,
stones, crumbs, etc. The wastes are any pieces of the fruit that are left over after
consumption or that are not used due to the morphological traits of the product,
improper treatment, or just thrown away for various reasons. In addition, the
unwanted produced by the fruit manufacturing industries, such as the manufactur-
ing of fruit syrup and juice, contains a lot of moisture and a lot of biodegradable
organic compounds, which directly causes environmental pollution during disposal,
largely through the formation of leachate and odor emission (Oladzad et al. 2021).
By encouraging the spread of bacteria, vermin, and mice, improper dumping of
such material into the environment brings about inescapable ecological hazards and
raises the danger of sickness. As a result, this waste could be further utilized to cre-
ate other useful goods or to extract important components. Recycling these pollut-
ants in different ways will not only lead to the creation of novel products but also
contribute to the solution of the problem of environmental contamination (Sagar
et al. 2018b).
Additionally, advanced fruit processing firms should concentrate on reducing
waste and byproducts, using less energy, and making high-quality goods without
contaminating the soil, air, or spas. The utilization of these wastes resulting from the
disposal of fruit processing industry byproducts also necessitates collaborative
efforts. There are numerous uses for the leftovers following the preparation of fruit.
Due to the significant amount of sugar in waste products and the subsequent cre-
ation of alcohol, acetic acid, citric acid, and other substances, fermentation proce-
dures may be used as one strategy. Landfilling and incineration are two more
methods for disposing waste from fruit processing. In terms of solid waste disposal,
landfilling is a common practice. Nevertheless, the influence of greenhouse gases is
linked to landfilling. Because the waste from fruit processing enterprises has a large
quantity of moisture, incinerating it is neither an effective nor desirable disposal
method (Banerjee et al. 2017).
6 Valorization of Fruit Processing Industry Waste into Value-Added Chemicals 113

Collection and
treatment
method
Types of
Man
waste
power used

Utilization of
fruit wastes

Processing Economic
Technology Condition

Transportation

Fig. 6.1 Utilization of fruit wastes and its influencing factors

The usage of waste from the fruit processing industries is affected by several ele-
ments, such as collection, transportation, economics, technology, and waste types,
as shown in Fig. 6.1. The usage of waste from the fruit processing industry is influ-
enced by the economic situation. For instance, it was discovered that the average
cost of transporting fruit trash in least-developed nations is approximately
$11–15 per ton every trip, which could represent total landfilling expenses of more
than $300 million (Banerjee et al. 2017). Technology for waste utilization is another
aspect to take into account. Higher productivity yields were made possible by
advancing technology, but care must be taken with how trash is used.
Typically, a byproduct of fruit processing, such as juice extraction, can be uti-
lized to extract additional value commodities, such as fiber, seed oil, pectin, and
vitamins, which are bioactive substances that can be utilized in the cosmetic, food
processing, pharmaceutical, and textile processing sectors. Additionally, waste from
the companies that process fruits can be used to make a variety of enzymes (such as
cellulolytic, hemicellulose, proteases, lipases, pectinases, etc.) that are crucial for
increasing the yield of juice by working on the fruit’s cell walls (Jayasekara and
Ratnayake 2019).

6.4.1 Opportunities for Utilizing Fruit Processing Waste

Wastes from the fruit-processing sector are geographically dispersed, plentiful, and
of low nutritional value. As a result, the cost of harvesting, collecting, listing, mov-
ing, and processing byproducts may be greater than the cost of the items them-
selves. The distinction between the primary product and the byproduct is made by
114 A. S. Hamda et al.

the degree of the products. In addition to manufacturing useable commodities from

waste generated by the fruit processing industry, new scientific and technological
procedures could be used to transform environmentally harmful byproducts into
more valuable products than the primary products.
The process of turning fruit waste raw materials into commodities with added
value is impacted by an array of factors. These consist of the kind and quality of
fruit wastes, the kinds, standards, and traits of completed goods, processing technol-
ogy, skill level, and operational state of the machinery and personnel (Dar et al.
2020). Utilizing fruit-processing industry waste helps to lessen environmental dam-
age. Since organic waste makes up the majority of the waste produced by the fruit
processing industry, improper disposal might quickly damage the ecosystem. As a
result, these wastes can be properly disposed of using a variety of disposal methods,
including landfilling, composting, and incineration, in addition to developing them
into goods that bring value (Barbhuiya et al. 2021). On the other hand, fruit scraps
left over after cleaning and seeding are fed to animals untreated.

6.4.2 Utilization Technology of Waste from the Fruit

Processing Industry

Future environmental pollution reduction and technological adoption depend on the

efficient use of waste fruits in industry. It is difficult to manage the leftovers from
the preparation of fruits. In this situation, a partial substitution of industrial waste
for conventional energy substrates is an alternative since it allows the utilization of
residues while also lowering fixed operating costs (Osman et al. 2023). Fruit wastes
tend to accumulate over the year, so using them to make valuable compounds can
help cut down on overall waste output. In order to maintain a clean environment,
waste treatment techniques, including burning and landfilling, have been used to
remove significant components from wastes (Gupta et al. 2019).
The diverse sectors of the food processing industries are a part of producing a
variety of processed items and different types of waste. If these wastes, whether
solid or liquid, are not effectively managed, the manufacturer suffers a direct loss
while also leading to environmental pollution. Among the most difficult aspects of
the world today is how fruit processing companies use their waste. Wastes can be
purified, extracted, and fermented using a variety of methods. These chemicals are
rich in antioxidants, dietary fiber, enzymes, essential oils, food additives, organic
acids, pectin, and other substances that can be utilized in industries for production
activities. Discarded wastes contain higher amounts of antibacterial and antioxidant
properties (Bisht et al. 2019).
To create clean and eco-friendly products, several scientists have sought fresh,
practical, and efficient ways to recycle the trash from processed fruits and vegeta-
bles. Researchers are especially interested in characterization methods and process-
ing extraction procedures (Wu et al. 2017). On the other hand, as they allow for the
partial replacement of fossil fuel supplies and a reduction in the environmental
6 Valorization of Fruit Processing Industry Waste into Value-Added Chemicals 115

impact, waste-to-energy disposal techniques are being researched. Anaerobic diges-

tion is a process that creates biogas from solid or liquid organic waste, which can
later be converted into usable energy (electricity and/or heat). Anaerobic digestion
is the practice by which microbes transform organic waste materials into a gaseous
mixture without the presence of oxygen, mostly made of methane (CH4), carbon
dioxide (CO2), and nitrogen (N2) (Gonçalves Neto et al. 2021). As a result, it is
necessary to develop products using the right technologies to transform edible trash
into food, helping to ease worries about overall food waste.
There are two primary categories of waste reuse from the fruit processing
industries.

6.4.2.1 Conventional Utilization

Examples of conventional applications include adsorption, biochar, and energy

from waste conversion (anaerobic digestion, composting, enzyme usage, and land-
filling) (Patra et al. 2021).

6.4.2.2 Emerging Opportunities

Emerging applications are highlighted because they have a promising future, includ-
ing nutraceuticals, encapsulation, flavoring agents, and sludge nanoparticles to pro-
duce value-added goods (Ganesh et al. 2022).

6.5 Byproducts Synthesized from Fruit Processing Wastes

The four main categories of agricultural residues are crop leftovers, agroindustry
residues, livestock manure, and fruit wastes. Unrefined fruits, including mango,
pineapple, tomato, jack fruit, bananas, and oranges, are included in fruit garbage,
which makes up a sizeable amount of agricultural waste. Wholesale markets and
companies that process food produce large amounts of fruit waste. These organic
substances are a significant source of contamination and can be challenging to dis-
pose of in landfills due to their high perishability. Furthermore, high fruit and veg-
etable waste production raises market operating costs (Pattanaik et al. 2019). Peels
and seeds, the principal leftovers of fruit processing, make up about 40% of the
weight of the fruit (de Moraes et al. 2020). Fruits are processed into peels, seeds,
juices, and molasses that are high in carbohydrates, proteins, fiber, vitamins, and
minerals but are also a large source of waste (Suri et al. 2021). The following are the
principal sources of waste from the fruit business (Joshi 2020):
(i) Citrus fruit peel, rag, and seeds
(ii) Apple and pear pomace
116 A. S. Hamda et al.

(iii) Mangoes’ peel and stones

(iv) Jack fruit seeds and rind
(v) Peel and core the guava
(vi) Grape seeds
(vii) Overripe and blemished fruit from canneries, etc.

6.5.1 Seed

The pulp and juice industries do not utilize passion fruit kernels and peels. If not
recycled, these byproducts could pose a risk to the environment. The leftover cake
obtained from the oil extraction methods can be utilized in soaps and other cosmetic
formulations as a skin exfoliator (Goyal and Jerold 2021). A cosmetic and food-­
grade oil is also present in the seeds (Crini et al. 2020). Fruits like kiwi fruit and
cantaloupes are frequently eaten with other fruit byproducts, like seeds. At the same
time, larger seeds are often discarded after the flesh has been consumed since they
cannot be digested. Fruit seeds have been used to create wholesome meals since
they are rich in nutrients (Monika and Anna 2019).

6.5.2 Peel

The peel is the outer layer of a fruit that is thrown as trash during the processing
process. Fruits, vegetables, and root crops account for 50% of overall food waste.
The majority of these wastes comprise colorful peels that are high in iron/mineral
content and contain a variety of accompanying ions. These characteristics will make
them useful in the simultaneous extraction of natural pigments as well as bio-­
adsorbents (Gupta et al. 2019). Peels are the most common byproducts of fruit pro-
cessing, and they have been demonstrated to be an excellent source of a variety of
bioactive chemicals with a variety of therapeutic benefits. However, significant vol-
umes of fruit peels, 20–30% for bananas and 30–50% for mangos, are discharged by
the various fruit processing industries, leading to significant environmental issues
(Joshi 2020). Fruit rinds or peels are two instances of leftovers from the manufac-
ture or purchasing business that are commonly wasted. Fruits are safeguarded
against the elements by their outer covering. Mango has a thin peel, but certain
fruits, like the plum, have thick, rough skin. Because of their gritty texture and harsh
aftertaste, most customers avoid eating fruit peels (Selvakumar and Sivashanmugam
2018; Lau et al. 2021).
Both fertilizer and animal feed can be made from the peels. The nutritional value
of the skin floor of passion fruit has been the subject of numerous research, and
pectin, a substance that can be used as a consistency agent, is also present in this
region of the fruit (Silva et al. 2021). Pectin and flavonoids, including hesperidin,
eriocitrin, and nobiletin, are also abundant in citrus peel (Liu et al. 2021).
6 Valorization of Fruit Processing Industry Waste into Value-Added Chemicals 117

6.5.3 Pomace

Fruit pomace, the solid material left over after fruit juice extract, includes seeds and
skin, pulp, and stems for some fruits. For instance, even though the apple juice and
cider industries might generate a lot of pomaces, pomace makes up 25% of apples.
In Western nations like Germany and New Zealand, apple waste is particularly seri-
ous (Huettmann 2023).

6.6 Possible Products from Fruit Waste

Fruit processing companies generate around 0.5 billion tons of trash globally.
Because of the abundant accessibility to this resource and the potential it still holds,
researchers have done substantial research on the value-added potential for process-
ing fruit wastes. As opposed to conventional food or other biomass-manufactured, it
is noticed that waste from fruit processing is concentrated and separating in its
nature. Pomace, peels, and seed fractions from waste from the processing of fruit
might be helpful feedstock for the extraction of bioactive components as dietary
fibers, flavonoids, lipids, pectin, and others (Banerjee et al. 2017).
Fruit wastes might be needed to increase the pilot scale of the financially viable
biomass for the biofuel production process. Due to their organic nature, high avail-
ability, low lignin concentration, and low cost, these wastes may be of significant
relevance for the synthesis of cellulase enzymes (Srivastava et al. 2021). Citrus
wastes, grape pomace, apple pomace, banana peels, banana stalks, and pineapple
peels are high in cellulose, hemicellulose, and reducing sugars. These wastes are
created in great quantities each year throughout the world, yet they are still mostly
undiscovered (Srivastava et al. 2021).
Fruit waste can be converted into biofuels (Dhande et al. 2021), bio-adsorbent,
enzymes or catalysts (Srivastava et al. 2021), additives (Calderón-Oliver et al.
2016), bioactive (Duarte et al. 2017), and other goods. According to several studies
on various Annonaceae fruits, peels and seeds are more abundant in phenolic com-
pounds, antioxidants, and antibacterial activity than other edible parts. Various
products synthesized from fruit processing wastes are illustrated in Fig. 6.2.
According to the findings of (Bisht et al. 2020; Dalal et al. 2020), the kind of
waste and major potential byproducts recovered from fruit processing industry
waste are presented in Table 6.3.
118 A. S. Hamda et al.

Fig. 6.2 Diagrammatic representation of several goods created from fruit processing wastes

Table 6.3 Potential byproducts from fruit processing wastes

S. Disposal
no. Fruits (%) Species of waste Possible byproducts
1. Apple 20–30 Pomace Vinegar, pectin, wine, juice, and cow
feed
2. Orange 50 Pulp, seeds, and peel Pectin, peel candy, animal feed,
3. Lime 60 Seeds, peel, and pulp essential oils, etc.
4. Mango 40–60 Pulp and peel Alcohol, beef feed, and pectin
5. Grape 12–15 Skin, seed, and stem Syrup and wine juice
6. Pineapple 30–60 Peel, trim the core, and Syrup, bromine, seed oil, juice wine,
shred etc.

6.6.1 Biofuel

It is very feasible to replace fossil fuels with biomass for a number of reasons,
including the fact that biomass is abundant in nature and, most importantly, renew-
able (Jayakumar et al. 2023b). Organic materials that are used as feedstocks can be
divided into four categories (generations). Crops raised expressly for use in energy
production are considered first-generation biomass feedstock. The emergence of the
issue of food security competition led to the usage of second-generation feedstock
produced from lignocellulosic materials such as forest leftovers and organic frac-
tions from agricultural, industrial, and household wastes (Abo et al. 2023). The sole
difference between third- and fourth-generation feedstock is that the latter is geneti-
cally engineered to boost production (Arpia et al. 2021).
Because of its properties, biofuel generation from fruit waste is rapidly develop-
ing at the moment. It is non-toxic and environmentally friendly. These residues from
6 Valorization of Fruit Processing Industry Waste into Value-Added Chemicals 119

fruit processing could be used as feedstock for the manufacturing of bioethanol,

which might be a better option than simply discharge to the environment. Few
research publications address various practical applications of these fruit wastes and
alcohol production. Examining its possible use in the production of bio-ethanol,
banana, and mango fruit wastes (pulp and peels) underwent laboratory testing to
determine their chemical composition (Joshi 2020).
One of the most consumed beverages in the world is coffee, and the production
of it produces a lot of trash and toxins that, if not properly disposed of, could harm
the environment (Ravaglio-pasquini et al. 2021). The most significant byproduct of
wet-processing coffee is coffee pulp, which produces about 10 Mt worldwide annu-
ally. To develop biofuels and platform molecules, the coffee pulp is hydrothermally
treated. The impacts of processing variables (temperature, pressure, reaction time,
and solid/water ratio) are examined in the study. On the other hand, citrus trash is a
great source of raw materials for making biological biofuels like ethanol and biogas
because it contains a range of polymers of soluble and insoluble carbohydrates
(Taghizadeh-alisaraei et al. 2016).
Organic wastes like fruit and vegetables offer the biological and chemical poten-
tial for bioethanol production (Sathendra et al. 2022). Some of the biological poten-
tials include the possibility of indigenous microorganisms like Candida spp. On the
other hand, fruit and vegetable wastes have chemical promise because lignocellu-
lose contains significant amounts of complex saccharides (Jayakumar et al. 2022).
A large amount of lignocellulose may be broken down into D-glucose and D-xylose,
which microorganisms could subsequently convert into bioethanol (Utama
et al. 2019).

6.6.2 Bio-adsorbents

For the treatment of wastewater, bio-adsorbents made from leftover biomass are
environmentally safe, affordable, renewable, and sustainable (Gari et al. 2023).
Because of the rise in demand for food and fruit globally, fruit-based biomass wastes
are becoming more prevalent among other biomass waste sources (Hussain et al.
2021). Water that has been tainted has also been cleaned using fruit seeds and
stones. Due to their stiff structure, which offers adsorbents with long life cycles,
fruit shells and hulls also play a significant role as adsorbent materials. Lignin is
abundant in the fruit’s seeds and stones, and it can be used to create adsorbent mate-
rials with carbon concentrations of 45–50% (Hussain et al. 2021). With respect to
their accessibility, low cost, and high biofiber content, the use of fruit wastes for the
creation of bio-adsorbents (BAs) drew much interest (Hussain et al. 2021).
120 A. S. Hamda et al.

6.6.3 Catalysts

Trimmings and peels of horticulture leftovers may include a variety of enzymes

with diverse uses in the food industry. Kinnow pulp and wheat bran can be utilized
to boost cellulase activity in filter paper. Laccase, manganese peroxidase, and lignin
can all be made from apple pomace. Pectinase can be made from citrus and sapo-
dilla fruit peels (Bisht et al. 2021). It may be possible to address the global protein
deficit by producing a cost-effective meal and feed by converting fruit wastes into
biomass for individual cell protein synthesis. Making single-cell proteins from food
processing waste could help cut down on contamination (Mondal et al. 2012).
Cucumber and orange peels were used in the study of unicellular protein synthesis
from submerged fermentation using Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Mondal et al. 2012).

6.6.4 Additives

The majority of additives are derived from various portions of fruits. Among the
various additives, pectin is synthesized from both edible and peeling fruits. It can
also be used in pharmaceuticals, foods, and preservatives. Many useful substances
in the garbage are released into the environment. They are cutting-edge, inexpen-
sive, and eco-friendly sources of protein, dietary fiber, antioxidants, and antimicro-
bials that can be employed as natural food components in the food business. New
problems addressing their usage for further exploitation in producing high-­
nutritional food additives or supplements have piqued interest since they are high-­
value goods and their recovery may be financially alluring (Gowe 2015).

6.6.5 Bioactive Compounds

Due to their characteristics, fruits and vegetables are excellent biomass sources of
bioactive constituents for the creation of nutraceuticals and functional foods, as well
as their byproducts (Rodríguez et al. 2021). Identification of bioactive compounds
is necessary to comprehend the basic processes of action and interactions of natural
products in the human body (Albuquerque et al. 2016). Fruits and vegetables are
high in bioactive chemicals, which help prevent a variety of degenerative disorders.
These substances are frequently present in greater quantities as co-products of the
preparation of fruits and vegetables. Because of this characteristic, these co-­products
are a desirable source for bioactive extraction, and the extraction method becomes a
desirable value-added strategy for these co-products (Renard 2018).
Fruit and the residues of the fruit processing industry are important sources of
bioactive chemicals including phenolic and antioxidant compounds that can be used
to improve food stability by lowering lipid peroxidation. Various researchers have
6 Valorization of Fruit Processing Industry Waste into Value-Added Chemicals 121

Table 6.4 Various bio-active components derived from fruit processing industry waste
S. Concentration
no. Bio-actives Source of waste averages Bioactivity
1. Flavanols Tobacco pomace, mango peels, 0.02–0.14% Oxidizing agent
pomegranate seeds, orange w/w on a
peels, and tamarind seeds moisture
content
2. Phenolic acids Orange peel, guava seeds, 0.02–0.2% Oxidizing agent
(ferulic acid, mango peels and kernels, w/w
vanillic acid, leftover wheat germ, and apple
caffeic acid) pomace
3. Flavanones Peels from citrus fruits, 2–14% w/w Oxidizing agent
cucumbers, tomatoes, and citrus
seeds
4. Anthocyanidins Waste from grapes, berries, 0.8% w/w Antioxidants, food
sapotas, corn cobs, Litchi coloring additives,
pericarp, and seeds and anticancer
5. Carotenoids Mango peel, papaya peel, tomato 0.07–0.1% Extreme forager
peel, and pumpkin seeds. w/w
6. Glycosides Banana stem, apple peel 0.02–1% w/w Antioxidants,
anticancer
7. Bioactive lipids Mango kernel, tomato seed, and 10–30% w/w provider of both
pomegranate seed required and
optional fatty acids
8. Dietary fibers Carrot peel, tamarind seeds, flax 30–60% w/w Stimulator of
seed cake, watermelon rind, and intestinal health,
pomace skin regeneration
Source: Banerjee et al. (2017)

found that the antioxidant activity of some fruits’ leftovers is higher than that of
fresh fruit pulp (Bisht et al. 2019). Waste from the fruit processing industry contains
various bioactive components, which are illustrated in Table 6.4.

6.6.6 Extracted Oil

The oils found in various areas of discarded fruit processing are extracted and puri-
fied by various methods. Other traditional extraction techniques for making edible
oils include cold pressing, hot pressing, maceration, distillation, Soxhlet or solvent
extraction, and more modern extraction practices like 80 supercritical liquid extrac-
tion and techniques for pretreatment like enzyme, microwave, or pulsed electric
field-assisted extractions and ultrasound (Paul and Radhakrishnan 2020). As a
source of edible oil, fruit seed oil has received less attention than seed oil from field
crops. Plant sources have come under scrutiny in studies to better understand their
quality and functional attributes due to the rising demand for edible oil. Fruit seed
is typically seen as garbage, making it a less expensive alternative source of edible
122 A. S. Hamda et al.

oil. In addition to offering energy, seed oil also maintains bodily tissues, controls
body temperature, and carries liposoluble vitamins. Food gains more texture, flavor,
and palatability when seed oil is added. Consuming seed oil has been associated
with a reduced risk of developing several degenerative and chronic diseases, includ-
ing diabetes, cancer, and cardiovascular disease.
These beneficial effects are due to fatty acids that are stored and bioactive ele-
ments in the seed oil. As a result, seed oil is more widely used for nutraceutical and
pharmaceutical purposes (Kaseke et al. 2020). After the fruit has been processed,
passion fruit seeds, which make up 6–12% of the fruits weight and are a useful
byproduct of juice manufacturing, are frequently thrown away. In the scientific
community, it is common practice to use waste materials for research. Thus, it is
possible to add value to this agricultural waste by pressing the delicious passion
fruit’s seeds to acquire their oil. According to the study reported by (Pereira et al.
2017), the yellow (Passiflora edulis Sims var. flavicarpa) passion fruit seeds contain
about 30% oil by weight.

6.7 Future Prospects

Alternative lignocellulosic biomass has been used and researched recently for the
creation of value-added goods. Biomass used in the fruit processing business is
viewed in this context as redundant and renewable because it is thought to be a
plentiful supply of carbon on earth. Future possibilities for the valorization of waste
from the fruit waste processing sector into value-added goods are encouraging. This
strategy entails using thermal or chemical procedures to transform organic waste
resources, like leftover fruit, into valuable items. One of the main advantages of this
strategy is that it can increase new revenue streams for companies while simultane-
ously assisting in reducing the quantity of waste that ends up in landfills or other
disposal facilities. Biofuels, bioplastics, and fertilizers are just a few of the potential
value-added goods that can be made from fruit waste. Numerous businesses, includ-
ing industry, agriculture, and the energy sector, use these products in a variety of
ways. For instance, bioplastics made from fruit waste can be utilized in packaging
materials and other products, while biofuels made from fruit waste can be used in
place of traditional fossil fuels. The volarization of fruit waste can assist the envi-
ronment in addition to creating new cash streams. By keeping organic waste out of
landfills, it is possible to lower greenhouse gas emissions while also enhancing soil
health by creating organic fertilizers. In summary, it appears that the volarization of
waste from the fruit waste processing industry into value-added goods has a bright
future. The need for these items is probably going to grow as companies continue to
look for more ecologically friendly and sustainable business methods. Additionally,
new and inventive approaches to turning fruit waste into useful items are probably
going to result from advances in technology and study.
6 Valorization of Fruit Processing Industry Waste into Value-Added Chemicals 123

6.8 Conclusion

The only method that appears to be effective for addressing the problems associated
with the proper management of food processing wastes is waste valorization. The
application of transdisciplinary strategies is necessary for the development of a sus-
tainable bioeconomy. To significantly minimize waste creation, strict regulations
must be put in place to limit waste at various stages of processing. Utilizing the
leftovers from the food processing sector to make products with added value could
be a better solution to this issue.

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Chapter 7
Wastes from Fruits and Vegetables Processing
Industry for Value-Added Products

Abate Ayele, Chandran Masi, Ebrahim Mama Abda, and Gamachis Korsa

Abstract As the world’s population grows, so does the demand for fruit and veg-
etable production and the processing sector that supports it, resulting in the produc-
tion of large amounts of fruit and vegetable waste. Fruit and vegetable processing is
one of today’s most important industries. Nowadays, a large portion of fresh fruits
and vegetables are processed. The industrial processing of fruits generates a large
amount of waste or byproducts. Fruit and vegetable production has recently
expanded dramatically as a result of the rising population and changing eating hab-
its, with more people adopting vegetarian diets. Vegetables contain sugars, dietary
and resistant fibers, and vitamins and minerals. Vegetable processing waste products
such as peels, seeds, and stones can be successfully used as a source of phytochemi-
cals and antioxidants. Vegetable tissue is rich in bioactive compounds such as phe-
nolic compounds, carotenoids, and vitamins, and in most cases, waste byproducts
can contain antioxidant and antibacterial substances that are comparable to or even
greater than the end products. Because these are high-value products, and their
recovery may be economically attractive, new aspects addressing the utilization of
these wastes as byproducts for further exploitation in the formation of food addi-
tives or supplements with high nutritional value have captivated attention. The
byproducts are a good source of sugars, minerals, organic acids, dietary fiber, and
phenolics, all of which have anti-tumoral, antiviral, antibacterial, cardioprotective,
and antimutagenic properties. However, due to a lack of awareness of the nutritional

A. Ayele · E. M. Abda · G. Korsa

Department of Biotechnology, College of Natural and Applied Sciences, Addis Ababa
Science and Technology University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Bioprocess and Biotechnology Center of Excellence, Addis Ababa Science and Technology
University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
C. Masi (*)
Department of Biotechnology, College of Natural and Applied Sciences, Addis Ababa
Science and Technology University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Bioprocess and Biotechnology Center of Excellence, Addis Ababa Science and Technology
University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Department of Food Technology, Dhanalakshmi Srinivasan Engineering College
(Autonomous), Perambalur, Tamil Nadu, India.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 127
E. Cherian, B. Gurunathan (eds.), Value Added Products From Food Waste,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48143-7_7
128 A. Ayele et al.

and economic worth of byproducts, their use is limited. The major goal of this
review is to stimulate the production and processing of fruits and vegetables by
emphasizing the possibility of extracting bioactive components from discarded
fruits and vegetables and using them as natural food additives. All of these advan-
tages will pave the way for the future use of fruit and vegetable waste in a variety of
applications.

Keywords Bioactive compound · Fruits · Vegetables · Wastes · Bioactive

compound · Value-added products

7.1 Introduction

Fruit and vegetables are one of the most consumed commodities in the world. A
shift to healthier and more sustainable diets would have to include increasing fruit
and vegetable consumption (Mason-D’Croz et al. 2019). Producing and processing
horticulture crops, particularly fruits and vegetables, have increased significantly to
meet the rising demand brought on by the increasing population and changing food
requirements (Sagar et al. 2018). They can be consumed raw, cooked, or as a sup-
plement to other foods. Nearly, one-third of all food produced for human consump-
tion is lost or wasted each year, amounting to around 1.3 billion tons, with fruit and
vegetable waste accounting for roughly 60% of all food waste (Ishangulyyev et al.
2019). This costs roughly 990 billion dollars and includes food losses and process-
ing waste. Critical agricultural food commodities suffer huge losses and waste due
to several variables, such as increased production, along with improper handling of
fruits and vegetables, wasteful retail practices, and customer behavior (Spigarelli
et al. 2018; Trigo et al. 2022; Seberini 2020). Additionally, population growth,
along with technological developments, has created a demand–supply imbalance,
resulting in increased food waste globally (Lin et al. 2013; Ganesh et al. 2022).
Waste products from the processing of fruits and vegetables are challenging to man-
age. Management should be viewed in terms of its storage and, more importantly,
disposal. The main issue is that the variety of waste produced in a given region is
dependent on varied substrate specifications (Lipiński et al. 2018; Abdel-Shafy and
Mansour 2018). The fruit and vegetable processing industry is one of the major
producers of food byproducts with limited commercial potential, posing economic
and environmental issues. These byproducts, on the other hand, contain a significant
quantity of dietary fiber as well as bioactive chemicals with key biological functions
such as antioxidant and antibacterial properties (Padam et al. 2014; Kasapidou et al.
2015; Trigo et al. 2022). Utilizing fruit and vegetable byproducts can also improve
customer costs while increasing food sustainability. This review gives an overview
of various types of value-added parts produced from fruit and vegetable waste. This
review article explores and discusses the sources of fruit and vegetable waste as well
as any potential valuable byproducts.
7 Wastes from Fruits and Vegetables Processing Industry for Value-Added Products 129

7.1.1 Sources of Fruit and Vegetable Wastes

Except for the edible part, remaining fragments such as leaves, peel, pomace, rind,
stem, seeds, and spoiled fruits and vegetables are considered waste in the fruit and
vegetable industry. These items are gathered throughout the washing, cleaning, and
processing processes (Narasimmalu and Ramasamy 2020). Byproducts of vegeta-
bles and fruits are wastes from the agricultural, postharvest, processing, distribu-
tion, and consumption stages. Some of the byproducts have been used as fuel,
construction material, or animal feed, while the majority has been discarded (Lau
et al. 2021). Fruit and vegetable waste (FVW) is composed of from inedible food
components such as the outer layers and extremities of fruits and vegetables that are
removed during processing, primarily through peeling and pressing. During collec-
tion, handling, transportation, and processing, these parts are discarded (Roberta
et al. 2014; Pérez-Marroquín et al. 2023). Fruit and vegetable waste includes pectin
derived from apples, pineapples, and guavas, as well as ethanol-, tartrate-, and
malate-rich grape pomace, and oil from tomato seeds and other vegetables. When a
consumer rejects a product owing to unacceptable quality such as off-color, off-­
flavor, or damage sustained during shipping, the resources are termed waste in these
industries (Narasimmalu and Ramasamy 2020; Cecchi and Carolis 2021). Plant tis-
sue remnants generated from agricultural fields and also during processing are also
considered as such waste (Singh et al. 2011; Mamma and Christakopoulos 2014;
Sharma et al. 2017). By commodity, vegetable and fruit byproducts account for 44%
of global food wastes, roots and tubers account for 20%, and cereal accounts for
19% (Lau et al. 2021). Fruit and vegetable processing industries can thus add value
by producing 10–60% of raw material as waste (Sudha and Priyanka 2023). Potential
quantities of waste generated from some fruit and vegetable in tones per year are
illustrated in Fig. 7.1 (Gowe 2015).

Apple, 412
Potato, 415.3
Tomato, 90.3
Pineapple, 24.7
Citrus ,
606
Mango,
Banana, 3144.4
832.3

Fig. 7.1 Quantities of waste generated from fruit and vegetables (tones/year) (Gowe 2015)
130 A. Ayele et al.

7.1.2 Vegetable and Fruit Byproducts

Trimmings, peelings, stems, seeds, shells, bran, and residues left over for juice, oil,
starch, and sugar extraction are all considered to be vegetable waste (Kumar et al.
2017). Vegetable byproducts are secondary products that are often discarded or
wasted during food processing or manufacturing. In the preparation process, up to
one-third of the vegetables may be wasted (Sagar et al. 2018; Lau et al. 2021).
Surprisingly, several vegetable sections are voluntarily discarded due to their
unpleasant flavor or texture. Vegetable pieces such as hulls, bagasse, and seeds, for
example, are frequently thrown in the manufacturing process (Yusuf 2017, Lau
et al. 2021).
Fruit waste is one of the main sources of municipal solid waste, which has posed
ongoing threats to the environment. Any items dumped from residential, commer-
cial, or industrial activity are classified as municipal solid waste (Pattnaik and
Reddy 2010; Makwara and Snodia 2013). Fruit peels or rinds are an example of a
byproduct that is frequently wasted throughout the consumption or production
industry. It is the outer covering of fruits that protects them from the elements. Some
fruits, like pomegranate, have thick and rough skin, while others, like mango, have
a thin peel. Because of the hard texture and harsh aftertaste, most people avoid eat-
ing fruit skins and are consequently dumbed as waste (Dembitsky et al. 2011; Lau
et al. 2021). Moreover, after pressing the juice or making other value-added prod-
ucts like jams, jellies, and marmalades, several wastes and byproducts from the fruit
industry are generated.

7.2 Value-Added Products Derived from Fruit

and Vegetable Wastes

The production of fruits and vegetables is rising significantly worldwide. As a

result, the quantity of byproducts produced during the processing of fruits and veg-
etables in food factories has also significantly increased (Taghian Dinani and van
der Goot 2022). Producing valuable products from waste is known as value addition
(Narasimmalu and Ramasamy 2020). Fruit and vegetable waste is mostly made up
of lignocellulosic biomass, which is composed of cellulose (30–50%), hemicellu-
lose (15–35%), and lignin (10–20%), and is an excellent site of sugars and phenolic
compounds (Gomes-Araújo et al. 2021). Hence, sugars, pectin, proteins, lipids,
polysaccharides, fibers, polyphenols, vitamins (A and E), vital minerals, fatty acids,
volatiles, anthocyanins, and pigments are the key components of value-added prod-
ucts extracted from fruit and vegetable byproducts or wastes (Fig. 7.2) (Sharma
et al. 2017; Socas-Rodríguez et al. 2021). Bagasse, peels, trimmings, stems, shells,
bran, and seeds, among other fruit and vegetable byproducts accumulated from
industrial operations, make up more than half of all fresh fruit and have nutritional
and functional values that are sometimes higher than the finished product (Mohd
7 Wastes from Fruits and Vegetables Processing Industry for Value-Added Products 131

Single cell protein production

Biofuel
Composting

Enzymes
Bioactive compounds
Biofilms
Fig. 7.2 Value-added products derived from fruit and vegetable wastes (Sánchez et al. 2021)

Basri et al. 2021). The food industry generates massive amounts of waste, primarily
in the form of pomace (a mixture of pulp, skin, seeds, and stem), which typically
contains much higher levels of bioactive compounds than the fruit juice itself. Peels
from grapes, apples, citrus fruits, and avocado, jackfruit, and mango seeds have
been found to have more than 15% more polyphenolic compounds than the pulp
(Jiménez-Moreno et al. 2020; Coman et al. 2020; Socas-Rodríguez et al. 2021).
Fruits and vegetables provide sugars, dietary and resistant fibers, and vitamins and
minerals (Asif 2011; Slavin and Lloyd 2012; Rudra et al. 2015).

7.2.1 Organic Acid Production

Organic acids are biomolecules that are widely used in the food, cosmetics, and
chemical industries. Organic acids have been found in fruit and vegetable wastes,
and some researchers have employed these food industry wastes as a substrate to
132 A. Ayele et al.

generate various organic acids (Upadhyay et al. 2010; Sánchez et al. 2021). The
most important acids for the food and pharmaceutical industries are citric and lactic
acids (Sagar et al. 2018). Lactic acid occupies a prominent position in the carbox-
ylic acid family due to its use in both the food and non-food industries. It is used in
the food industry as a preservative and acidulant. However, due to the high cost of
the raw ingredients used, commercial production of lactic acid is expensive.
Biological wastes can be used to reduce costs (Wadhwa et al. 2016; Iglesias
et al. 2020).

7.2.2 Biofuel

Starch-rich byproducts of fruits and vegetables make great substrates for the pro-
duction of biofuels. Even their leftovers from the extraction processes can be used
to produce biofuels (Taghian Dinani and van der Goot 2022). For a long time, food
waste—in particular, fruit and vegetable waste—has been viewed as an underuti-
lized resource for bioenergy production. Bioenergy is described as energy derived
from renewable resources, such as biodegradable waste and agricultural residues
like fruit and vegetables. These energy sources have the lowest environmental
impact, are less likely to deplete natural resources, and have the least negative
impact on human health (Ganesh et al. 2022). Fruit and vegetable wastes are inex-
pensive and readily available renewable substrates that could be used to produce
bioethanol, biogas, and other renewable energies (Wadhwa et al. 2016; Deressa
et al. 2015). Fruit wastes contain low lignin content in addition to high cellulose and
hemicellulose content, making them suitable for bioethanol production (Dhillon
et al. 2013; John et al. 2017; Bhuvaneswari and Sivakumar 2019). Thereby, bananas,
citrus fruit, apples, and pineapples are some of the most common fruit wastes used
in bioethanol production (Zanivan et al. 2022).

7.2.3 Polyhydroxybutrate Production (PHB)

From glucose, cellulose, lignin, and oil, bioplastics are produced. Bagasse, agro
wastes, fruit pulp, and peels are also used to produce biopolymers. It may be strate-
gically beneficial and economically realistic to use agricultural and industrial waste
as a source of carbon for the production of PHB to reduce production costs and
energy consumption (Yusuf, 2017). Given that fruit and vegetable waste constitute
a significant portion of food waste, poly-hydroxybutyrate from fruit waste is becom-
ing more and more common nowadays (Sirohi et al. 2021). Biopolymers can also be
made from fruit peels, fruit pulp, agron waste, and bagasse. Monomeric units of
glucose make up cellulose-based biopolymers. Lignocellulosic waste from paper
and pulp mills contains lignin, which is a good source of lignin for bioplastic pro-
duction. Oil-based bioplastics such as poly-3-hydroxyalkanoates and polyamide11
7 Wastes from Fruits and Vegetables Processing Industry for Value-Added Products 133

(PA11) are also made from corn oil, soybean oil, and palm oil (Sanchez Vazquez
2014; Sirohi et al. 2021; Thulasisingh et al. 2021).

7.2.4 Single-Cell Protein (SCP) Production

Several researchers are interested in developing sustainable materials as an alterna-

tive to plastics by combining various compounds extracted from fruits and vegeta-
bles to make viable films for bio-packaging (Ludwicka et al. 2020). Bioplastic
production from vegetable or fruit waste can be regarded as a sustainable process
due to its biodegradability and carbon neutrality. Due to these environmental advan-
tages, bioplastics could expand on the global market (Coppola et al. 2021; Ganesh
et al. 2022). Proteins isolated from pure microbial cell culture are known as bio-
mass, bioprotein, or microbial protein. Bacteria, fungi, algae, and yeasts are used to
produce them (Mondal et al. 2021; Wadhwa et al. 2016; Bogale 2020). The term
SCP refers to the dead, dried microbial cells or total protein extracted from the pure
microbial culture of filamentous fungi, bacteria, algae, unicellular algae, and cyano-
bacteria that are produced on various sources of carbon and used as a protein sup-
plement in human foods or animal feeds (Thiviya et al. 2022). Fruit and vegetable
processing industries are estimated to produce large amounts of solid waste, such as
seeds, which could have commercial use as protein sources. Utilization of these
fruit and vegetable processing byproducts (usually seeds and skin), which are avail-
able at no additional cost, can help in generating value-added protein adjuncts while
also reducing solid waste and, as a result, contributing to environmental sustainabil-
ity (Sarkar and Kaul 2014; Gowe 2015). The single-cell protein is produced from
microbial growth and biomass, and it can be used as a protein supplement in feed or
food (Ravindra 2000; Joshi 2020). SCP may be produced in large quantities, and the
process that results is very promising. Microorganisms that can be considered as
single-cell protein (SCP), i.e., useful as protein additives and sources of important
biomolecules, should have a range of traits, including rapid growth, low nucleic
acid levels, and good biological values, as well as being non-pathogenic and non-­
toxic (Matos 2017; Gervasi et al. 2018).

7.2.5 Dietary Fiber

Dietary fiber (DF) is composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, B-glucans,

gums, and lignin, which are nonstarch polysaccharides (Sharoba et al. 2013; Slavin
2013; Joshi 2020). Biomolecules resistant to digestion by gastrointestinal enzymes
make up dietary fiber (DF). These include cellulose, hemicellulose, pectic sub-
stances, beta-glucans, resistant dextrin, inulin, gums, chitosan oligosaccharides,
lignin, and other components (Malenica and Bhat 2020; Oyedepo and Kayode
2020). DF, also known as nonstarch polysaccharides, is abundant in fruits and
134 A. Ayele et al.

vegetable byproducts. Because the human upper digestive tract lacks the enzymes
required to break down polysaccharides, they reach the colon almost intact. DF is
divided into two categories: water-soluble (pectin) and water-insoluble (cellulose
and lignin) (Trigo et al. 2022). Fruit and vegetable fiber contains a higher proportion
of soluble dietary fiber, whereas cereal fiber contains more insoluble cellulose and
hemicellulose. Potato peels are a great source of fiber because they contain 9.7% to
68% weight (Elleuch et al. 2011; Sharoba et al. 2013). Fruit pomace from apples
and berries has been proposed as an additive in bakery and dairy product formula-
tions to enhance natural antioxidants and dietary fiber content (Sun-Waterhouse
2011; Socas-Rodríguez et al. 2021). Dietary fiber is made up of building blocks
such as cellulose, hemicellulose, lignins, and pectins, as well as resins and waxes
(Nawirska and Uklańska 2008; Zhu et al. 2016; Chavan et al. 2018). Dietary fibers
are carbohydrate polymers including cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, and pectin,
which provide the plant cell wall structural rigidity. Dietary fibers are classified as
soluble dietary fiber (SDF) or insoluble dietary fiber (IDF) based on their water
solubility (Daou and Zhang 2014; Wu et al. 2020). Pectin (sugars from whole grains,
legumes, and other sources), gums (sugar monomers from beans, legumes, as well
as other sources), and mucilage are examples of dietary soluble fiber (aquatic plants,
cactus, aloe vera, okra, as well as glycoproteins from food additives) (Hussain et al.
2020). Insoluble dietary fiber forms include cellulose (which provides glucose
monomers and is found in fruits, root vegetables, and grains), hemicellulose (com-
plex sugars found in cereal bran and grains), and lignin (aromatic alcohols found in
plants) in Table 7.1 (Jalili et al. 2000; Hussain et al. 2020).

7.2.6 Composting

It is a technology that enables the handling of organic waste, making it suitable for
food waste, especially for fruit and vegetable waste (Esparza et al. 2020; Neto et al.
2021). Over time, the weight of fruits and vegetables crushes them, damaging plant

Table 7.1 Dietary fiber contents in the waste of different fruits and vegetable wastes
Soluble dietary Insoluble dietary
S. no. Vegetables/fruits fiber (SDF) (%) fiber (IDF) (%) References
1. Apple pomace 15 36 Sudha et al. (2007)
2. Apple 1.1 12 Bae et al. (2016)
3. Cranberry pomace 6 66 White et al. (2010)
4. Pomace 0.8 58 Gouw et al. (2017)
5. Tommy Atkins 14.3 13.8 Larrauri et al. (1996)
6. Orange 9 47.6 Chau et al. (2003)
7. Kiwi fruit 10 19 Soquetta et al. (2016)
8. Pomegranate peels 2 12 Colantuono et al. (2017)
9. Carrot 14 50 Chau et al. (2004)
7 Wastes from Fruits and Vegetables Processing Industry for Value-Added Products 135

Table 7.2 Compositions of vegetable waste and dried compost product (Chang et al. 2006)
Composition Vegetable waste Dried compost product
Moisture (%) 92–94 12–14
Ash (%) 0.6–0.7 16–20
Volatile matter (%) 5.3–7.4 70–74
Carbon (%) 37–39 43–45
Hydrogen (%) 6.0–7.0 5.5–6.3
Nitrogen (%) 2.5–3.0 0.7–0.8
Oxygen (%) 51–53 49–51
C/N (solid) 12–13 52–60
pH value 6.2–6.4 8.1–8.5

cells that provide structural stiffness and strength, allowing water to seep into the
pores (Sall et al. 2016; Padayachee et al. 2017). With nitrogen recovery of 6 to 22%,
composting vegetable and fruit wastes can be utilized to replace a significant amount
of nitrogen fertilizer, as shown in Table 7.2. Owing to the increase in the more resis-
tant carbon components caused by long-term vegetable and fruit compost (VFC)
use, carbon accumulated on soils (Tits et al. 2014; Wadhwa et al. 2016).

7.2.7 Enzymes Production

Enzymes are proteins that, under mild conditions, act as active and highly selective
catalysts for particular chemical reactions. These biomolecules have important
applications in a variety of industries, including food, cosmetics, medicines, tex-
tiles, chemicals, and fuels (Esparza et al. 2020). Enzymes are essential in the indus-
trial sector because they ensure sustainability by lowering pollution, reducing the
chemical load of processes, and removing harmful substances. The most widely
utilized enzymes in beverages, processed meat, dairy, fruits, and vegetables are
lipases, carbohydrases, proteases, and polymerases (Osorio et al. 2021). Enzymes
are high-value bioactive compounds that can be produced by the biotransformation
of FVWs (Sánchez et al. 2021). Fruit and vegetable wastes/residues are used as a
substrate for microbial fermentation to produce enzymes, which has a wide range of
uses in Table 7.3 (Wadhwa et al. 2016).

7.2.8 Bioactive Compounds

Bioactive compounds or components are food or dietary supplements that, in addi-

tion to meeting basic nutritional requirements, have a beneficial health effect on the
host (Laparra and Sanz 2010; Saini et al. 2019). These are known to have antioxi-
dant, antibacterial, or anti-inflammatory effects on the host; however, these effects
136 A. Ayele et al.

Table 7.3 Production of enzymes using fruit and vegetable waste (FVW)
FVW used for enzyme
Enzymes Purposes production References
Amylase Food industries for the Banana peel, orange peel, Sagar et al. (2018)
production of fruit juices, fruit juices, starch syrup,
cheese, chocolate cakes, and moist cakes, chocolate
syrups cakes
Invertase Used to produce invert sugar Fruit peel Sagar et al. (2018)
Pectinase Pectinases degrade pectic Pineapple peel, lemon Sagar et al. (2018),
compounds, which are peel, orange peel, banana Namasivayam et al.
important fruit and vegetable peel, wheat bran, rice (2011) and Garzón and
structural components in cell bran, and sugarcane Hours (1992)
walls bagasse
Cellulase Key enzymes of potential use Banana waste, orange Amaeze et al. (2015)
for industrial saccharification peels, pineapple, olive and Tian et al. (2018)
of cellulosic materials into pomace, wheat bran, oil
simple sugars palm trunk, and corncob
residue
Xylanase To hydrolyze xylan, which is Peel, olive pomace, Martins et al. (2018)
an abundant natural wheat bran, oil palm and Tian et al. (2018)
polysaccharide trunk, and corncob
residue

fluctuate depending on their bioactivity, chemical structure, dosage, and other fac-
tors (Saini et al. 2019; Leyva-López et al. 2020). Because of their biological proper-
ties, bioactive compounds can affect human health (antioxidant, antimicrobial,
anti-inflammatory, anticancer, etc.). In general, they are less abundant in the edible
organs of plants than in their byproducts. Vitamins C and E, carotenoids, phenolic
compounds, and dietary fiber are the most common bioactive chemical compounds
found in fruits and vegetables (Gowe 2015; Chamorro et al. 2022). Due to their rich-
ness in several bioactive components, fruits and vegetables are among the most
basic types of functional foods (Gemechu 2020, Kumar et al. 2017). Fruit and veg-
etable waste is rich in many bioactive components; therefore, rather than being seen
as garbage, these materials can be used to recover useful compounds, furthering the
zero-waste concept. A zero-waste concept is a useful approach that enables efficient
valorization of the generated agro-industrial wastes into value-added products,
which have numerous applications in the food industry as coloring agents, antioxi-
dants, and preservatives (Saini et al. 2019). Bioactive fractions of fruit and vegeta-
ble wastes usually include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and secondary metabolites
(Okino Delgado and Fleuri 2016; Sánchez et al. 2021).
Bioactive peptides and proteins can be found in abundance in animal industry
byproducts (Ben-Othman et al. 2020; Vilas-Boas et al. 2021). Phenolics and carot-
enoids are the bioactive compounds found in Fruit and Vegetable Waste (FVW) that
are most widely distributed (Bailão et al. 2015; Trigo et al. 2022). In most cases, the
waste byproducts may have similar or even higher antioxidant and antimicrobial
content than the end product because fruits and vegetables’ entire tissue is rich in
bioactive compounds such as phenolic compounds, carotenoids, and vitamins
7 Wastes from Fruits and Vegetables Processing Industry for Value-Added Products 137

Table 7.4 Bioactive compounds from fruits and vegetable waste

S.
no. Sources Residue Metabolites/compounds References
1. Pineapple Husk Phenolic compounds Alias and Abbas (2017)
2. Papaya Seeds Sulforaphane and phenolic Briones-Labarca et al.
compounds (2015)
3. Grape Peel Anthocyanins Corrales et al. (2008)
4. Tomatoes Wastes Sterols, tocopherols, carotenes, Kalogeropoulos et al.
terpenes, and polyphenols (2012)
5. Purple Peel and Anthocyanins and phenolic Ferarsa et al. (2018)
eggplant pulp compounds
6. Elderberry Stalks Phenolic and lipophilic compounds Patinha et al. (2021)
7. Apples Seeds Phenolic compounds Gunes et al. (2019)
8. Garlic Husk Phenolic acids, flavonoids Kallel et al. (2014)
9. Carrots Peel Polyphenols, flavonoids, Nguyen and
carotenoids, Vitamins Scarlett(2016)
10. Beetroots Leaf Polyphenols, betalain Calvo et al. (2018)
11. Mango Peel Flavonol glycosides Maisuthisakul and
Gordon (2009)
12. Pomegranate Seeds and Anthocyanins, ellagic acid Akhtar et al. (2015)
peel
13. Acerola Peel Anthocyanins, phenolics, and Sancho et al. (2015)
vitamin C
14. Quinoa Leaves Flavonoids, polyphenols, Świeca et al. (2014)
anthocyanins, and vitamin C

(Ayala-Zavala et al. 2010; Rudra et al. 2015). Additionally rich in value-added com-
ponents, fruits and vegetables contain pectin and polyphenols (bioactive com-
pounds) that can be extracted before fermentation and used to produce industrial
chemicals (Mahato et al. 2019; Shehu et al. 2019). Fruit and vegetable wastes have
been investigated for their ability to extract phenolic compounds, dietary fibers, and
other active compounds, as shown in Table 7.4 (Sagar et al. 2018; Mohd Basri et al.
2021). Pomace, a mixture of pulp, skin, seeds, and stem, is the main type of waste
produced by the food industry, and it frequently has levels of bioactive compounds
that are far higher than those found in fruit juice (Ben-Othman et al. 2020).
Researchers have discovered that the peels of grapes, apples, citrus fruits, avocado,
jackfruit, and mango seeds contain more polyphenolic compounds than pulp fibers
by more than 15% (Socas-Rodríguez et al. 2021; Bhardwaj et al. 2022).

7.2.9 Nutraceutical Compounds

A nutraceutical may be defined as a food (or part of food) that provides medical or
health benefits, including the prevention and/or treatment of a disease (Chauhan
et al. 2013; Wadhwa et al. 2016). They define nutraceutical as “a product isolated or
138 A. Ayele et al.

purified from foods that are generally sold in medicinal forms not usually associated
with food” (Bishnoi and Mudgil 2022). Findings in the literature showed that veg-
etable and fruit byproducts have high nutritional value (O’Shea et al. 2012; Lau
et al. 2021).

7.2.10 Functional Foods

Functional food is defined as “a food that resembles or may resemble a conventional

food, that is consumed as part of a regular diet, and that has been shown to offer
physiological advantages and/or lower the risk of chronic diseases beyond basic
nutritional functions” (Salim et al. 2017). Functional foods contain bioactive ingre-
dients that provide benefits in addition to nutritional effects (Pérez-Marroquín
et al. 2023).

7.2.11 Biofilms

In biotic or abiotic surfaces and interfaces, biofilms are structurally complex assem-
blages of microorganisms that are characterized by population interactions. They
possess exopolymeric substances (EPS) and survive as self-organized, three-­
dimensional structures with modified phenotypic and genotypic characters
(Gemechu 2020, Jahid and Ha 2012). Thin layers of edible coatings are applied to
food surfaces, increasing food shelf life and maintaining food qualities, properties,
and functionality for a low cost (Hussain et al. 2022). The production of biodegrad-
able films using biopolymers and glycerol solutions is one of the useful applications
of polysaccharides derived from tomato processing industry wastes and granadilla
peels (Poli et al. 2011; Rudra et al. 2015). Electrospinning and dip-coating are the
processes used to produce the biofilm. Fruits and vegetables with a coating have
been discovered to have a longer shelf life (Singh and Packirisamy 2022; Polat and
Aygun 2022). Nanotechnology and various technologies such as dip coating, spray
coating, and electrospun nanofibers coating are used to apply thin edible coatings on
perishable fruits and vegetables (Miteluț et al. 2021; Singh and Packirisamy 2022).

7.3 Future Prospects of Value-Added Products from Fruit

and Vegetable Waste

The conversion of fruit and vegetable waste into other value-added products has
been investigated in order to reduce waste management burdens, reduce resource
and energy consumption, and protect the environment (Ingrao et al. 2021). The
7 Wastes from Fruits and Vegetables Processing Industry for Value-Added Products 139

growing recognition of the importance of sustainable practices, as well as the need

to reduce fruit and vegetable waste, has motivated the development of novel and
innovative bioactive compound extraction technologies. The use of cutting-edge
technologies has many advantages, including waste reduction, the creation of new
economic opportunities, the promotion of a circular economy, and the development
of functional food ingredients, cosmetics, and dietary supplements. It will be criti-
cal in the coming years to develop specific extraction methods for various fruit and
vegetable waste sources or compounds of interest (Liu et al. 2023). In the current
scenario, FVW management has become critical for sustainable growth. As a result,
there is an urgent need to investigate alternative solutions to fully utilize FVW in
order to gain economic, environmental, and social benefits from these waste materi-
als (Bhardwaj et al. 2022). Green solvents should be used as much as possible to
reduce environmental and human health impacts. Setting specific standards for
value-added products resulting from fruit and vegetable waste conversion may be
difficult but worthwhile, given the lack of a uniform standard for fruit and vegetable
waste sources (Liu et al. 2023). Furthermore, efforts should be made to bridge the
quality gap between value-added products derived from fruit and vegetable waste
and the original product. Effective food waste management, particularly of fruit and
vegetable waste, is a critical issue that must be addressed immediately on a global
scale. These food items account for a significant portion of wastage and have an
important economic value (Ganesh et al. 2022).

7.4 Conclusion

As agro-industrial wastes, many low-cost raw materials are available and valuable
sources of value-added products. As hot-spot agri-food commodities, fruits and
vegetables are produced in large quantities, have a significant potential for waste
reuse in line with the circular economy concept, and have a positive significant
impact on quality of life. Their wastes hold great potential for the next generation of
eco-materials used in the pharmaceutics, cosmetics, energy, environment, and bio-
medical industries. The literature that is currently available makes it clear that
wastes and byproducts from fruits and vegetables offer several opportunities for the
isolation of naturally occurring value added products with potential uses in the food,
pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries. This will help to completely utilize the
industrial waste, providing the industries extra compensation through the sale of
residues, and it will also help to eliminate environmental pollution caused by
improperly disposing of industrial fruit and vegetable waste. The urgent need is to
improve and optimize the isolation, extraction, processing, and production pro-
cesses of fruit and vegetable wastes and byproducts using a sustainable approach.
140 A. Ayele et al.

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Chapter 8
Commercial Products Derived
from Vegetable Processing Industrial
Wastes and Their Recent Conversion
Studies

Desta Getachew Gizaw, Selvakumar Periyasamy, Zinnabu Tassew Redda,

Mani Jayakumar, and S. Kavitha

Abstract Demand for the vegetable cultivation and processing industry increases
due to the growing global population, resulting in increased waste generation.
Organic waste generation is unavoidable, particularly during pre-consumption or
processing. Slow progress in developing appropriate waste management approaches
as well as methods for adequate waste treatment and removal has exacerbated the
situation. The vegetable wastes are enriched in complex carbohydrates, proteins,
lipids, and nutraceuticals, all of which might be utilized for making value-added
products. Several novel technologies are being developed for producing valuable

D. G. Gizaw
Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Mechanical, Chemical and Materials
Engineering, Adama Science and Technology University, Adama, Ethiopia
S. Periyasamy (*)
Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Mechanical, Chemical and Materials
Engineering, Adama Science and Technology University, Adama, Ethiopia
Department of Biomaterials, Saveetha Dental College and Hospitals, SIMATS, Saveetha
University, Chennai, India
Z. T. Redda
Faculty 1, University of Applied Sciences (HTW) Berlin, Berlin, Germany
School of Chemical and Bio Engineering, Addis Ababa Institute of Technology, Addis Ababa
University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
M. Jayakumar
Department of Chemical Engineering, Haramaya Institute of Technology, Haramaya
University,
Dire Dawa, Ethiopia
Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Engineering, Karpagam Academy of Higher
Education, Coimbatore, India
S. Kavitha
Department of Biotechnology, Adhiyamaan College of Engineering, Hosur,
Tamil Nadu, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 147
E. Cherian, B. Gurunathan (eds.), Value Added Products From Food Waste,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48143-7_8
148 D. G. Gizaw et al.

products such as biofuels, enzymes, bioactive compounds, biodegradable polymers,

and nanoparticles from vegetable processing industrial waste. The conversion
­technologies that have the least detrimental impact on the environment and bio-
chemical processing procedures to recover biologically active chemicals provide
economically appealing food waste prospects. Recent valorization studies and com-
mercial products derived from vegetable processing industrial wastes are discussed
in this chapter.

Keywords Vegetable waste · Bioactive compounds · Biofuel · Nanoparticles ·

Biodegradable polymer

8.1 Introduction

Food consumption has been increasing with the human population globally, leading
to enormous agricultural product production. Globally, 1800 million tons of foods
are produced annually to meet the demand. Not all the parts of vegetables are con-
sumed and remain left as waste. This phenomenon can increase the massive vegeta-
ble waste generation. These biological wastes quickly decompose due to their high
moisture content, which causes a foul odor and spreads diseases (Periyasamy et al.
2023). Most vegetable waste has risen due to postharvesting leftovers in the field
and commercial establishments. In this connection, waste generation is categorized
into production waste (20%), processing waste (1%), distribution waste (19%), and
consumer and household waste (60%). The zero-waste notions are handled using
various tactics to reduce waste and increase its reusability.
The zero-waste concepts have created a new revolution to avoid waste genera-
tion. The designing approach of this process has increased waste reusability for
converting waste to products with added value (Du et al. 2018; Karthik et al. 2022).
The generated food wastes are leaf, stem, root, seed, peel, and roots. The waste
made from leftover vegetables has various characteristics that vary depending on
the plant species. The wastes possess phytochemical, antioxidant, and antidiabetic
properties and are utilized to develop multiple value-added products such as flavor-
ing agents, nutraceuticals, biopolymers, and therapeutic enzymes (Mohamed et al.
2022; Velusamy et al. 2022; Zena et al. 2023). Therefore, developing different com-
mercial products from vegetable wastes using the zero-waste concept is an effective
waste valorization to minimize waste accumulation and increase the environmental
protection and economy of the country (Sridhar et al. 2021; Mohamed et al. 2022).
Waste creation is inevitable, particularly during the processing at the commercial
level and pre-consumption phase. Most vegetable waste generated from the vegeta-
ble processing industry has constituted higher carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and
nutraceuticals (Selvakumar and Sivashanmugam 2017a). This nutrient-rich waste
may be used to make valuable products such as biofuels, enzymes, bioactive com-
pounds, biodegradable polymers, and nanoparticles. In addition, these wastes are a
renewable source of industrially essential compounds and raw materials for com-
mercial manufacturing. The waste conversion technologies that majorly impact the
8 Commercial Products Derived from Vegetable Processing Industrial Wastes… 149

environment, biochemical processing, and extraction processes for biologically

active chemicals provide economically appealing food waste prospects. However,
vegetable waste could be a sustainable source for producing different commercially
important products only by equipping upgraded conversion routes to meet future
demand for food products. This chapter focuses on the physicochemical character-
istics of vegetable waste and traditional conventional and emerging waste conver-
sion techniques. Besides, recent commercial products developed from different
types of vegetable wastes as suitable ingredients are well explained.

8.2 General Conversion Routes of Vegetable

Processing Waste

Due to the increased waste produced by the world’s expanding population, the
demand for vegetable production and the processing sector that supports it surged.
The problem has worsened due to the slow establishment of efficient waste manage-
ment strategies and procedures for adequate waste treatment and removal. Vegetable
waste can be used to create numerous useful products since it is an extensive supply
of complex carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nutraceuticals. Generally, different
conversion routes, such as landfill, composting, and fermentation, are used to con-
vert vegetable waste. Landfilling is the traditional disposal method for solid wastes
such as vegetables, fruit, or agro-residual. Economically viable and low processing
costs are more beneficial for producing landfill gas than other conventional waste
disposal methods. This method of waste utilization may affect wildlife, emit foul
odors, and challenge maintaining optimal process conditions. The worldwide short-
age of land for disposal is the great concern of not prioritizing landfilling route of
disposal (Karthik et al. 2021; Sridhar et al. 2021; Calbry-Muzyka et al. 2022).
Composting is the most important natural or biological method of solid waste
treatment to generate fertilizer or manure. This has been achieved by utilizing a
microbial community. The microorganisms lead to catabolism and oxidation of car-
bonaceous substances in vegetable wastes, producing CO2 and methane, and finally,
compost developed can be effectively used as a biofertilizer for agricultural prac-
tices. Composting of vegetable waste is enhanced by physicochemical properties
such as pH, temperature, carbon-to-nitrogen ratio, moisture, and aeration (aerobic
catabolism). Some microorganisms such as Eiseni fetida, Eudrilus eugeniae,
Perionyx excavates, Megascolex mauritii, and Lumbricus rubellus are commonly
used for the composting of vegetable wastes to produce valuable products. This
process has increased water retention capacity, soil aggregate stability, soil aeration,
and water infiltration. However, this method has drawbacks such as groundwater
contamination due to infiltrated leachate and emitting bad odor (Jain et al. 2019;
Asaithambi et al. 2020; Perumal et al. 2023; Sun and Yu 2023).
Fermentation is a traditional vegetable or agro-residual waste method. This pro-
cess decomposes organic matter in the solid waste into liquid or gas phase by the
activity of aerobic or anaerobic microorganisms under the optimized environment.
150 D. G. Gizaw et al.

The substrate components in the solid waste such as macronutrients and

­micronutrients influence product yield. Wild-type bacteria have generally been used
for the anaerobic degradation of solid waste, consisting of different biochemical
stages such as hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis, and methanogenesis
(Periyasamy et al. 2022b). Throughout the process, the mass and volume of solid
waste are reduced, and the organic components are converted to biogas through the
microbial communities. During this process, the organic matter in the vegetable
wastes is hydrolyzed into mono sugars, fatty acid, and amino acids. Further, the
hydrolysates turned into various products, such as biogas, organic acids, and short-
chain alcohols, according to the process conditions (Arhoun et al. 2019). Besides,
vegetable wastes are commercially utilized as potential adsorbents after pyrolyzing
to remove the contaminants in water bodies. The vegetable wastes such as peel,
bark, leaf, and stem constitute increased porosity and surface area, which facilitates
improved adsorption of contaminants (Pradhan et al. 2020). Therefore, the way of
waste processing and products developments are unique with each method. Based
on the overall performance and environmental concern, each conversion route has
advantages and disadvantages, as indicated in Table 8.1.

Table 8.1 Merits, demerits, and products of various vegetable waste conversion routes
Conversion
routes Merits Demerits Products References
Landfills Economically Difficult to Landfill gases and Sridhar et al.
viable maintain controlled biofertilizers (2021)
Low process cost conditions
Suitable for solid
Creates unpleasant
waste utilizationodors and
generates leachates
Larger area is
required and
decreases soil
quality
Affects
groundwater
quality and wildlife
Composting High water Creates infiltrated Fertilizer and Jain et al. (2019),
retention capacity leachate compost and Sun and Yu
Enhances Causes (2023)
microbial activity groundwater
Improves soil contamination
nutritional and Emits unpleasant
aggregate stability odor
Increases soil
aeration and water
infiltration
Fermentation Generates minimal Expensive Biogas, organic Arhoun et al.
residue procedure acids, short-chain (2019), and
Emits less odor High consumption alcohols, and Periyasamy et al.
Increases sludge Temperature digestate (2022b)
value and used as sensitive
fertilizer
8 Commercial Products Derived from Vegetable Processing Industrial Wastes… 151

8.3 Recent Valorization Studies on Vegetable

Industry Wastes

Each year, industries involved in food processing, such as those that produce juice,
chips, meat, confectionery, and fruit, produce enormous amounts of by-products
and related effluents of organic waste. Various wastes are formed when vegetables
and fruits are grown, processed, and prepared. The waste can be in the part of leaves
or straws, the garbage generated during harvests, debris from the processing indus-
try, or waste from the processing itself. Because of the great diversity of the fruits
and vegetables used, the large group of operations, and the diversity of the output,
the waste generated by the fruit processing sector is quite diversified.
However, the massive volume of waste in these industries, both liquid and solid,
includes various reusable substances of significant importance with immense eco-
nomic possibilities. Wastes such as peels, seeds, and wasted flesh produced at vari-
ous stages of production chains can still lead to environmental issues if it is not
appropriately utilized. Unfortunately, this waste material, released into the environ-
ment, is a treasure trove of useful chemicals. The buildup of such wastes at the
disposal sites causes natural decay to take longer than it should, emits a bad smell,
and raises potential health hazards. Because of their sluggish biodegradability,
acidic pH, and pungent smell in landfills, volatile solids, excess moisture, and few
lignocellulosic materials in these fruit and vegetable wastes pose severe ecological
risks (Zhou and Wen 2019). A wide variety of commercially valuable products such
as biofuels, nanoparticles enzymes, biofertilizers, bioactive compounds, and biode-
gradable plastics has been produced by the bioconversion of the vegetable process-
ing industry, as shown in Fig. 8.1. This section presents the most current developments
in turning vegetable industrial wastes into value-added products, which may greatly
aid in the transition to a holistic, cyclic paradigm of “reuse, recycle, and regenerate.”
It is essential in establishing a sustainable agricultural economy (Khaksar et al.
2022). In addition, it could aid in the growth of a circular economy, which is an
economic model based on the efficient use of resources through waste reduction,
long-term value retention, primary resource minimization, and closed production
cycles within the constraints and guidelines of socio-environmental policy initia-
tives (Hofmann 2019).

8.3.1 Biofuels

The need for more energy has compelled society to transition from a linear econ-
omy based on fossil fuels to a sustainable and circular economy (Selvakumar et al.
2022). Biofuels offer advantages and disadvantages regarding social, economic, and
environmental sustainability. The major worldwide drivers of biofuels are, on the
one hand, the mitigation of carbon emissions, security of energy, and rural develop-
ment (Kavitha et al. 2022). On the contrary, there are issues with enhancing the
152 D. G. Gizaw et al.

Fig. 8.1 Value-added products from vegetable wastes

levels of biofuels such as stress on food cost, the possibility of a rise in greenhouse
gas emissions, as well as the dangers of ecosystem degradation and the deterioration
of lands, forests, water resources, and other resources (Subramaniam et al. 2020;
Dhandayuthapani et al. 2021, 2022).
However, this is not the case with fruits and vegetable wastes, which are particu-
larly significant because they are not competing with food and feed crops as bio-
masses for anaerobic digestion (AD). Potato peel wastes, apple pomace, orange
peel, carrot leftovers, and other biofuel wastes are examples that can be converted
into biofuel. Converting such wastes for biofuel synthesis generates useful products
and lowers waste treatment expenses. A diverse range of products is included under
the umbrella term “biofuel” such as bioethanol, biodiesel, biohydrogen, biobutanol,
biogas, and syngas. The investigations that have been done on using vegetable
wastes to make different kinds of biofuels are presented in this subsection
(Periyasamy et al. 2022a).

8.3.1.1 Bioethanol

As cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin are polysaccharide-rich residues products in

the vegetable processing industry, they can be treated for solid-state fermentation
for making ethanol, which has different applications, including as a solvent and a
8 Commercial Products Derived from Vegetable Processing Industrial Wastes… 153

liquid fuel additive used in various sectors. Because of its abundant accessibility,
significant starch and cellulose content, and lack of competition with the food sup-
ply chain, vegetable wastes may provide a possible source of fuel for bioethanol
synthesis (Singh et al. 2012). The vegetable waste composition varies depending on
the kind of waste, as presented in Table 8.2. Whatever content is available, pretreat-
ment, saccharification, and fermentation are the main steps in turning vegetable
waste into biofuel, as shown in Fig. 8.2. Several studies have been performed on
synthesizing bioethanol utilizing various vegetable wastes such as banana waste,
potato peel, apple pomace, banana peel, and pineapple waste. High-reducing sugars
found in fruit waste are used to make bioethanol. Using the fermentation process
with yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, bioethanol is synthesized from common veg-
etable leftovers such as onion peel, potato peel, and carrot peel (Mushimiyimana
and Tallapragada 2017; Kavitha et al. 2022).
Recently, the potato peel waste’s conversion into bioethanol was performed with
hydrolytic enzymes such as alpha-amylase, cellulase, termamyl, and amyloglucosi-
dase (Awogbemi et al. 2022). Ingale et al. (2014) synthesized bioethanol utilizing
pseudo banana stem as substrate after pretreating it with Aspergillus fumigatus and
A. ellipticus. Similarly, several vegetable wastes such as pineapple waste, potato
mash, and peels are effectively valorized for bioethanol production using suitable
yeast organisms, namely Aspergillus niger and Saccharomyces cerevisiae
(Chintagunta et al. 2016; Gil and Maupoey 2018).

8.3.1.2 Biodiesel

Alkyl esters with higher fatty acid content and lower aliphatic alcohol content make
up biodiesel. Since this biofuel emits zero net CO2, biodiesel can be regarded as
“carbon neutral.” The best materials for biodiesel are those with high lipid content
such as used or fresh vegetable oils, animal fats, and microbial lipids (Selvakumar
and Sivashanmugam 2017b, 2018a). The transesterification technique, frequently
used for making biodiesel, only needs low pressure and temperatures and can pro-
vide a 98% conversion yield (Muniraj et al. 2015). Triglycerides and alcohol react
with a suitable transesterification catalyst to enhance biodiesel and crude glycerol.
On the other hand, it is also possible to use supercritical fluid extraction techniques
to produce biodiesel from oilseed (Syimir Fizal et al. 2022).
For biodiesel synthesis, lipid- and oil-rich vegetable wastes, such as tomato seed,
rapeseed, palm, and canola, are used. Tomato seeds, for instance, may be utilized for
making biodiesel. Tomato seed oil may be converted through trans-esterification
into fatty acid methyl esters (Karami et al. 2023). This biodiesel is capable of being
used as fuel alone or in combination with petroleum diesel (Selvakumar and
Sivashanmugam 2017a, 2018b). Despite the large amount of tomato waste produced
and the fact that tomato seeds contain roughly 24% oil, quite a few researchers have
examined biodiesel production (Sivasubramanian et al. 2020).
 154

Table 8.2 Chemical and physical compositions of vegetable wastes

Total
Type of waste Starch (%) Cellulose (%) Hemicellulose (%) Lignin (%) Protein (%) Moisture (%) Ash (%) solid (%) References
Potato waste 30–40 17–25 10–15 3–5 85–87 6–12 1.7–19 Afifi (2011)
Tomato waste 10–18 30–32 5–18 17–22 85–90 3.1–5.3 7–22 Saev et al. (2009)
Onion waste – – – – 8.5 82–93 4.7 91 Benítez et al. (2011)
Sugar beet – – – – – 85 3.8–8.8 7–11 Hampannavar and
Shivayogimath
(2010)
Carrot 1–2 13–52 12–19 – 5–8 – – – Sagar et al. (2018)
Orange peel – 9.2 10.5 0.8 – 11.8 3.5 – Rivas et al. (2008)
Pineapple peel – 18 – 1.4 91 – 94 Paepatung et al.
(2009)
D. G. Gizaw et al.
8 Commercial Products Derived from Vegetable Processing Industrial Wastes… 155

Fig. 8.2 Schematic representation of vegetable waste generation, processing, and end applications

8.3.1.3 Biohydrogen

The hydrogen (H2) economy offers one of the most potential ecologically sound and
long-term energy options. Currently, 95% of H2 is generated via coal gasification or
steam reforming of natural gas, emitting CO2 (IRENA 2020). Furthermore, due to
its ease of accessibility, environmental friendliness, and greater energy density, bio-
hydrogen has the potential to be a biofuel. Since it emits no CO2 and tends to replace
exhausted oil supplies, it is one of the cleanest fuels (Magama et al. 2022). The
fermentation method that uses light-dependent and dark fermentative processes to
produce hydrogen offers several benefits over other approaches (Scotto di Perta
et al. 2022). Because of its organic composition and biodegradability, fruit and veg-
etable waste (FVW) have great potential for biohydrogen production (Mishra et al.
2023). Additionally, FVW satisfies the primary criteria taken into account when
choosing waste for biohydrogen generation, namely availability and affordability,
carbohydrate content, and biodegradability (Moussa et al. 2022). With the addition
of sewage, it was demonstrated a rise of up to 55% in hydrogen synthesis using
vegetable wastes (Mohanakrishna et al. 2010). A substrate for biohydrogen genera-
tion can be made from various wastes, including potato, pumpkin, fruit wastes,
fennel, and olive pomace wastes, as well as green vegetables such as cabbage, water
celery, and cauliflower (Kalita and Sit 2022).

8.3.1.4 Biomethane

Anaerobic digestion of biogenic wastes by different microorganisms can result in

the production of biomethane, an inexpensive source of bioenergy. The method of
using vegetable waste to produce biomethane reduces wood fuel dependency, solves
156 D. G. Gizaw et al.

residual disposal, and reduces soil contamination and air and water pollution (Koul
et al. 2022). Vegetable waste with a high organic content can be treated anaerobi-
cally to generate high methane yield with changing organic loading and a digested
slurry is utilized for soil conditioner. As previously mentioned, fruit and vegetable
wastes can produce methane through anaerobic fermentation. Due to their reduced
lignin composition, vegetable wastes exhibit greater biodegradability and methane
yields than lignocellulosic residues. Methane yields from vegetable wastes were
390, 320, 291, and 198 mL CH4/g of volatile solids (VS) in the wastes of onion (Ji
et al. 2017), potato (Parawira et al. 2005), carrot pomace (Garcia et al. 2011), and
watermelon (Scapini et al. 2023), respectively. Similarly, the maximum observed
methane yields found from pineapple and kiwi waste were 413 and 371 mL CH4/g
VS (Menardo and Balsari 2012). Bananas and fluted pumpkin peels yielded signifi-
cantly lower methane, with 164 and 188 mL CH4/g VS (Dahunsi et al. 2016).
According to another study, out of 13 fruit and vegetable wastes, carrot waste pro-
duced the higher methane (417 mL/g volatile solids, with an organic loading rate
(OLR) of 0.8–0.9 g VS/L/day) (Velmurugan 2011). Many researchers have recently
been engaged to increase methane yield by incorporating vegetable waste alongside
other organic wastes such as food wastes, secondary sludge, and cow dung (Agrawal
et al. 2023; Shi and Xu 2023).

8.3.2 Biofertilizer

Significant economic and environmental threats are related to the widespread use of
irrational disposal techniques for fruit and vegetable wastes (FVWs). One strategy
for minimizing these environmental issues and enhancing the nutrition of soils is to
produce biofertilizers from leftover fruit and vegetable using microbial degradation
(Chakravarty and Mandavgane 2021; Bala et al. 2023). The biological conversion of
vegetable residues into useful biofertilizers and biogas is a potentially effective
approach. The microorganism that produces methane reaches the stationary phase
earlier by using the sugar that is accessible to the development by the buildup of the
hazardous components in a single aerobic digestion (AD) (Fu et al. 2017), where pH
begins to decrease and biomass approaches early steady state with longer retention
period (Weimer 2019). In several steps, fermentation avoids toxin buildup, acceler-
ates biomass fall, and aids in pH regulation, all of which can be used to resolve these
difficulties of slow decomposition efficiencies (Chakravarty and Mandavgane 2021).
Utilizing organic fertilizers enhances the physical, chemical, and biological
properties of soil by enabling bacteria to degrade organic substances. Vegetable
wastes are rich in soil nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, which
can improve soil fertility and crop output (Beesigamukama et al. 2021). When it
comes to reducing environmental problems and managing sustainable agricultural
land, they are an improved substitute for chemical fertilizers. By utilizing different
microorganisms to decompose in anoxic circumstances, such as bacteria and
archaea, the decomposition of intricate organic materials in fruit and vegetable
8 Commercial Products Derived from Vegetable Processing Industrial Wastes… 157

waste (FVWs) is aided by anaerobic digestion. It produces biogas as a substitute for

other biofuels (Mirmohamadsadeghi et al. 2019). Anaerobic digesters’ end effluent
could be used as a biofertilizer. In a tomato cropping system, compost based on
tomatoes found nutrient and bio-stimulation effects responsible for the enhanced
response in productivity (Pane et al. 2015). Additionally, it has been noted that con-
tinuous applications of these compost wastes enhance the soil’s nitrogen conditions
over time (Tits et al. 2014).

8.3.3 Industrial Enzymes

Solid-state fermentation using vegetable wastes has produced enzymes such as cel-
lulases, amylases, proteases, lipases, and pectinases. Enzymes are used in diverse
fields to manufacture a huge range of goods. For example, tannases are used to
reduce the quantity of tannic acid in effluents, pectinases are utilized in food, and
the biofuel industry utilizes cellulases. Moreover, roughly 30% of the operating
expenses are attributable to the raw material required to produce various enzymes
(Ravindran and Jaiswal 2016). When using microorganisms to produce different
enzymes, it is important to note that the synthesis for enzymes differs according to
the substrates the microbes are growing on and the fermentation techniques
(Shrestha et al. 2021).
Several studies have been done on how to make enzymes from vegetable wastes.
Using solid-state fermentation with Pleurotus ostreatus, produced ligninolytic
enzymes from potato peel waste such as manganese peroxidase, laccase, lignin per-
oxidase, and aryl alcohol oxidase (Ergun and Urek 2017). Numerous FVWs such as
banana waste, date waste, and potato peel have been utilized in synthesizing amy-
lase utilizing both submerged fermentation (SmF) and solid-state fermentation.
Amylases are frequently used in baking, brewing, and producing digestive aids such
as when making sugar, paper, and other products (Mehta and Satyanarayana 2016).
Lipase was synthesized using Yarrowia lipolytica by SmF utilizing discarded mango
peel and seed from industrial processing (Pereira et al. 2019). At the optimum tem-
perature (27.9 °C), pH (5.0), and substrate concentration resulted in a lipase output
as high as 3500 U/L of extracellular lipase. Furthermore, by utilizing Trichoderma
harzianum, wide variety of fruit and vegetable wastes are used for the synthesis of
xylanase (Rodríguez Couto 2008), and grape pomace is used as a substrate by
Aspergillus niger to produce xylanase (Teles et al. 2019).

8.3.4 Nanoparticles

The synthesis of nanomaterials from vegetable and fruit processing residues is a

relatively recent topic of study. Useful bioactive components found in vegetables act
as reducing agents for producing metal nanoparticles (Ghosh et al. 2017; Sithara
158 D. G. Gizaw et al.

et al. 2017). Several metal nanoparticles have been produced using fruit and
­vegetable residues. Because of exceptional characteristics such as size, shape, sur-
face area, alteration, and optical, magnetic, and electrical properties, the advance-
ment of nanomaterials offers multiple fields of work and its relevance to a broad
array of uses ranging from traditional chemical processes to environmental to medi-
cine technologies (Aswathi et al. 2022). There are two general ways used in tradi-
tional techniques for producing nanoparticles. Chemical and physical methods are
the two options. A wide range of nanoparticles has been produced using both
methods.
Nonetheless, these methods frequently use hazardous solvents, nonbiodegrad-
able stabilizing chemicals, and unsustainable procedures that pose several human
and ecological risks. However, several other biological techniques have recently
been researched for producing a wide range of nanoparticles. Utilization of hazard-
ous solvents as well as chemicals can be avoided, and a green chemistry-based
approach that uses biological processes is environmentally benign (Nasrollahzadeh
et al. 2019). Alternative options to standard production processes that are appealing
and environmentally benign include green chemistry-based techniques using vege-
table and fruit wastes such as orange peel, banana peel, tomato waste, potato waste,
and others. Recently, the ability of a broad spectrum of vegetable and fruit waste to
synthesize nanoparticles has been investigated. For instance, using green synthesis,
Mythili et al. (2018) produced silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) from vegetable waste
(vegetable peels and discarded vegetables). Based on the data, Ag-NPs could be
produced a 43 nm particle size and a range of 10–90 nm (Mythili et al. 2018). In
another study, Skiba and Vorobyova (2019) prepared an extract of orange peel using
a plasma solvent extraction approach, and silver nanoparticles were created by
degrading methylene blue under solar irradiation (Skiba and Vorobyova 2019).
Ahmad and Sharma (2012) also found that an extract from the fruit Ananas comosus
resulted in spherical silver 5- to 35-nm-sized nanoparticles (Ahmad and Sharma
2012). Many researchers have utilized vegetable wastes for nanoparticle synthesis,
with low-cost and environmentally friendly for various applications.

8.3.5 Biodegradable Plastics

The most current investigation into bioplastic production focuses on waste compo-
nents and by-products of the vegetable industries of processing. Because those
waste disposal sites produce negative outcomes, including pollution of groundwater
and the release of greenhouse gases, their valorization by employing the develop-
ment of bioplastics may provide a way to solve their disposal issue using sustain-
able and renewable technologies (Gong et al. 2023). Vegetables and fruit residues
are rich in cellulose and starch that can be used to produce bio-based polymers.
Peels of several vegetables have been investigated for use in bio-based polymer
production. For instance, the synthesis of starch-based bioplastics using cassava
peels has been studied. To produce high-quality plastics, cassava peel starch was
8 Commercial Products Derived from Vegetable Processing Industrial Wastes… 159

enhanced with cellulose and sorbitol. As stated by Saridewi and Malik (2019), there
are significant uses for polymers made from cassava peel in food packaging
(Saridewi and Malik 2019). It has also been stated that waste potato peels can be
used to produce plastics. These peels, produced in vast amounts by industrial potato
processing, are high in starch, cellulose, and hemicelluloses. The synthesis of
starch-based plastic using potato peels and a review of its biodegradability were
reported recently (ARIKAN and Bilgen 2019). In recent years, various biopoly-
mers, such as cellulose, polyhydroxyalkanoates, corn starch, and chitosan/pectin,
have been extracted from several sources of vegetable waste for manufacturing bio-
plastics (Aslam et al. 2023; Merino et al. 2023).

8.3.6 Bioactive Compounds

Significant wastes or by-products are created during vegetable and fruit processing,
making up between 25% and 30% of the whole commodity category. The waste
comprises seeds, skin, and pomace, a significant supply of bioactive substances
with potential value (Sagar et al. 2018). Carotenoids, polyphenols, dietary fibers,
vitamins, and enzymes are a few examples of these components, which are utilized
in a variety of industries such as the food industry to create enriched or functional
foods, in the health industry to create medications and medicines, and in the textile
industry (Selvakumar et al. 2021). An important step toward sustainable develop-
ment is using waste to manufacture important bioactive substances.
Phenolic compounds are one of the most numerous types of bioactive chemicals,
which have diverse and significant biological roles. Fruit and vegetable rind, peel,
and seeds contain high levels of phenolic chemicals. The key beneficial constitu-
ents, such as total polyphenols, were extracted significantly from pineapple wastes.
According to Hernández-Carranza et al. (2016), apple pomace, orange, and banana
peels contain a substantial quantity of flavonoids, phenolic substances, and vitamin
C (Hernández-Carranza et al. 2016). Orange had the highest phenolic compounds
and vitamin C (729 mg of GAE/100 g DW and 96 mg of ascorbic acid/100 g DW,
respectively). In contrast, banana peel had the highest concentration of flavonoids
(752 mg of catechin/100 g DW). Citrus peels, grape seeds and skins, apple peels and
pomace, grape skins and seeds, banana peels and seeds, and mango kernels have all
been utilized successfully to extract phenolic chemicals for nutraceuticals (Varzakas
et al. 2016). In addition, vegetable waste is a rich source of dietary fiber, a vital
bioactive substance.
160 D. G. Gizaw et al.

8.3.7 Food Additives and Essential Oils

Food additives serve various purposes such as minimizing food spoilage and micro-
bial degradation, improving food qualities, adding color or flavor, and lowering
acidity. They also help reduce food waste and increase the population’s access to a
wider variety of foods. Due to studies demonstrating the negative consequences of
synthetic additives, interest in and demand for natural foods have surged in recent
years. The bioactive molecule-rich by-products and biowaste from the vegetable
processing sector amount to tons of raw resources. For instance, orange peels con-
tain sugars that are soluble, cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, and important oils,
making them suitable for flavorings, sweeteners, and antioxidants (Dávila-Aviña
et al. 2018). The color of food is critical in determining its approval since it influ-
ences the user’s sense of its quality. As a result, using pigments and coloring agents
is becoming a strategy for drawing in customers. Natural colorants such as carot-
enoids, anthocyanins, betanin, and chlorophyll have health benefits in addition to
their decorative impacts (Pant et al. 2023).
Since ancient times, essential oils have been used in healing and fragrance.
Essential oils are now one of the high-value agricultural commodities and as a result
of the growing consumer desire for natural products. Several methods, such as
steam distillation and hydrodistillation, extract essential oils from plant source
materials. Essential oils are extensively employed and distinguished by their numer-
ous advantages for usage in healthcare, pharmaceutical, and food industries, as well
as in the cosmetics and fragrance industries. Essential oils also have a variety of
biological impacts (Hikal et al. 2021). Organic aromatic or bactericidal components
were reliably present in the essential oil generated.

8.3.8 Pigments

Petrochemical-derived synthetic pigments have been widely used in a variety of

processed foods. However, these pigments’ detrimental impacts on public health
have forced the scientific community to look into far safer, natural, and environmen-
tally friendly pigments. In this sense, it is important to utilize the potential of veg-
etable wastes, which may be collected primarily through environmentally friendly
processing and extraction techniques. Vegetable residues and their by-products
might be valued to meet the industrial demands of natural pigment manufacturing
for prospective uses in food, medicine, and cosmetics (Sharma et al. 2021). Natural
pigments such as anthocyanins, betalains, carotenoids, and chlorophyll are abun-
dant in these wastes. These natural pigments are believed to have a substantial effect
on the production of functional foods and offer a variety of biotherapeutic possibili-
ties (Malabadi et al. 2022).
According to several studies, carotenoids can be extracted from vegetal wastes.
Elik et al. (2020) recently used microwave-aided extraction to recover carotenoids
8 Commercial Products Derived from Vegetable Processing Industrial Wastes… 161

(77.48%) from waste produced during the processing of carrot juice under ideal
conditions (165 W of microwave power, 9.39 min of extraction time, and 8.06:1 g/g
of oil-to-waste ratio) (Elik et al. 2020). Kehili et al. (2016) proposed a biorefinery
cascade approach to turn tomato wastes into value-added goods. The researchers
extracted carotenoids from the oil portion of tomato peels and seeds using super-
critical CO2 technology (Kehili et al. 2016). Prokopov et al. (2017) showed that an
enzymatic blend (cellulase 100 U g and hemicellulase 400 U g) improved the
­quantity of carotenoids recovered from tomato skins. Similarly, Kehili et al. (2017)
reported that they recovered between 32% and 61% of lycopene and 28.38–58.8%
of β-carotene utilizing a supercritical CO2 extraction from tomato by-products
(Kehili et al. 2017). Carotenoids are recovered through supercritical fluid extraction
from different vegetal wastes. Recovered carotenoids from peel waste of sweet
potato, tomato, apricot, pumpkin, peach, and pepper waste were 165.1, 253.5,
285.1, 142.0, 59.5, and 109.2 g/g dry weight basis, respectively (de Andrade Lima
et al. 2018).

8.3.9 Animal Feed

By-products from fruits and vegetables have low hemicellulose and cellulose con-
tent in lignin. Consequently, they can be a suitable feed source for animals, particu-
larly ruminants. Extracting some value-added elements first, followed by utilizing
the remaining waste for feed or fertilizer, can be an economically sound method of
using vegetable residues. However, such a reusing technique also has significant
limitations. These wastes are vulnerable to microbial contamination because the
higher moisture level frequently exceeds 80%. Hence, partial drying is frequently
necessary. Additionally, low protein content and a high concentration of chemicals
that cannot be digested do not always lead to good animal feed (Oliveira et al. 2017).
Furthermore, the seasonal variations in vegetable product composition force pro-
ducers to frequently alter feed compositions. Next, fermentation may be used fol-
lowing the process of extracting valuable components to further enhance the quality
of feeds. To improve the nutritional content of the feed, functional ingredients such
as phenolic and protein extracts obtained from various vegetable residues may occa-
sionally be added (Kowalska et al. 2017). By-products from the industrial process-
ing of tomatoes could be used as livestock feed to lower the price of animal feed and
can also be utilized as a dietary supplement for humans by isolating the key
chemicals.
162 D. G. Gizaw et al.

8.4 Future Opportunities

To enhance the long-term environmental viability of the vegetable processing indus-

tries, wastes/by-products should be utilized or recycled appropriately. Reusing such
waste is still in its early stages because of the requirement of novel recovery tech-
niques and/or new production lines, whose prices are still higher than already-in-­
place landfill taxes and composting charges. The food industry’s only goal is to
lower energy and water use and, to a lesser extent, recover energy from waste.
Increased research–industry collaboration, the adaptation and use of already avail-
able technology, and the adoption of scale economies necessary for treating large
amounts of biomass with low specific economic values can all be advantageous for
using vegetable wastes. To boost the reuse of the individual components found in
vegetable wastes, cutting-edge extraction techniques must be used. These tech-
niques can reduce the need for solvents and so improve the overall eco-­sustainability
of the food life cycle.

8.5 Conclusions

Population growth and increased fruit and vegetable intake due to increased nutri-
tion knowledge are causing massive amounts of fruit and vegetable waste. However,
it has become crucial to establish a sustainable method of handling these vegetable
residues in the current circumstances. As a result, it necessitates establishing a strat-
egy that can effectively exploit the possibilities of these waste materials and assist
in gaining benefits from these wastes in the social, environmental, and economic
spheres. Additionally, using leftover fruit and vegetable material to make products
with added value, such as biofuels, enzymes, nanoparticles, biofertilizers, bioactive
compounds, and biodegradable plastics, could be a green and sustainable method of
developing innovative business prospects and functionalizing this waste. However,
most conversion approaches are still in their infancy, with few technological
improvements and achievements. As a result, there is a strong necessity to form
consortiums of researchers and manufacturers to enhance the economic viability of
these precious vegetable wastes through initial investment.

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Chapter 9
Exotic Nutrients Content from Tamarind
(Tamarindus indica) Seed is a Boon
of Sustainable Healthy Diets

S. Parameshwari and C. Hemalatha

Abstract The objective of the book chapter research is to demonstrate the value of
tamarind seeds as an alternative source of dietary staples for a sustainable diet.
Foods that are good for our bodies and the environment are those that are sustain-
able to eat. Food products that contain tamarind seeds not only contribute to the
conservation of the earth but also provide a healthy diet for the body. The tamarind
tree (Tamarindus indica) is popularly used for its consumable pulp of fruit, used in
cookery globally. The tamarind seeds were considered waste earlier but are now
used to produce tamarind kernel powder (TKP), a high-value product. A seed is
composed of approximately 60–65 of the kernel. In addition to being rich in pro-
teins, carbohydrates, fiber, oils, polysaccharides, and sugars, TKP also contains cal-
cium, magnesium, potassium, phosphorus, and vitamin C. Tamarind kernel powder
has been identified as an alternate and inexpensive source of proteins as well as
essential nutrients. It has considerable commercial feasibility and is readily avail-
able. TKP is nutritionally equal to the major aspects of pulses, legumes, and cereal
crops. For the creation of unique food items, it can be used such as thickening, dis-
solving, emulsifying, gelling, binding, and solubilizing agent. The primary applica-
tions of TKP are in the preparation of baked goods, as well as ready-to-eat foods
such as noodles, ice cream, sauces, and flavoring. As a result, tamarind seed is used
to produce food items with minimal adverse effects on the environment, helping to
ensure the security of food and nutrition as well as the health of the current and
future generations.

Keywords Sustainable · Tamarind kernel powder · Thickening · Disintegrating ·

Nutritional value

S. Parameshwari (*) · C. Hemalatha

Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Periyar University, Salem, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 169
E. Cherian, B. Gurunathan (eds.), Value Added Products From Food Waste,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48143-7_9
170 S. Parameshwari and C. Hemalatha

9.1 Introduction

A major global focus is on raising diet quality while also lowering environmental
effect. Food waste has not been accounted the relationship between the quality of
diet and its sustainability implications, which have been traditionally focused on a
limited range of factors. We investigate the connection between food waste and a
sustainable, healthy diet to fill this crucial research gap (Conrad et al. 2018).
Seeds from fruit processing are wasted and unusable. Recent studies reveal that
these discarded waste products may include nutrients and bioactive substances in
significantly higher concentrations than those found in the fruit’s meat. Studying the
physicochemical characteristics and bioactive compound content of fruit seeds may
help determine whether it would be beneficial and possible to use them more widely
in the creation of functional foods (Siol et al. 2022).
Investigating plant-derived proteins as an affordable and environmentally
friendly protein source for a healthy eating food could help solve the malnutrition
issues (Sonawane and Arya 2018). Grains and seeds are examples of plant items that
can be categorized as nutraceuticals since they contain proteins and peptides. Any
functional food extract having well-being and medicinal uses, especially for
humans, is referred to as a nutraceutical (Moldes et al. 2017). Proteins derived from
cereals and seeds are essential components of dietary systems that fight protein-­
calorie malnutrition in underdeveloped nations (Hackler 1985). Nutritionally bal-
anced protein foods from the legume family are known as “Poor Man’s Meat” for
people who do not have money for purchasing dairy, meat, and fish (Tharanathan
and Mahadevamma 2003). Grain and seed proteins open doors of opportunity for
rural communities with limited access to natural resources by lowering poverty lev-
els, enhancing nutrition and health, conserving the ecosystem and enhancing food
safety. Grain and seed protein are typical sources of B vitamins, calories, carbs,
minerals, and protein.
A crucial tree for the economy is Tamarindus indica, also known as the tamarind.
Every aspect of the tamarind tree has a use, making it a versatile tree species. The
food, biochemical, pharmaceutical, textile, timber, fodder, and fuel sectors all use
various parts of the tamarind tree (Sheikh and Shivanna 2022). Throughout Asia’s
southern and southeast regions, people frequently eat tamarind, which can be uti-
lized for preparing chutneys, marinades, beverages, sauces, and desserts. However,
the majority of people are unaware that tamarind seeds and leaves can also be eaten
(Srivastava 2021).
The production of tamarind pulp yields seeds as a by-product. After soaking and
boiling the seed with water, the tannins and other coloring agents present in the testa
are eliminated, making the entire seed suitable for consumption. Tannin, glue, and
polysaccharide (jellose) are all products made from tamarind seed as a raw material.
The seed kernels are rich in protein, while the seed coat contains a significant
amount of fiber and tannins (considered antinutritional factors). According to a
study by Emmy De Caluwé et al. (2010), there has been a rise in the utilization of
seeds as an alternative protein source. In addition, they contain plenty of essential
9 Exotic Nutrients Content from Tamarind (Tamarindus indica) Seed is a Boon… 171

minerals including calcium, magnesium, potassium, and phosphorus as well as

being an exclusive source high in fat acids. The textile, paper, and jute industries
utilize a small quantity of the seed, commonly referred to as tamarind kernel pow-
der, as a sizing ingredient (Pugalenthi et al. 2007).

9.2 Scope of the Study

• The nutritional composition of tamarind seed is highly advantageous, boasting

elevated levels of protein, antioxidant, and a range of essential minerals.
• Tamarind seed kernel powder can be seamlessly incorporated into cereal flour,
enabling the creation of a wide array of food products.
• Utilizing tamarind seed kernel powder as a protein ingredient in food presents an
opportunity to reduce dependence on conventional protein supplements derived
from commonly utilized legumes.

9.3 Objectives of the Study

• To demonstrate the potential of tamarind seeds as an alternative source of dietary

staples, promoting a sustainable diet.
• To give the physicochemical and nutritional properties of tamarind seed ker-
nel powder.
• To show the health benefits of tamarind seed kernel powder.

9.4 Tamarind Plant

The Indian subcontinent is home to several of this native African tree. It is a drought-­
resistant plant, making it a vital resource for many industries (Altrafine.com).

9.4.1 Origin

According to different sources, various places are the origins of tamarind tree. It
was initially thought that the tamarind fruit was originating from an Indian plant
because in Persian the name “tamar-i-hind” meant “date of India.” Its Sanskrit
name, “amlika,” indicates that it has long been a part of the country (Mishra 1997).
It was described between 1200 and 200 BC in the Indian Tamarind Brahmasamhita
literature, according to El-Siddig et al. (2006). According to many academics, the
arid savannahs in tropical Africa spanning from Ethiopia, Tanzania, Sudan, and
172 S. Parameshwari and C. Hemalatha

Kenya to Senegal in sub-Sahelian Africa are believed to be the origin of the tama-
rind tree, although Morton (1987) attributed its origin to India. There are claims that
the tamarind tree first appeared in Madagascar (Hocking 1993; Von Maydell 1986).

9.4.2 The Various Applications

Tamarind plant has multiple uses. For a veritably long time, the fruit pulp, particu-
larly in the southern region of India, was utilized for its culinary use as a spice in
Asian dishes. The culinary, pharmaceutical, chemical, or cloth sectors as well as
those in the fodder, energy diligence, and timber used nearly every corridor of the
tamarind tree (Dagar et al. 1995; George and Rao 1997; Rao and Mary Mathew
2001; Pugalenthi et al. 2004). Tamarind leaves, fruits, and seeds, among other tama-
rind products, have been extensively used in traditional Indian and African remedy
(De Caluwé et al. 2009).

9.4.3 Phytochemistry

It has been shown how minerals, fatty acids, and amino acids are present in various
tamarind plant components. It is possible that variations in genetic strains, harvest-
ing stages for plant parts, and growing conditions are what caused the variances in
values discovered in the literature (Glew et al. 2005).
The fruit is the most valued and frequently utilized component (Saideswara Rao
and Mary Mathew 1999). Due to the fact that almost every part of a tamarind tree
has some form of value, it can be considered a highly versatile tree. The fruit has
roughly a 55% pulp content, a 34% seed content, an 11% shell content, and a pod’s
worth of fiber (Kumar and Bhattacharya 2008).

9.5 Tamarind Seeds

Tamarind seeds are readily available in India, where 11 million tons are produced
each year. The dicotyledonous, flat, and glossy tamarind seeds are solid and vary in
hue from red to purplish-brown. Hard cotyledons line the seed are coated with a
firm or thin skin (Sheikh and Shivanna 2022). The eight- to ten-seed pods that hold
its seeds range in length from three to six inches (Altrafine.com). Tamarind seeds
have between 57% and 80% white kernels and 30 –40% crimson hulls as shows in
Fig. 9.1.
9 Exotic Nutrients Content from Tamarind (Tamarindus indica) Seed is a Boon… 173

Tamarind seed Seed coat (Testa) Kernel (Endosperm) Kernel powder

Fig. 9.1 Tamarind seed, kernel, and kernel powder

Table 9.1 Antinutritional factors in dehulled tamarind seed

Antinutritional factors Values (soaked seed) Values (roasted seed)
Phytate 2.15% 2.53%
Tannins 4.84% 8.34%
Alkaloid 3.34% 3.40%
Trypsin inhibitor 3.553 TIU/100 g 2.854 TIU/100 g
Saponin 0.8% 1.00%
Hydrogen cyanide 3.00 mg/mL 1.00 mg/mL

9.5.1 Antinutrient Factors

The existence of tannins, phytate, and oxalate in food can be described as a hin-
drance to nutrition and is commonly known as an antinutrient factor. These sub-
stances interact with the intestinal tract to affect the nutritional quality and also
lessen amino acid absorption and protein digestibility (Nowacki 1980). Unless these
elements are destroyed through heat or other treatments, when used by animals and
people, they may have negative physiological effects (Liener 1994). Table 9.1 shows
the antinutritional factors present in dehulled tamarind seed (Akajiaku et al. 2014).
The antinutrients are reduced after the use of different processing methods such as
soaking, boiling, roasting, and dehulling the tamarind seeds.

9.6 Benefits of Whole Tamarind Seed

Rural people and members of some ethnic groups, including Malayali and Dravidian
tribes, roast the seeds, mechanically remove the seed coverings, and dehull the tam-
arind seeds before soaking them in water for an entire night before eating them. The
flowers and leaves of the tamarind tree can be consumed as vegetables. Additionally,
the gum derived from tamarind seeds is used to create tamarind gum, which has
been utilized as a thickening agent in various Japanese dishes, as mentioned by
174 S. Parameshwari and C. Hemalatha

Akajiaku et al. (2014) and Khairunnuur et al. (2009). Furthermore, cheap tamarind
seed kernel powder possibly will be an upright alternative to costly pectin for pre-
paring jelly (Pugalenthi and Vadivel 2007). When preparing bread or cakes, tama-
rind powder is used as a raw ingredient. Nowadays, people use tamarind powder to
cure ulcers, substitute starch in the maintenance of textiles, and coagulate fruit
juice. The decorticated seed powder of tamarind exhibits impressive gelling and
adhesion properties, which find applications in the cosmetics, pharmaceutical, and
food industries, as highlighted by Pugalenthi et al. (2007).
A thickening agent or gum in the textile and food industries is provided by the
polysaccharide found in seeds. Infections of the teeth, diarrhea, arthritis, indiges-
tion, and eye health are all treated with seeds. Additionally, it has uses as an antioxi-
dant, antidiabetic, antibacterial, and many others (Sheikh and Shivanna 2022).

9.7 Antioxidant Activities

The structural elucidations of the components of tamarind seed husk extract (TSE),
as well as its antioxidant effects, have all been the subject of several investigations.
According to a study by Wandee et al. (2022), 100 g of tamarind seeds yielded
38.51 g of seed coat, which provided 0.87 g of tamarind seed coat (testa) extract
(2.0% w/w). The extract predominantly contained phenolic compounds
(106.40 mg/g) rather than flavonoids (0.45 mg/g). The tamarind seed extract exhib-
ited superior antioxidant activity (IC50 3.0 μg/mL) compared to standard antioxi-
dants such as ascorbic acid (IC50 6.30 μg/mL) and catechin (IC50 10.9 μg/mL). This
information is represented in Table 9.2 and is determined based on the 5% inhibi-
tory concentration (IC50) derived from concentration response curves obtained from
the DPPH assay.
The tamarind seed coat was extracted using a solution of HPLC chromatogram
with a concentration of 2.5 mg/mL, and A1, blue chromatogram contained a notice-
able peak at retention time of 7.50 min with a distinctive ultraviolet spectrum pat-
tern and a maximum absorption wavelength of 209/239/279 nm, which was related
to the position of the average catechin’s peak at RT for 7.36 min as A1, red chro-
matogram with UV spectrum having a maximal absorption. The chromatograms of
the catechin-infused tamarid seed extract mixture showed that catechin and the TS

Table 9.2 The total antioxidant content in whole tamarind seeds

Antioxidant activity IC50 3.0 μg/mL
Total flavonoid content 0.45 mg Q E/g of seed extract
Total phenolic content 106.40 mg GA E/g of seed extract
GA gallic acid, Q quercetin, E equivalence
9 Exotic Nutrients Content from Tamarind (Tamarindus indica) Seed is a Boon… 175

extract’s standout peak were eluted simultaneously. Catechin was therefore shown
to be a substantial component of TS extract, with levels reaching 429 ±22.29 mg/g
of extract, generalizing from the catechin calibration curve (Roongrawee Wandee
et al. 2022).

9.8 Tamarind Seed Kernel Powder

After that the protective layer is removed, the tamarind kernel can be obtained. A
type of trash that is still not being used to its full potential is the tamarind kernel.
The kernel can be converted into powder to boost its usefulness as a normal hydro-
colloid basis because it contains gum and starch. Kernel shell separation is neces-
sary for powder processing. The process of making powder includes the separation
of the testa from the tamarind kernel, because tamarind kernel testa causes desola-
tion and other mental health issues (Havinga et al. 2010). The kernel of the tamarind
contains a high concentration of essential amino acids, making it a valuable source
of protein and various other nutrients.

9.8.1 Miscellaneous Applications of Tamarind Kernel Powder

The jute and textile industries use as a sizing material. Because it is simpler to
remove from a spun fabric, it is preferable to starch for sizing spun viscose. When it
comes to the processes of dying, printing, and finishing fabrics, it’s thickening abil-
ity opens up a lot of possibilities. A tanning substance used in the leather industry.
In the process of creating bricks, it can also be used to stabilize and condition the
soil, as well as to bind the sawdust while preparing briquettes (Jiayu Ji 2005).
It contributes to being a great paper adhesive when it is boiled in water. It can be
used as food for cattle, pigs, and pets, because it contains nutrients and fiber. It has
been shown to treat pet indigestion (Patel 2013). Because of its thickening proper-
ties, the it can be used to make tinned pet food for cats and dogs.

9.9 Tamarind Seed Kernel Powder (TKP) Preparation

The tamarind seed is often overlooked as a by-product of tamarind pulp industrial

processing. However, when the seeds and pulp are separated, tamarind kernel can be
produced. According to Pulungan et al. (2001), cleaned seeds must be roasted at
140 °C for 10 min before being de-hulled. The white endosperm component of the
seed is mechanically processed to the required sieve size in order to yield a powder
(Thombare Nandkishore et al. 2014).
176 S. Parameshwari and C. Hemalatha

Tamarind seeds

Sorting/ Cleaning

Sundry (2 days)

i) Autoclaving
ii) Boiling
iii) Roasting

Dehulled

Dry, Mill & Sieve

i) Autoclaved TKP
ii) Boiled TKP
iii) Roasted TKP

Fig. 9.2 The process of preparing tamarind seed kernel powder

There is also a soaking method for making this powder. After 14 days of water
sowing, the seed coat should be removed. Seeds are dried and then ground into flour.
A 72-h sun-drying period is required for the pulverized flour. The flour is transferred
to a 1-mm mesh sieve and then kept well-sealed (Akajiaku et al. 2014). The process
of preparing tamarind seed kernel powder is showed in Fig. 9.2.

9.10 Physicochemical and Proximate Composition

9.10.1 Physicochemical Properties of Tamarind Seed

Kernel Powder

The suitability of tamarind seed kernel powder and its properties, such as moisture
content, compressibility, density, water retention, pH, melting point, flow, surface
tension, and swelling index, have been demonstrated for various applications, nota-
bly in the development of pharmaceutical formulations (Phani Kumar et al. 2011;
Kumar et al. 2001; Lang et al. 1992; Deveswaran et al. 2010). Table 9.3 displays the
aforementioned properties.
9 Exotic Nutrients Content from Tamarind (Tamarindus indica) Seed is a Boon… 177

Table 9.3 Physical Physical parameters Values

properties of tamarind seed
True density (g/mL) 1.015–1.9
kernel powder
Moisture content (%) 8.10
Tapped density (g/mL) 0.363–0.781
Melting point (°C) 240–260
Angle of repose (°) 13–29.5
Swelling index (in water) (%) 12–17
Compressibility index (%) 15.33–16.64
Water retention (%) 20.00
Particle size in range (μm) 60–90
Hausner ratio (1% w/v TSP) 0.14–1.23 pH, 6–6.81
Average molecular weight (g/mol) 0.9–2.1 × 106
Bulk density (g/mL) 0.24–0.651
Surface tension (dynes/cm) 61.3–83.26

Table 9.4 Major nutrient Nutrients Amount (%)

composition of tamarind Moisture (g) 7.65 ± 0.01
kernel flour
Ash (g) 2.74 ± 0.06
Carbohydrate (g) 62.13 ± 0.11
Protein (g) 19.46 ± 0.06
Fat (g) 5.7 ± 0.11
Crude fiber (g) 2.32 ± 0.06
All the values are mean ± SD of three observations

9.10.2 Proximate Composition of Tamarind Seed

Kernel Powder

Tamarind seed kernel powder has major nutrient content such as moisture, ash, car-
bohydrates, protein, fat, and fiber. This information is denoted in Table 9.4.

9.10.3 Micronutrients Composition and Amino Acids Profile

TKP contains micronutrients composition, and this data is presented in Table 9.5.
It has good amino acids profile (Gitanjali et al. 2020). Table 9.6 shows the amino
acids content in tamarind seed kernel powder (Heuze et al. 2015).
178 S. Parameshwari and C. Hemalatha

Table 9.5 The mineral composition of tamarind seed kernel flour

Minerals Amount (mg/100 g)
Calcium (mg) 109.25 ± 0.11
Magnesium (mg) 247.51 ± 0.07
Iron (mg) 11.37 ± 0.01
Potassium (mg) 1245.11 ± 0.05
All the values are mean ± SD of three observations

Table 9.6 Amino acids profile of tamarind seed kernel powder

Essential Amino acids Amount (%) Nonessential amino acids Amount (%)
Histidine 3.3 Alanine 4.3
Isoleucine 4.5 Arginine 6.6
Leucine 7.5 Aspartic acid 11.3
Lysine 6.5 Tyrosine 5.7
Methionine 1.2 Glutamic acid 18.4
Phenylalanine 4.8 Glycine 8.8
Threonine 3.2 Proline 5.3
Valine 4.4 Serine 5.9

9.10.4 Polyphenolic Compounds

Tamarind seeds are known to be a rich source of polyphenolic compounds, which

exhibit strong antioxidant and antibacterial activities (Sandesh et al. 2014; Sarkar
et al. 2016). These seeds also contain flavonoids such as eriodictyol, taxifolin, luteo-
lin, apigenin, and naringenin in relatively lower levels. The polyphenolic com-
pounds present in tamarind seeds include (+)-catechin, (−)-epicatechin, procyanidin
pentamer, procyanidin tetramer, procyanidin hexa, and procyanidin trimer (Razali
et al. 2015; Sudjaroen et al. 2005).
The bioactivities found in tamarind seed extracts are thought to be a result of
these chemical components, making tamarind seeds a valuable agro-industrial by-­
product with potential for usage in cosmetics, food, and pharmaceutical applica-
tions. However, for sensible and long-term use, it is necessary to gather supporting
scientific data that addressed issues related to physicochemical composition, safety,
analytical method, and positive health benefits.

9.11 Health Benefits

The metabolic processes of the human body, as well as its overall health and well-­
being, are significantly influenced by proteins and peptides derived from grains and
seeds. These proteins and peptides can be classified based on their mode of action
such as antibacterial, antihypertensive, immunomodulatory, and antioxidative
9 Exotic Nutrients Content from Tamarind (Tamarindus indica) Seed is a Boon… 179

properties (Sánchez et al. 2017). Bioactive peptides, in particular, are emerging as a

novel class of physiologically active regulators that are being utilized to enhance
health and address various diseases (Lemes et al. 2016).
Tamarind seeds have demonstrated in vitro antioxidant capacities, as evidenced
by their total antioxidant capacity, total phenol content, and DPPH radical scaveng-
ing activity. Additionally, they have been found to impact blood sugar levels, indi-
cating both antioxidant and antidiabetic properties (Nahar et al. 2014). Mucoadhesive
microspheres, formulated using a combination of tamarind seed alginate and poly-
saccharide with varying ratios and calcium chloride concentrations as a cross-linker,
have shown effectiveness in maintaining blood glucose levels and promoting patient
compliance (Pal and Nayak 2012). Furthermore, a trypsin inhibitor derived from
tamarind seeds has demonstrated satiety effects in rats by reducing leptin levels in
obesity and increasing cholecystokinin levels in normal weight individuals.
Tamarind kernel powder holds potential as an anti-obesity agent for the treatment of
obesity (Medeiros et al. 2018; Ribeiro et al. 2015).

9.12 Tamarind Seed Kernel Powder in Food

Processing Industry

Tamarind seed kernel has traditionally been eaten in rural regions after being de-­
hulled and then roasted; the flavor and look are similar to groundnuts. It’s pow-
der has been utilized as a substitute for wheat flour and incorporated with it to make
baked goods as a result of this information (Chakraborty et al. 2016).
It is widely utilized in the food processing industry due to its high water absorp-
tion capacity. It serves as an adhesive and is used as a stabilizer and emulsifier in
food products due to its odorless, colorless nature and the ability to maintain high
viscosity over an extended period. It is used as a flavoring component in baked
goods and various ready-to-eat foods such as instant noodles, ketchup, soup, and ice
cream. It is commercially available as a food additive for enhancing the consistency
and viscosity of processed foods (El-Siddig et al. 2006). The uses of TKP in various
food processing industries are given in Fig. 9.3.
Tamarind kernel serves as a source of xyloglucan, which functions as a gelling
agent and enhances viscosity in food products, even under varying temperature and
pH conditions. According to a study, It’s powder can be used in place of xanthan
gum to improve the texture of mango sauce (Betlach et al. 1987). The naturally
occurring polysaccharide, commonly known as “jellose” or “polyose,” is used in the
production of jellies as well as a fruit preserver. TKP is a heat-resistant, low-acid
emulsifier used in meals, salad dressings, and the synthesis of essential oils. TKP, as
a food additive, has the ability to form gels in a wide range of food products. It can
be utilized as a thickening and gelling ingredient, as well as a bulking agent, in vari-
ous preparations such as candy, sour milk gel, puddings, desserts, yoghurt, low
water release gel, jelly, jams, sauces, vegetable pancakes, pie fillings, protein-free
180 S. Parameshwari and C. Hemalatha

Fig. 9.3 Uses of TKP in

various food processing
industries
Ketchups

Instant
noodles Ice creams

Uses of TKP in
various food
processing
industries

Baked food Sauces

Sherbet

food, and acidic or neutral to basic pH food preparations. Addition of it to biscuits

has also been shown to enhance their nutritional and functional value to varying
degrees (Asma et al. 2015).
Tamarind kernel powder is used as an active ingredient in processed food prod-
ucts, particularly in the form of gum. It functions as an emulsifier in freezing foods,
including freeze-dried gel, frozen food, and jelly-coated ice cream. It also serves as
a stuffing agent, odor modifier, and coating agent in various food applications.
Additionally, it is used as a deformation-preventive agent during the cooking pro-
cess of food (Bhavini et al. 2018).

9.13 Innovative Food Products

The application of Tamarindus indica seed as a protein constituent in nourishment

will support reduce the overdependency on conventional protein enhancements,
specifically soybean and other common pulses. TKP possesses nutritional value
comparable to that of pulses, legumes, and major cereal crops. It can be effectively
utilized as a thickening agent, suspending agent, gelling agent, binding agent, solu-
bilizing agent, disintegrating agent, and emulsifying agent in the development of
innovative food products. It is mostly used for preparing food products such as
baked food, sauces, ice creams, flavoring, and ready-to-eat edibles.
9 Exotic Nutrients Content from Tamarind (Tamarindus indica) Seed is a Boon… 181

9.13.1 Antioxidant Properties of the TKP-Incorporated

Food Products

In a study conducted by Priyadarshini Chakraborty et al. (2016), it was observed

that the incorporation of TKP in cake samples resulted in enhanced antioxidant
properties. The cakes demonstrated significantly higher scavenging activity, with
values ranging from approximately 4.2 to 15.4 times greater than the control
product.

9.14 The Future Potential of Tamarind Seed Kernel Powder

The tamarind seed utilization, although relatively small within the global agro-
chemical industry, has been experiencing notable growth. Despite being underuti-
lized, tamarind seed holds significant potential for various applications. Exploring
the utilization of tamarind seed as a composite ingredient in food and industrial
products can be an intriguing avenue to explore. Key manufacturers are actively
investing in research and development for the advancement of food products
incorporated with tamarind seed kernel powder. This strategic approach is antici-
pated to propel the expansion of the tamarind seed utilization food industry in the
coming years.

9.15 Conclusion

Boosting tamarind seed production and consumption could aid in food fortification,
dietary diversity, and food demand alleviation of issues related to malnourishment
in the nation. In accordance with the idea of “Sustainable Development Goals”
(SDGs), increasing the utilization of agricultural wastes of tamarind seed can be a
wonderful strategy for creating a more sustainable world. As a result, it is important
to boost the numerous of antioxidants consumed by humans, and one way to do this
is by including seeds that are high in phytochemicals into food products. Tamarind
kernel powder enables us to create novel food items such as quick noodles, bread,
cakes, cookies, and soup powder. Tamarind seed-derived food products not only
help to preserve the environment but also provide the body a balanced diet. The
exotic nutrient richness of tamarind (Tamarindus indica) seed is therefore a blessing
for long-term healthy diets.
182 S. Parameshwari and C. Hemalatha

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molecules27165319
Chapter 10
Valorization of Wastes and By-products
of Cane-Based Sugar Industry

Tatek Temesgen, Selvakumar Periyasamy, Dinsefa Mensur, Belay Berhane,

Sunaina, and Mani Jayakumar

Abstract Cane-based sugar industries have different wastes and by-products that
can be further processed into useful products or applied as an energy source. Many
wastes and by-products from cane-based sugar industries, such as bagasse, molas-
ses, ashes, filler mud, trash tops, and muds, have been used for valorization.
Valorization of these by-products contributed to the concept of resource efficiency
and waste load reduction. Applying these wastes as a source of energy or input for
other production units has proved to be of great importance for the improved echo-­
industrial nature of sugar industries. The ample production of these wastes from
sugar industries also attracted the interest of other industries to form a symbiosis
with sugar industries. Recently, the calorific value, fiber type, starch content, and
ash properties of these waste types are attracting researchers to work on these wastes
for different applications.

T. Temesgen
Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Mechanical, Chemical and Materials
Engineering, Adama Science and Technology University, Adama, Ethiopia
Department of Chemistry, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
S. Periyasamy (*)
Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Mechanical, Chemical and Materials
Engineering, Adama Science and Technology University, Adama, Ethiopia
Department of Biomaterials, Saveetha Dental College and Hospitals, SIMATS, Saveetha
University, Chennai, India
D. Mensur · B. Berhane
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, School of Mechanical, Chemical and
Materials Engineering, Adama Science and Technology University, Adama, Ethiopia
Sunaina
Department of Chemistry, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
M. Jayakumar
Department of Chemical Engineering, Haramaya Institute of Technology, Haramaya
University, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia
Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Engineering, Karpagam Academy of Higher
Education, Coimbatore, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 185
E. Cherian, B. Gurunathan (eds.), Value Added Products From Food Waste,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48143-7_10
186 T. Temesgen et al.

Keywords Sugarcane industry · Bagasse · Biorefinery · Value-added products ·

Bioenergy

10.1 Introduction

Global sugarcane production is about 21% of the total primary crop production on
average for over the past two decades. This reaches around 1.91 billion tons of sug-
arcane per annum. Brazil accounted for 40% of world sugarcane production, fol-
lowed by India (20%) and China (6%) in 2020. In 2016 there were over 100 countries
producing sugarcane now (Bhatnagar et al. 2015). Sugarcane is a cash crop in many
countries around the world. It accounts for around 80% of the sugar produced and
the rest is covered by sugar beets (Dotaniya et al. 2016). It makes income and con-
tributes significantly to each nation’s economy (Singh et al. 2021). This economic
potential attracts the massive production of sugarcane for industrial applications.
Moreover, the new and accelerated innovations in the industry as well as the mecha-
nization sector led to a tremendous leap in sugarcane productivity (Periyasamy et al.
2022a). This massive sugarcane production entails a proportional increase in sugar
production and sugar industry waste. The increasing trend in sugarcane production
in the past two decades resulted in an environmental burden on the sugar industries
to face severe environmental harm because of the limited availability of sustainable
options in the waste management (Bhatnagar et al. 2015; Razia et al. 2020).
Environmental pollution due to industrial waste is a burning issue (Selvakumar
et al. 2022). Legal restrictions are in place to prevent or limit emissions from differ-
ent industries (Rathod et al. 2022). To this end, the possible wastes from a given
industry have to be either prevented from generation by using different cleaner pro-
duction techniques or have to be properly managed following the proper waste man-
agement hierarchies. One of the management techniques in the sugar industry waste
management hierarchy is waste valorization. The common methods applied to
recover the generated wastes and convert them to more useful products include
reusing, recycling, and composting (Abdelbasir 2021). These valorization processes
convert wastes into chemicals, materials, fuels, or other energy sources (Periyasamy
et al. 2022b; Mohamed et al. 2022).
Waste valorization puts waste as a resource. It highly encourages the concept of
type III industrialization proposed by Graedel (1996), where this type of industrial-
ization mimics the global biological biosystem. The current global biosystem
achieved complete cyclicity by evolving over the long term to the point where the
boundary between resources and waste is not defined. This is because the waste in
one part of a system represents a resource to another (Graedel 1996). Therefore, in
this chapter, the wastes generated by cane-based sugar industries that have the
potential to be used as a resource are considered as by-products of the sugar pro-
cessing. The tendency to achieve a circular economy through applying by-product/
waste valorization approaches is a way for sustainable manufacturing. The source
10 Valorization of Wastes and By-products of Cane-Based Sugar Industry 187

and characteristics of waste are the major factors for valorization. The type of waste/
by-product for valorization has to be classified under nonhazardous waste group.
Valorization of the by-products in sugar industry have been in practice. This chapter
discusses the major types of waste/by-product types, their sources, and some impor-
tant resource recovery options. The main valorization approaches discussed include
waste-to-energy production, pulp and paper, composites, biorefinery, organic fertil-
izer, and processed animal food.

10.2 Types of Sugar Industry Wastes and By-products

The type of waste in the sugar industry is of two types, solid and liquid. The major
types of solid by-products are (1) sugarcane trash, (2) bagasse, (3) bagasse fly ash,
and (4) press mud. Other suspended solids such as fat molecules, grease, and oil
found in the effluent are also a part of solid wastes but are removed in the treatment
process. The liquid waste/by-products from the sugar industry include washing
water waste and molasses (Bhatnagar et al. 2015; Razia et al. 2020; Singh et al. 2021).

10.2.1 Solid Wastes of the Sugarcane Industry

The major solid wastes/by-products of sugarcane industries discussed here are

mainly sugarcane trash, bagasse, bagasse fly ash, and press mud because of their
potential for valorization.

10.2.1.1 Sugarcane Trash

Sugarcane trash is a by-product of sugarcane farming. It is produced during the

harvesting period of the ripened sugarcane for the production of sugar. It constitutes
the cane leaves, the remaining roots, and spoiled canes. This mass could contain soil
and mud, and care has to be taken during valorization before mixing or processing
it with other wastes.

10.2.1.2 Bagasse

The mill house is the leading process operation unit in cane sugar production. It is
used for the extraction of juice from sugarcane. The by-product produced during the
juice extraction is bagasse. Generally, sugarcane produces 3% of bagasse on a wet
basis (Hofsetz and Silva 2012). It is highly fibrous (40–45%) in nature and contains
45–70% moisture content after the extraction process (Sahu 2018; Meghana and
188 T. Temesgen et al.

Fig. 10.1 Valorization of cane-based sugar factory wastes/by-products

Shastri 2020). It is mainly composed of lignin (20–30%), cellulose (40–45%), and

hemicelluloses (30–35%) and a small amount of sugar (2–5%) (Cardona et al. 2010;
Sahu 2018). The sugars in the bagasse act as a nutrient source for the microbial
degradation of the bagasse. The microbial degradation rate depends on environmen-
tal factors such as temperature and moisture content. The bagasse as a by-product is
used for energy generation, paper and board making, composting, and animal feed
production (Sahu 2018). The valorization options in the cane-based sugar industry
are presented in Fig. 10.1.

10.2.1.3 Bagasse Fly Ash

Bagasse fly ash is a solid waste/by-product produced by sugar mill boilers by burn-
ing bagasse and cane trash at 600–800 °C to produce energy and steam for power. It
is composed of silica with excellent pozzolanic behavior. Bagasse fly ash was con-
sidered a source of particulate emission in environmental pollution. Recently, it has
become a value-added product that is immensely used for absorption, partial input
for cement industries, landfill stabilization, and manufacturing paper and wood
boards (Bhatnagar et al. 2015; Tesfamariam et al. 2022).
10 Valorization of Wastes and By-products of Cane-Based Sugar Industry 189

10.2.1.4 Press Mud

Press mud/press cake/filter mud/filter cake is the solid waste produced after clarify-
ing the cane juice in the sugar industries. Around 3% of press mud cake is expected
for every 100 tons of sugarcanes crushed. The proximate analysis of crude press
mud showed an approximate presence of moisture (68–77%), ash (19–31%), sugar
(12–13%), fiber (5–10%), and crude wax (7–11%) (Bhatnagar et al. 2015). Elemental
analysis shows macro- and micronutrients with an approximate proportion of cal-
cium (21–30%), silicon (9.5–10%), phosphorus (8.–10%), sulfur (4–7%), and
potassium (3–4%) in crude press mud; calcium (20–32%), potassium (9–14%), sul-
fur (8–168%), and magnesium (48–8%) in water-soluble portion press mud; and
calcium (22–31%), potassium (2–3%), sulfur (4–7%), phosphorus (9–11%), alumi-
num (2.–3), and silicon (11%) in water in-soluble portion press mud (Saleh-e-In
et al. 2012). Press mud can be produced from the alcohol distillation of molasses
using chemicals and solvents. If it is disposed of untreated, it can pose environmen-
tal pollution. Press mud is appliable as a fertilizer, compost, and in fats and wax
production (Sahu 2018).

10.2.2 Liquid Wastes from Sugar Industry

There are two major types of liquid waste in the cane-based sugar industry. These
are the wastewater containing dissolved chemicals produced in the sugar manufac-
turing units and the molasses by-product.

10.2.2.1 Wastewater in a Sugar Industry

Sugar industries are under agro-industries that require a large quantity of fresh
water for processing and discharge half of the ratio as effluent (Sahu 2018). Water
is an essential input in the sugar industry. Almost all the units in sugar manufactur-
ing industries require a huge amount of water as an input. Wastewater is mainly
produced in mill houses, sulfur furnaces, lime hydrator units, and boiler houses. The
wastewater from these units contains a heavy load of organic matter. Besides these
units, excess water is required for cooling and condensation processes. Since water
reuse in sugar industries is not practiced, fresh water is required for all operations
(Bhatnagar et al. 2015).

10.2.2.2 Molasses

Molasses is a by-product of sugar industries. It has many applications in alcohol

distilleries, foodstuff, and animal feed processing industries (Dotaniya et al. 2016).
It is produced from the crystallization process of the sugar industry in three stages
190 T. Temesgen et al.

boiling for sugar extraction from the juice. Light molasses with a mellow flavor is
produced in the first boiling stage. In the second boiling stage, full-flavored robust
molasses, also called dark molasses, is produced. It is not sweet compared to light
molasses. The black strap is the by-product of the last stage, and most of its sugar is
already extracted. It is dark, viscous, and usually used for nutritional supplements
(Bhatnagar et al. 2015). The composition of molasses varies based on different fac-
tors such as agro-climatic conditions, variety of cane, sugar manufacturing pro-
cesses, and transportation and storage, but presented a sample composition with
30–35% sucrose, 10–25% glucose, and 23–23% moisture content, 16–16.5% ash
content, 4.8–5% calcium and potassium, 2–3% non-sugar compounds, and 1–2%
other mineral contents (Dotaniya et al. 2016).

10.3 Energy Production

The world energy demand has grown significantly since the twentieth century with
a drastic increase in world population, urbanization, and industrialization. This
caused a high consumption of fossil fuels resulting in the depletion of the limited
resources (Alao et al. 2022). Therefore, study on alternative sources became an area
of focus in energy studies. One of these alternatives is the application of waste mate-
rials as a source of energy production. Promoting biomass by-­products for energy
has become one of the key energy strategies in many countries. Sugarcane is consid-
ered an excellent storage of solar energy as biomass with a high energy-to-volume
ratio (Arshad and Ahmed 2016). This stored energy can be extracted as heat using
cogeneration, biogas, biochar, and hydrogen gas (Arshad and Ahmed 2016; Agarwal
et al. 2022).

10.3.1 Cogeneration as an Energy Recovery

Cogeneration has been the main focus of waste-to-energy utilization in most cane-­
based sugar production industries from bagasse. Cogeneration is the production of
electrical energy with valuable heat energy from a single fuel source. The process is
referred to as the combined heat and power cycle. In sugar industries, cogeneration
boilers are used to generate electricity and useful heat. The electricity generated by
the cogeneration boilers is used internally by the sugar industry as a source of
energy to produce sugar. The surplus amount is exported to the national grids for
external consumer use. During the production of the electrical energy, heat energy
as condensed steam is generated from the cogeneration boilers. This is a useful heat
for processing cane juice to produce sugar.
Experiences of countries show the potential of cogeneration as a surplus energy
source for a national grid supply. Around 50% of the bagasse, which is a 3% yield
10 Valorization of Wastes and By-products of Cane-Based Sugar Industry 191

of the produced cane having a 48% moisture content with a net calorific value of
8 MJ/kg, fulfills the energy and steam usage of sugar mills and distilleries. In Brazil,
a ton of bagasse generates 12 kWh of electricity, 330 kWh of heat energy, and 16
kWh of mechanical energy. The Brazilian cogeneration sugar industry produced
more than 3000 MW of power. Considering the internal energy requirements of
about 15–20 kWh/ton in Thailand, a minimum of 104 kWh/ton of surplus energy
can be supplied to the national grid. In India, the potential of about 7000 MW of
electricity from 650 sugar mills was estimated, of which 2250 MW has been
achieved from 200 sugar mills (Gopinath et al. 2018). The other technique used to
utilize the chemical energy from bagasse is the application of thermochemical con-
version processes such as pyrolysis. The outputs of biomass pyrolysis can vary to a
wide range of gaseous, liquid, or solid hydrocarbon products. This part will be cov-
ered in the next section of the chapter.
Cogeneration in sugar industries has a value addition in revenue and environ-
mental load reduction. The revenue is gained by making the sugar industry energy
independent from the grid system and getting profit through the export of electricity
to the grid. In the environmental aspect, a sugar mill with 2500 TCD can save the
release of 0.166 million tons of CO2 by exporting 22 MW (Arshad and Ahmed
2016). Furthermore, it reduces the landfill cost or methane emission due to excess
piling up of the bagasse during sugar production. The process flow diagram for the
cogeneration plant is summarized in Fig. 10.2.

Fig. 10.2 Cogeneration from sugarcane bagasse in sugar industry

192 T. Temesgen et al.

10.3.2 Chemical Energy Conversion Technologies for Sugar

Industry By-products

In the sugar industry, two broad energy conversion technologies are used to change
chemically bound energy in biomass/biomaterial to useful energy sources. These
two technologies are thermochemical and biological processes. Comparing the two
technologies, the biological conversion processes are time-consuming, while the
thermochemical methods are energy intensive but have a better ability to break
down organic compounds. The biological conversions are very slow because it is
limited by the slow enzymatic or metabolic catalysis processes of microorganisms.
The biochemical conversion technologies for sugar industry by-products include
alcoholic fermentation, photobiological hydrogen production, and aerobic diges-
tion. Applicable thermochemical processes mainly include pyrolysis, gasification,
liquefaction, and biochar production (Li et al. 2022).

10.3.2.1 Thermochemical Conversion Processes

Pyrolysis is one of the thermochemical processes used in the conversion of sugar

industry by-products into syngas (comprising of methane, hydrogen, carbon diox-
ide, carbon monoxide, and other hydrocarbons), solid (biochar), and liquid (bio-oil)
products using a temperature range of 300–900 °C at atmospheric pressure in the
absence of oxygen. It is a more efficient method to produce gas, char, and bio-oil
due to the interaction of the decomposed bagasse and its intermediate products
(Arshad and Ahmed 2016). The pyrolysis yield for solid, gas, and liquid (bio-oils)
products depends on the applied pyrolysis conditions. It is possible to control the
product outcome of pyrolysis. Figure 10.3 shows the block diagram for the pyroly-
sis process from the sugar industry.

10.3.2.2 Biological Energy Conversion Processes

Biological process for converting chemical energy in the sugar industry by-product
to valuable products is represented in Fig. 10.4. Sugarcane bagasse and molasses are
used for ethanol production through this process. Bioethanol can be blended with
fuel and used as an energy source worldwide. Two types of ethanol, anhydrous and
hydrous, are produced from sugar industry by-products. The hydrous ethanol (94%
ethanol, 6% water) is used directly in E100 vehicles and also in flex-fuel vehicles
(Nogueira et al. 2020), whereas the anhydrous ethanol (99.5% ethanol by volume at
15.6 °C) is blended with gasoline up to 20–27% to make the E(20–27) used in com-
mon gasoline engines (Gopinath et al. 2018; Nogueira et al. 2020). There are recent
researches that show the possibility of hydrogen production from molasses. This
can be a future source for applying hydrogen as an energy source (Keskin and
Hallenbeck 2012).
10 Valorization of Wastes and By-products of Cane-Based Sugar Industry 193

Fig. 10.3 Schematic representation of pyrolysis of bagasse in the sugar industry

Fig. 10.4 The schematic representation of biological energy conversion processes from sugar
industry wastes
194 T. Temesgen et al.

Anaerobic digestion is the other option for biochemical energy conversion from
sugar by-products. It is a low-cost technique for recovering bioenergy from ligno-
cellulose or biowaste. It is activated by a community of anaerobic microorganisms
to transform biodegradable by-product components into energy-rich biogas (con-
sisting mainly of about 50–75% CH4, 25–50% CO2 and H2O) and digestate residue.
The process of aerobic digestion occurs through a series of well-known stages,
namely hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis, and methanogenesis consecutively.
The biomass composition (carbon-to-nitrogen ratio), temperature, liquid-to-solid
ratio, and pH can influence the product yield in the aerobic digestion process and
therefore optimizing these process parameters for efficient methane production
(Agarwal et al. 2022). The aerobic digestion of bagasse is reported in mono-­
digestion when pretreated bagasse is used as a substrate alone and in co-digestion
when bagasse is co-applied with other organic wastes such as food waste, manure,
or press mud (Agarwal et al. 2022).

10.4 Pulp and Paper

There is an increase in pulp and paper production worldwide due to urbanization

and dependence on pulp and paper products. However, these industries are highly
dependent on forest sources, which directly affects our climate due to deforestation.
Therefore, alternative input sources have to come into the picture. In this aspect,
sugarcane bagasse is a potential alternative to substitute forest products as an input
for pulp and paper industries (Bhatnagar et al. 2015). In most cane-based sugar
production mills, the surplus bagasse is considered to environmental threat and risk
point for fire. Despite this fact, very limited research is reported. Currently, around
30 countries are believed to use bagasse to produce pulp and paper. According to
estimates, around 2–5% of the global pulp and paper production uses bagasse as
input. Bagasse is used to produce the main paper categories: packaging, printing,
writing, and photocopier paper, tissues, and newsprint (Rainey and Covey 2016).
The application of bagasse, instead of forest-based raw materials, has the added
advantages of reducing deforestation and less chemical application for bleaching
because bagasse requires fewer bleaching chemicals than wood pulp to achieve a
bright, white sheet of paper. This contributes to the sustainable production of paper
by reducing the impacts of materials and reducing costs due to the application of
limited bleaching chemicals such as chlorine (Sotoodehnia and Amiri Roodan
2012). Study shows that sugarcane bagasse showed good characteristics for produc-
ing paper. It contains a good amount of cellulose (32–44%), equivalent to other
potential sources such as bamboo, preferably used by paper mills (Bhardwaj et al.
2019). Bagasse storage is a critical step to be managed properly due to its vulnera-
bility to microbial degradation. The microbial activity on the bagasse leads to a
yield reduction. Both chemical and mechanical pulping processes are used in the
processing of bagasse paper making. Compared to wood lignin, bagasse lignin is
much more reactive and the pulping conditions are very mild (Rainey and Covey
10 Valorization of Wastes and By-products of Cane-Based Sugar Industry 195

2016). Bagasse pulp is producing in a rotary digester at high pressure and tempera-
ture following soda pulping, kraft process, and sulfite process (Singh et al. 2021).
The soda pulping process could be an alternative for converting sugarcane trash to
a fibrous pulp with a yield of 46% (Bhardwaj et al. 2019).
The high pith content of the stalk, which is 30–35% by weight, is the greatest
obstacle to bagasse pulping. Its pith cells consume chemicals while being pulped
and are unsuitable for creating paper. Therefore, it is mandatory to depithing. It
must be done to remove the pith, dirt, and soil materials in the pulp mill. It removes
the shortest bagasse fibers, which is important for producing high-grade pulp.
Depithed bagasse can be used in soda pulping or other techniques, such as the kraft
and sulfite process, for pulp-making from the bagasse. For soda pulping, the chemi-
cal charge is 12–16% of sodium hydroxide (as NaOH on dry fibers) at 170–175 °C;
for Kraft pulping, it is 11–13% active alkali with 15–20% sulfidity. Pulp produced
from bagasse has a similar property to hardwood eucalypt pulp than softwood pulp
with the fiber diameter of ~1.0–1.2 mm. The major features of bagasse pulp include
reduced initial freeness hindering drainage triggered by the remaining pith, lower
opacity, high stiffness, low tear, and tensile strength caused by the oversmoothness
and the moderately thick cell walls (Rainey and Covey 2016).

10.5 Composites

There are continuous efforts by sugarcane industries to the conversion of their

industrial waste to value-added products to enhance the benefits such as maximum
revenue generation, improved product yield, decreased waste generation, and to
produce goods according to the commercial demand for certain products such as
organic fertilizers, biochemical, and ceramics. This section describes the utilization
of sugarcane industry waste for the composite design. Bagasse is one of the impor-
tant wastes produced, which can be converted to useful products individually or in
combination with other sugarcane wastes with some simple modification. The com-
position of bagasse, as described in Table 10.1, is the key factor for its versatile use
in different composite products.
Because of the high fibrous content in bagasse, it is widely used in polymer and
epoxy-based composites to increase their strength. It is also used as an additive in
thermal insulating boards to decrease the air conditioning load. Bagasse fiber and

Table 10.1 Chemical Nutrients Percentages

composition of Cellulose 45–55
sugarcane bagasse
Hemicellulose 20–25
Lignin 18–24
Pectin 0.6–0.8
Ash 1–4
Extractives 1.5–9
196 T. Temesgen et al.

Fig. 10.5 Application of bagasse-derived composites in different industries

sugarcane ash are generally used as additives for clay, glass, and ceramics products.
It can be added to cement composites, ceramic tiles, and other building products as
a reinforcement material. In automobile industries, polypropylene is incorporated
with natural fibers of bagasse instead of talc and it has also replaced glass fiber-­
reinforced polypropylene (Zabihzadeh 2010). It also serves as one of the compo-
nents of acoustic protection. Bagasse can be easily modified into useful products.
The application of bagasse-derived composites in different industries is indicated in
Fig. 10.5. Researchers have found that there is not much change in the burned and
unburned bagasse in terms of their composition; besides, the unburned bagasse has
a larger number of polar groups. This favors the enhanced adhesion property within
the phenolic matrix with the unburned bagasse. This composite has shown better
storage modulus and impact strength. Therefore, this bagasse fiber/phenolic matric-­
based composite can be utilized in building materials, stiff packaging, and automo-
bile applications (da Silva and Frollini 2020). The researchers are recently been
working on developing eco-friendly polymers derived from natural resources. For
example, bagasse is used to prepare bagasse/pectin composite-based films with
excellent physicochemical and photodegradation properties. These films can be
used for food packaging applications. Bagasse fibers are also used for enhancing the
mechanical and water uptake properties of the polylactic acid-based composites.
These polymers are very light and low-cost. Hence, they can be utilized for the
interior parts of automobiles and consumer goods. In food industries, bagasse-­
derived nanocellulose is applied in fillings, chips, wafers, soups, puddings, and gra-
vies (Mohit and Selvan 2020; Mendes et al. 2019).
10 Valorization of Wastes and By-products of Cane-Based Sugar Industry 197

There are many advantages associated with the utilization of bagasse for com-
posites. The major points are as follows:
1. It has compatibility with thermoplastic as well as thermoset matrices.
2. It is biodegradable and eco-friendly.
3. It is a sustainable approach due to the renewable nature of bagasse.
4. It can replace the traditional wood-based products used in household.
Despite many advantages of mixing the bagasse in composites, a large amount is
still unutilized and disposed of in open fields or incinerated to get rid. This results
in environmental pollution. So, these practices can be minimized if we can maxi-
mize the use of bagasse as a binder in different composite materials.

10.6 Biorefinery

This section describes the use of sugarcane industries’ waste as a raw material for
biorefineries. Figure 10.6 shows the sugar industry waste and biorefinery potential
product chain. Since sugarcane industries generate a large amount of biomass-based

Fig. 10.6 Sugar industry waste and biorefinery potential product chain (Longati et al. 2020)
198 T. Temesgen et al.

waste, there is a huge scope for developing the concept of biorefineries for produc-
ing chemicals and fuels that favors strategic, environmental, and economic growth.
It is advantageous for biorefineries to convert their various biowaste and other inter-
mediate waste to different products and enhance the value derived from the biomass
feedstock as per the market demand and availability of biomass. This approach is
sustainable in nature and renders additional revenue to these industries. With the
increasing population and decreasing natural resources, there is a need for a circular
bioeconomy for a sustainable future. For this, the efforts are being directed toward
designing sustainable future biorefineries annexed to existing sugar industries to
convert their biowaste to commercially important biofuels/biochemicals. Currently,
biogas and bioethanol are the main side products from sugar-based biorefineries.
Recently, efforts have been directed at producing other commercially important
high-demand chemicals such as succinic acid, lactic acid, and carbon capture from
biorefineries (Farzad et al. 2017; Oliveira et al. 2020).
One of the major products derived from sugarcane industry waste is bioethanol.
The production of bioethanol is generally consists of four major steps. First, it is
pretreated either by lime or hydrogen peroxide to render the accessibility of cellu-
lose, followed by hydrolysis (either by adding enzymes or acid treatment) to release
the monomeric sugars. Further, fermentation is done to convert the sugars into etha-
nol and distillation for product recovery. Biogas production is another alternative
for utilizing this waste. This is also an environmentally friendly method for elimi-
nating organic matter from the effluent. The generation of biogas is dependent on
the composition of bagasse. The variability in the composition of bagasse is due to
the soil quality of the land of cultivation, sugarcane species, and harvesting time.
The cellulosic and hemicellulosic component of bagasse is majorly used for biogas
generation, whereas lignin mostly remains unaffected and can be used for heat and
energy production. Biogas and power are generated from the process residues of
ethanol production (Ungureanu et al. 2022).
Xylitol is another important compound that can be derived from sugar wastes. It
has potential in food and pharmaceutical applications. Its synthesis via the chemical
route is energy extensive and gives a low yield, making it expensive. So, the biosyn-
thesis of xylitol from different biomass is in progress. The hemicellulose hydroly-
sate from bagasse is converted to xylitol. It is generally coproduced with bioethanol.
It can be produced either by using a single organism Kluyveromyces marxianus, for
two products or using the two different yeasts, S. cerevisiae and C. tropicalis, which
are best known for their ability to ferment glucose and xylose to ethanol and xylitol,
respectively. Lactic acid can also be produced from bagasse (Muhammad Zohaib
2021). Lactic acid is an important chemical that is applied in the food, pharmaceuti-
cal, and chemical industries. It is also a monomer unit for polylactic acid, receiving
great attention for being biodegradable. Bagasse can be used as raw material for the
preparation of lactic acid, making it economically attractive and competitive with
lactic acid production from sugar. It can be achieved by enzymatic liquefication
performed at a high solid loading of pretreated lignocellulosic biomass with uncom-
promised and concentrated sugar yields. Furfural is another value-added compound
that can be extracted from lignocellulose waste of sugar industries. Furfural has a
10 Valorization of Wastes and By-products of Cane-Based Sugar Industry 199

high market value for plastics, resins, and fuel additives. Currently, the methods
applied for converting biomass to furfural are not eco-friendly. So, there is a need
for a better process design for sustainable conversion. The current process of furfu-
ral synthesis from sugar waste involves the high-temperature hydrolysis of lignocel-
lulose under acidic conditions. The degradation of cellulose liberates xylose,
mannose, glucose, and acetic acid. The xylose at high temperatures and pressure is
further converted to furfural (Modelska et al. 2017).
In addition, instead of discarding the carbon dioxide into the atmosphere from
sugarcane biorefineries, it can be captured at different stages (burning of bagasse or
sugarcane juice fermentation). The captured CO2 can be utilized as a valuable
resource for other industries, such as the production of artificial synthetic carbohy-
drates in combination with hydrogen (Formann et al. 2020). Some simple biorefin-
ery, ideas have been implemented in some sugar industries. They extended their
product range from sugar to bioethanol, biogas, electricity generation, and biopoly-
mers production. Although researchers and governments are making many efforts to
design and implement such a complex system, still it is very challenging. It needs
further improvements to be employed for future sugar biorefineries.

10.7 Organic Fertilizer

Lately, the scientific community has moved its interest toward using by-products
from sugar industries mainly due to the energy and raw material crisis. In sugar
industries, sugarcane is processed to form sugar and biomass. The huge generation
of organic-based by-products from different processing stages, as well as their inad-
equate disposal in the environment have made the sugar industries less eco-friendly.
The major waste products generated from the sugar industries are bagasse, press
mud, molasses, and sugarcane bagasse ash. Bagasse consists of fibers used in boil-
ers for steam production in sugar industries. Molasses is used for alcohol production
in distilleries. Sugarcane bagasse ash is utilized for cement and ceramic industries
because of the high content of silica and alumina. Press mud majorly consists of
lignin and fiber pith. Therefore, it has a large application in the biochemical and
microbial fields (Raza et al. 2021). There is a massive demand for organic fertilizers
because of the high agricultural dependency. Composting is referred to as a conven-
tional treatment to recycle the organic waste from the industries, since it can provide
the essential plant nutrient and may affect the soil’s physical, chemical, and biologi-
cal properties. Recently, with the increased cost of fertilizers, these industries are
releasing the potential of their by-products to substitute synthetic fertilizers.
Therefore, scientists are focusing their research on finding quick and novel ways to
decompose the press mud to form fertilizers that will be organic and free from any
additive artificial chemicals. Sugarcanes consist of about 12–15% sugar and each
ton of sugarcane can be crushed to generate about 70–90 kg of press mud (Dotaniya
et al. 2016). The representative composition of press mud is given in Table 10.2.
200 T. Temesgen et al.

Table 10.2 Composition of Nutrients Percentages

press mud generated from the
Moisture 50–65
sugar industries
Fiber 20–30
Crude wax 7–15
Sugar 5–12
Crude protein 5–10
Nitrogen 2–2.5

Apart from the listed components, a small quantity of silicon, iron, manganese,
calcium, magnesium oxide, and phosphorus pentoxide are present in press mud.
Press mud contains a variety of essential nutrients for plant growth. Hence, it is
worth processing the press mud to organic fertilizers to enhance the soil quality for
better agricultural crop production. In this regard, there are some reports wherein
researchers have utilized the press mud in combination with urea (1:1 ratio) to
enhance sugarcane yield. Press mud increases the accessibility of macro- and micro-
nutrients in the soil. In addition, it provides carbon-to-soil microorganisms, favoring
the breakdown and nutrient transformation processes.
Some reports are on using press mud with inorganic fertilizers to increase the
fertility of red soil. The regular addition of press mud to the agricultural land for
crop production results in the enhancement of organic carbon content in the soil and
in 5–6 years, soil health is expected to improve. It also enhances the bacterial diver-
sity as well as the bacterial population of the soil by enhancing the carbon content,
which is the food for their growth (Prado et al. 2013). Press mud also increases the
availability of phosphorous by enhancing the organic content of the soil. The car-
boxylate group of press mud and bagasse directly and indirectly affects phospho-
rous fixation. In direct impact, phosphorous is directly released from the organic
content to the soil. In indirect impact, the organic acid released from the decomposi-
tion of organic content mobilizes the phosphorous and makes it available to
the plants.
Bagasse is also used to enhance the fertility of the soil. Before adding the bagasse
to the agricultural land, it is recommended to chop it properly. It should be added at
least 1 month prior to seed sowing in the field for proper decomposition. Application
of these by-products also increases the cation exchange capacity of the soil for a
long time, generating cations such as Mg2+, Ca2+, and K+ during the organic content
degradation. In addition, they also minimize the loss of essential nutrients by leach-
ing caused by water and wind erosions. The use of vinasse, another residue of sug-
arcane industries, is common to improve the soil quantity. Before utilizing it as
fertilizer, it can be concentrated via evaporation or microfiltration (Dotaniya et al.
2016). Overall, sugarcane industries improve soil health by increasing the essential
micro- and macronutrients, resulting in better root growth and consequently enhanc-
ing crop production. The positive effects of applying organic waste to agricultural
land proved to be a good, sustainable, and eco-friendly approach to tackle the waste
storage problem and shortage of plant nutrients.
10 Valorization of Wastes and By-products of Cane-Based Sugar Industry 201

10.8 Processed Animal Food

Sugarcane and its waste are widely used as a fibrous source for cattle feed produc-
tion. However, it is not suitable for human consumption but has been utilized as an
additive to mice, cats, goats, and sheep’s diets to improve their digestion and, there-
fore, general health. There are some limitations of using sugarcane and its biowaste
for animal feed, such as the presence of high sugar levels in sugarcane favors the
rapid growth of microbial in the rumen, relatively low nutrition value in terms of
proteins and minerals in comparison to other bioproducts (corn meal and soybean
meal) and poor polysaccharides digestibility. Despite these limitations, the global
animal production from sugarcane cannot be overlooked (Harrison 2016; Costa
et al. 2015).
Sugarcane industries-based wastes are often an unutilized source of roughage for
the ruminant’s diet. Bagasse primarily consists of insoluble polysaccharides (cellu-
lose and hemicellulose) and lignin (aromatic polymer). Hence, bagasse provides
protein, lipids, and minerals to animal feed. Some research in this direction proves
that incorporating bagasse without any further processing into animal feed can
enhance digestibility. It is also good for the diet of sheep and some nonruminant
(Harrison 2016). Sugarcane molasses is another significant component in animal
feedstock, which is also a low-cost energy source. It is regarded as an energetic
animal feed because of the presence of high fermentable sugars in it. Additionally,
it is also highly rich in salts and minerals. Its relatively low cost makes it more popu-
lar for feedstuff to replace cereals in formulations.
Molasses has around 35–35% water and can provide approximately 8 MJ of
metabolizable energy per kg to cattle. However, molasses has low nitrogen levels,
which restrict the capability of rumen microbial sources to use the energy sources
present in molasses completely. Therefore, to enhance the nutritional benefits of the
molasses, the addition of nitrogen sources is required in the form of protein or urea
for the diet of ruminants. The ratio of molasses in the feedstock of animals can be
different as liquid feeds utilize molasses exclusively, whereas solid feeds use less
than 5% of molasses. Using liquid feed of molasses with a source of nitrogen is an
excellent choice for drought-hit areas where dry feed is very low. However, special
care should be taken while adding the nitrogen source to prevent molasses toxicity
(also called drunkenness, a state raised from vitamin B deficiency and bloating).
Another point that should be kept in mind is that molasses is rich in sulfur. So, the
sulfur sources should not be added as a supplement. The high sulfur level in molas-
ses can decrease copper absorption because of the ruminal thiomolybdates forma-
tion. Despite having high nutritional value, the molasses-based animal feed can be
harmful, whereas molasses-urea-containing animal feed makes them more prone to
cause diseases (Mordenti et al. 2021).
Another constituent of great value for animal feed is sugarcane spent juice,
which is utilized as an additive to animal feed. For pig feeding, this is the main
energy source. The main components of sugarcane juice are sugars (glucose,
sucrose, and fructose), chlorophyll, wax, and fibers. Because of the high level of
202 T. Temesgen et al.

soluble sugar, it is more suitable to access the entire available energy through the
intake of pigs (Harrison 2016). Filter cake from the sugar industries waste consists
of dry matter with a high level of organic matter (~80%) and inorganic ash (~20%).
The moisture content can be variable depending on the location, climate conditions,
processing method, and cultivation practices. The organic part of the filter cake is
made up of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates (fiber and sugars). This shows that it
can be used as a raw material for animal feed production. Generally, the filter cake
is dried in sunlight to reduce its moisture content to enhance its shelf life. The low
moisture content reduces the bacterial, fungal, and other degradation of filter cake-­
derived animal feed (Abera et al. 2020). The biowaste from the sugar industries can
potentially enhance the nutritional value of animal feed. However, there is a need
for more research in this area to find out which feed is good for which animals as
per their physiological conditions to provide better protein, minerals, vitamins, and
energy for their better growth and development.

10.9 Conclusion

This chapter discussed waste and by-product valorization of cane-based sugar

industries. The types of sugar industry wastes and by-products, such as sugarcane
trash, bagasse, bagasse fly ash, press mud, and molasses, are covered. Furthermore,
the major valorization opportunities, such as energy production, pulp and paper
production, application for composites, utilization in biorefinery, and opportunities
as an organic fertilizer, are covered. The valorization of these wastes/by-products
has a contribution to the sustainable management of sugar industries. The valoriza-
tion of the wastes/by-products improves the industries’ environmentally friendly
nature, making it economically feasible and socially acceptable. Moreover, it tried
to summarize and show the application of these wastes/by-products as a source of
energy or input for other production. This is believed to have great importance for
the improved echo-industrial nature of sugar industries.

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 Part V
Waste Utilization from Meat, Poultry and
Fish
Chapter 11
Keratinase: A Futuristic Green Catalyst
and Potential Applications

Mani Jayakumar, S. Venkatesa Prabhu, C. Nirmala, M. Sridevi,

and Magesh Rangaraju

Abstract Chicken feathers (CF) are a significant type of residual waste produced
by the meat processing industry. Prolonged accumulation of such a leftover CF
could be a serious problem for solid waste management. Consequently, CF can be
exploited for widespread production of keratinaceous around the world that calls for
their justifiable use. CF mostly consist of keratins, which are widely applied in a
variety of industries. Since CF has potent resistance to protease breakdown,
untreated feathers could create environmental pollution. Studies revealed that
instated of treating the resistant pollutant (keratin), microbial digestion of keratin
waste can provide the appreciable opportunity to obtain a commercially significant
enzyme, keratinase. This review study provides a broad overview of the potential
applications of several bacterial and fungi species for the keratinase synthesis
employing keratinaceous wastes as substrates. Additionally, a briefly outlook has
been provided on the exploitation of microbial keratinases with its biochemical and

M. Jayakumar (*)
Department of Chemical Engineering, Haramaya Institute of Technology,
Haramaya University, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia
Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Engineering, Karpagam Academy of Higher
Education, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
e-mail: drjayakumarmani@haramaya.edu.et
S. V. Prabhu
Centre for Food Nanotechnology, Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Engineering,
Karpagam Academy of Higher Education, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
C. Nirmala
Department of Biotechnology, Paavai Engineering College, Paavai Institutions,
Namakkal, Tamil Nadu, India
M. Sridevi
Department of Biotechnology, Vinayaka Missions Kirupananda Variyar Engineering College,
Vinayaka Missions Research Foundation (Deemed to be University),
Salem, Tamil Nadu, India
M. Rangaraju
Department of Chemical Engineering, Wachemo University, Hossana, Ethiopia

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 207
E. Cherian, B. Gurunathan (eds.), Value Added Products From Food Waste,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48143-7_11
208 M. Jayakumar et al.

functional properties in the synthesis of cattle feed, food, nutrition, detergents,

organic fertilizers as well as leather, cosmetics, and medicinal products.

Keywords Keratinase · Bacteria · Chicken feather · Keratin · Fungi · Green

catalyst

11.1 Background

Keratin is a prominent structural protein that commonly presents in pervasive fau-

na’s keratinous tissues, i.e., claws, hair, wool, horns, feathers, hooves, and nails
(Rodziewicz and Łaba 2006). Although the disulfide bond-breaking occurs during
keratin degradation, keratinase facilitates the peptide cleavage that ensures as an
integral part in feather industries. Due to their complex structure to cleavage disul-
fide bond, keratin resists to degrade by essential proteases, which is trypsin and
pepsin (Perța-Crișan et al. 2021; Wang et al. 2016a, b). Keratin, a structural protein
present in human and other animal hard tissues, is generally broken down by pro-
teolytic enzymes known as keratinases. They achieve this by rupturing the disulfide
and peptide bonds in the polypeptide chain (Babbar et al. 2022).
Keratinase is an important instrument for turning keratin-rich wastes, such as
feathers from the meat processing industry, into useful goods with additional value
(Gupta et al. 2023). Keratin-based wastes, such as feathers from the chicken indus-
tries, can be a desirable source of nitrogen, carbon, and sulfur, which can be used to
create novel goods (Zhang et al. 2023; Bhari et al. 2021). Keratinases are endo-­
acting proteases that belong to the protease family M36 (MEROPS database) (Qiu
et al. 2022). It was observed that with keratinase 140 only 1 day was needed for
complete keratin degradation into peptide with molecular weight ranging from 0.48
to 10 kDa. Similarly, the purified recombinant keratinolytic protease, namely
RecGEOker, was expressed in E. coli BL21 and was cloned from the thermophilic
Geobacillus stearothermophilus AD-11, which stimulates green development
(DE3) (Gegeckas et al. 2015).
Additionally, it has been noted that a number of bacterial strains release extracel-
lular keratinases (Brandelli et al. 2010). A good alternative to transforming sub-
strates at a cheap energy cost is the synthesis of keratinases by psychrophilic and
psychrotrophic strains (Joshi and Satyanarayana 2013). Similarly, dermatophytic
species such as Trichophyton rubrum and Microsporum canis and nonpathogenic
fungus such as Onygena equina are also some among the keratinase-secreting fungi
(Huang et al. 2015; Qiu et al. 2020).
Recently, keratinase manufacturing is receiving global interest for its utility in
sustainable improvement and purifier manufacturing. The exploitation of keratin by
microbial keratinases for the creation of amino acid and peptides products for use in
functional animal feed, fertilizers, value-added goods, skincare products, or as an
ingredient to laundry and dishwashing detergents has recently come to light (Gupta
11 Keratinase: A Futuristic Green Catalyst and Potential Applications 209

et al. 2013b; Srivastava et al. 2020; Jin et al. 2018). Some reports have mentioned
that keratinase is an optimistic protease that is considered to bring green develop-
ment due to its perspective in the biocatalysis fields of waste recycling, textile, and
leather industries (Gupta and Ramnani 2006).
Due to their unique properties, keratinases can be used for a variety of purposes,
including the manufacture of animal feed and protein supplements, other personal
care products, and hair removal creams in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic indus-
tries, animal feed and protein supplements in the poultry processing industry, biore-
mediation and wastewater treatment, prion degradation in medicine, the synthesis of
biofuels, manufacture of nanoparticles, and the improved drug delivery (Adelere
and Lateef 2016; Lateef et al. 2015). Upon the need of vigorous interest in keratin-
ase enzyme, this chapter has been articulated about the keratinase biochemical and
functional properties, method adopted for keratinase production, route to improve
the keratinous productivity, keratinase applications, recommendation, and futuris-
tic focus.

11.2 Biochemical and Functional Properties

Keratinases are produced by wide range of bacterial, actinomycetes, and fungal

organisms that include Bacillus, Clostridium, Chryseobacterium, Fervidobacterium,
Kocuria, Kytococcus, Lysobacter, Microbacterium, Nesternkonia, Nocardiopsis,
Stenotrophomonas, Streptomyces, Xanthomonas, Aspergillus, Doratomyces,
Myrothecium, Paecilomyces, Scopulariopsis, Trichoderma, Trichophyton specie
(Brandelli et al. 2010; Hassan et al. 2020a). These microorganisms are isolated from
poultry feather waste, sheepfold soil, hydrothermal hot spring, poultry farm, brown
algae Zonaria tournefortii, goat skin, dump site, agro-wastes, cattle-yard utilizing
donkey hairs, slaughterhouse soil, soil sample of a tea plantation, poultry dumpsite,
poultry farm waste, and soil samples from various regions and characterized by
biochemical and molecular methods. In general, keratinases are produced as extra-
cellular enzyme (Kerouaz et al. 2021) yet intracellular production as reported else-
where (Gupta and Ramnani 2006). They prevail preponderantly as serine, metallo,
thiol, or subtilisin type of proteases in few yeast strains, also occurs as aspartic
protease (Hassan et al. 2020a). The robust enzyme exhibits a diverse biological
activity with a wide temperature and pH optima to unveil maximum activity based
on the organisms and the sources from which they are isolated. In general, neutral
to alkaline pH range of 7.5–9.0 was observed for the enzyme from different sources
yet highest activity at acidic conditions (pH 1.5–3) are also reported (Habbeche
et al. 2014; Sharma and Gupta 2016; Nnolim et al. 2020a, b; Vanaki et al. 2022;
Sharma et al. 2022). Predominantly, the enzymes were active in mesophilic condi-
tions of 40–60 °C (Babbar et al. 2022); however, a few thermophile keratinase found
stable at extreme conditions of 80–100 °C are also identified (Jagadeesan et al.
2020; Pawar et al. 2018; Kerouaz et al. 2021).
210 M. Jayakumar et al.

Furthermore, a recombinant keratinase with enhanced activity and stability was

successfully expressed in various host systems by random mutagenesis and molecu-
lar engineering strategies (Wang et al. 2016a, b; Zhang et al. 2020; Yong et al. 2020;
Yahaya et al. 2021). Immobilization of the enzyme on substrates such as chitosan
and chitosan-grafted β-cyclodextrin also improved the activity and thermostability
over wide ranges of temperature conditions (Srivastava et al. 2020). Commonly,
keratinases exist in monomeric form with the molecular weight ranging from 8 to
240 kDa; multimeric keratinases are also quantified by advanced chromatographic
techniques (Laba et al. 2015; Elhoul et al. 2016; Hamiche et al. 2019; Sharma
et al. 2022).
Additionally, the impact of inhibitors and metal ions on keratinolytic activity has
been researched (Keshapaga et al. 2023). Usually, divalent metal ions such as Ca2+,
Cd2+, Mg2+, Mn2+, Na+, Mg2+, Zn2+, Ba2+, Fe3+, sodium sulfite, and β-mercaptoethanol
increased the keratinases. These advantageous results may be attributed to the sta-
bility of the enzyme–substrate complex and the active enzyme configuration.
Additionally, these metal ions may shield the enzyme from heat denaturation and
increase activity (Habbeche et al. 2014; Pawar et al. 2018; Akram et al. 2020; Jana
et al. 2022). A two- to eight-fold enhancement in the activity was noted about when
there was H2O2, NaHClO3, Triton X-100, DTT, and β-mercaptoethanol (Rajput
et al. 2010; Babbar et al. 2022). Different keratinases respond differently to reduc-
ing substances, and the tendency to stimulate the activity of the enzymes are also
identified. The effect of organic solvents, detergents, and heavy metals such as Cu2+,
Ag+, Hg2+, and Pb2+ on inhibiting the keratinolytic enzymes by reducing their cyste-
ine bridges were also reported. Phenylmethanesulfonyl fluoride (PMSF), diiodopro-
pyl fluorophosphates (DFP), ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA),
iodoacetamide, and 1,10-phenanthroline inhibited the activity of the enzyme
(Nnolim et al. 2020a, b; Jana et al. 2022) (Table 11.1).

11.3 Production Strategies of Keratinase

In order to meet market demand, large-scale fermentation is much required to pro-

duce these enzymes (Jansen and van Gulik 2014). Owing to utilize the wastes,
feathers are an industrial waste that can be used in culture media (Gafar et al. 2020).
In this context, different wastes, such as poultry, meat processing, wheat and soy-
beans, can also be utilized as a substrate for the synthesis of the keratinase enzyme
(Hassan et al. 2020b). Before they may be utilized for enzymatic characterization
and other applications, keratinase enzymes need to be purified (Goda et al. 2021).
One can produce keratinase enzyme with a high degree of purity using a number of
techniques. Purification techniques include ammonium sulfate precipitation, gel fil-
tration chromatography, and ion-exchange chromatography (Farag and Hassan 2004).
Because keratinases enzyme can be synthesized by a number of bacteria, it is
challenging to compare the environments and purifying procedures for them
(Ghaffar et al. 2018). Currently, there are over 30 different types of microorganisms
11 Keratinase: A Futuristic Green Catalyst and Potential Applications 211

Table 11.1 Selective reports on biochemical properties of keratinase from different microorganisms
Molecular
mass Optimal Optimal
Catalytic type Microorganisms (kDa) pH temperature References
Alkaline serine Micrococcus sp. B1pz 62, 185, 9.4 55 Laba et al.
139, 229 (2015)
Serine Bacillus licheniformis 30 11 70 Tiwary and
ER-15 28 Gupta (2010)
Serine Actinomadura 19.53610 11 80 Elhoul et al.
viridilutea DZ50 (2016)
Brevibacillus parabrevis 28 8 60 Zhang et al.
CGMCC 10798 (2016)
Serine Caldicoprobacter 33.246 7 50 Bouacem
algeriensis strain et al. (2016)
TH7C1(T),
Serine Bacillus subtilis S1–4 45 8 65 Wang et al.
(2016a, b)
Subtilisin-like Bacillus altitudinis 43 8 85 Pawar et al.
serine RBDV1 (2018)
Serine B. Amyloliquefaciens 28 6.5 50 Hamiche
S13 47 8 60 et al. (2019)
Bacillus 7 Kalaikumari
paralicheniformis et al. (2019)
MKU3
Alkaline Arthrobacter sp. KFS-1 8 60 Nnolim et al.
(2020a, b)
Alkaline Bacillus sp. 8 60 Nnolim et al.
(2020a, b)
Metallo Bacillus thuringiensis 80 9 50 Hassan et al.
strain MT1 (2020a)
Alkaline serine Bacillus pumilus AR57 9 45 Jagadeesan
et al. (2020)
Serine Bacillus subtilis S1–4 36.1 9–10 50–55 Yong et al.
(2020)
Bacillus sp. NKSP-7 25 7.5 65 Akram et al.
(2020)
Serine Actinomadura 71 8 50 Kerouaz et al.
keratinilytica strain 19 7 40 (2021)
CPT20
Aluminum-­ Bacillus thuringensis 6.2 50 Wang et al.
tolerant serine (2021)
protease
Metallo Chryseobacterium 8 40–50 Bokveld et al.
aquifrigidense FANN1 (2021)
Serine Bacillus cereus 8–9 40–45 Almahasheer
et al. (2022)
(continued)
212 M. Jayakumar et al.

Table 11.1 (continued)

Molecular
mass Optimal Optimal
Catalytic type Microorganisms (kDa) pH temperature References
Thiol 3 strains of Bacillus 2, 2.5, Vanaki et al.
licheniformis PVKR6, and 3 (2022)
PVKR15, and PVKR41
Serine-­ B. Velezensis ncim 5802 100, 62.5, 10 60 Sharma et al.
metalloprotease 36.5 25 (2022)
Metallo-serine Bacillus cereus IIPK35 42 9 55 Jana et al.
(2022)
Serine Bacillus tropicus LS27 7.35 40 Liya et al.
(2023)

Fig. 11.1 Bacterial keratinase production practice

that can break down keratin (Lange et al. 2016). Because it needs a cheap growing
medium containing salts and keratins as sources of carbon and other nutrients,
respectively, keratinase synthesis is quite affordable (Ghaffar et al. 2018).
The keratinase enzyme production strategies include bacterial and fungal synthe-
sis. The most widely used production practices are:
1. Bacterial keratinase production illustrated in Fig. 11.1.
2. Fungal keratinase production illustrated in Fig. 11.2.
Some insects and other microbes, including bacteria and fungi, produce keratinases
(Khardenavis et al. 2009; Bohacz 2017). Numerous bacteria, particularly from areas
where keratin-containing compounds are abundant, have been isolated from varied
habitats (Li 2019). There have been reports of keratinase production by the bacterial
11 Keratinase: A Futuristic Green Catalyst and Potential Applications 213

Fig. 11.2 Fungal keratinase synthesis practice

species Bacillus, Vibrio, Chryseobacterium, Brevibacillus, Pseudomonas, Serratia,

Fervidobacterium, Microbacterium, Aeromonas, Burkholderia, Stenotrophomonas,
Rhodococcus, Geobacillus, Amycolatopsis, Meiothermus, Paenibacillus, Bacillus
licheniformis, and Bacillus subtilis (Nnolim et al. 2020a, b; Adibi et al. 2021).
It has been discovered that fungi can effectively break down the keratin-rich
materials such as feathers. On the surface of human or animal skin, there occur
some harmful fungus (Li 2019). So far, various microorganisms were reported for
production of different amounts of keratinase, and these amounts differ in terms of
the enzyme’s existence as well as its structure, composition, stability, ideal reaction
temperature, and pH value (Zhang et al. 2022). For instance, some types of keratin-
ase are primarily found inside of cells, whereas others are primarily released outside
of cells (Qiu et al. 2020). The fungus’s keratinase can be found both inside and
outside of cells (Filipello et al. 2000). In contrast to bacteria, fungus manufactures
keratinases with distinct amino acid sequences (Li 2019). Because of the potential
capacitance of keratinases production, the applications must be free of harmful fun-
gus for safety reasons. The capacity of some nonpathogenic fungus to decompose
feathers may one day lead to their approval for use as biofertilizer or animal feed
(Li 2019).
As of now, there are different hydrolysis studies on keratinized tissues that are
facilitated by keratinolytic fungi, which are known to naturally inhabit keratinous
substrates. The reported keratinolytic fungi include Aspergillus, Aphanoascus,
Paecilomyces, Trichophyton, Doratomyces, Trichoderma, Fusarium, Acremonium,
Onygena, Dermatophyte, Cladosporium, Microsporum, Chrysosporium,
214 M. Jayakumar et al.

Lichtheimia, Cnadina albicans, and Scopulariopsis (Nnolim et al. 2020a, b; Adibi

et al. 2021).

11.4 Microbial Degradation Mechanisms of Keratin

Studies revealed that the keratin is formed by a protein composed of forms of epi-
dermal and epidermal appendages of vertebrates. Next to cellulose and chitin, kera-
tin is identified as one of the toughest polymers that cannot be easily degraded
naturally. Nevertheless, information on microbial degradation of keratin lack suffi-
cient theory (Mazotto et al. 2013). So far, there are no appropriate proven mecha-
nisms with regard to keratin microbial degradation. However, the possible
mechanisms that underly for keratin degradation by microbial may provide possible
strategies for improving the keratinase productivity by keratin degradation (Gupta
et al. 2013b).

11.4.1 Breaking Disulfide Bonds by Denaturation

In parallel, during the growth of microorganism, keratin is getting progressively

degraded to convert into smaller molecules such as peptides and amino acids. In this
process, the three steps such as decomposition, denaturation, and transamination are
involved (Mienda et al. 2011). However, keratin molecules are characterized by
greater disulfide bonds, and the primary stage is to decompose the disulfide bonds,

Fig. 11.3 Bacterial degradation of keratin by L-cysteine metabolism (“thiolysis” approach)

11 Keratinase: A Futuristic Green Catalyst and Potential Applications 215

which loosens the structure. Recent studies reported that destruction mechanisms of
disulfide bond can be occurred by four types such as mechanical pressure, thiolysis,
biomembrane potential, and enzymatic hydrolysis. Another mechanism is based on
cellulosic “thiolysis” approach (Fig. 11.3), while sulfite production process was
reported by cysteine metabolism (Jeong et al. 2010).

11.4.2 Enzymatic Hydrolysis

Previous studies reveal that the keratinase obtained from different microbes may
differ characteristics. Protein engineering strategies offer pure keratinase with the
use of keratin hydrolysate. Nevertheless, pure keratinase could not hydrolyze the
keratin without proper destruction of disulfide bond. Hence, disulfide bond reduc-
tase has a significant role on keratin degradation that has to be secreted continuously
during the course of keratin decomposition (Khardenavis et al. 2009). There are
various disulfide reductases involved for breaking the disulfide bond such as gluta-
thione reductase, alkyl hydroperoxide reductase, ribonucleoside-diphosphate reduc-
tase, dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase, phosphoadenosine phosphosulfate reductase,
thioredoxin reductase, and peptide methionine sulfoxide reductase. In general,
disulfide reductases preserve different reaction types as follows. Figure 11.4 illus-
trates the enzymatic mechanism of disulfide reductases:
1. thioredoxin disulfide +2′-deoxyribonucleoside diphosphate + H2O → thiore-
doxin + ribonucleoside diphosphate,

Fig. 11.4 Mechanism of disulfide reductases through various reactions

216 M. Jayakumar et al.

2. sulfite + adenosine 3′,5′-bisphosphate + thioredoxin disulfide → thioredoxin

+3′-phosphoadenylyl sulfate
3. thioredoxin disulfide + peptide-L-methionine + H2O → thioredoxin + peptide-L-­
methionine (S)-S-oxide
4. NAD+ + protein N6-(dihydrolipoyl) lysine → NADH + protein N6-(lipoyl)lysine
5. glutathione + RX → R-S-glutathione + HX
6. NADP+ + thioredoxin → NADPH + thioredoxin disulfide

11.4.3 Decomposition of Keratin

After disulfide bonds were subjected to break, microorganisms can secret different
proteases such as trypsin, keratinase, pepsin, and papain to decompose these fibrous
proteins into amino acids and peptides (Reddy and Yang 2007).

11.5 Novel Techniques for Improvement of Keratinases

Production (Protein Engineering Approach)

It is proven that the biocatalysts can be successfully utilized in the chemical, food,
and pharmaceutical industries over the past few decades. Due to their innate capac-
ity to catalyze reactions with high velocities and great specificity under a variety of
circumstances, they are frequently used for the synthesis of a variety of complicated
drug intermediates, specialty compounds, and even commodity chemicals. The
development of protein engineering strategies for inventive biocatalysts with new or
superior capabilities has been pushed by the rising interest in using enzymes for
industrial and home catalysis. Current developments in recombinant DNA technol-
ogy, genomics, proteomics, and high throughput technologies have made it possible
to create novel biocatalysts and biocatalytic processes. From the beginning of large-­
scale (recombinant) enzyme production for commercial usage, protein engineering
has developed into a powerful technique to improve enzyme properties. By enhanc-
ing process conditions and using protein engineering, under industrial conditions, it
is possible to produce enzymes with the required characteristics, such as increased
activity, high thermo-stability, and specificity (Singh et al. 2013).
Using molecular biotechniques, keratinase genes have been successfully cloned
and produced via heterologous way from a variety of sources, but the outcome is
still unsatisfactory. In industrial applications and commercial markets, keratinases
must be more productive, highly effective, and thermostable than they now are (Li
et al. 2013; Su et al. 2020). In recent decades, protein engineering has grown astro-
nomically, and methodologies are quickly maturing, offering tools to change pro-
tein structure, resulting in novel properties and increased productivity (Su et al.
2020; Bornscheuer et al. 2012). A promising method for creating extraordinary
keratinase variations with improved thermo-stability and activity for the breakdown
of feather debris is protein engineering (Akram et al. 2022)
11 Keratinase: A Futuristic Green Catalyst and Potential Applications 217

11.6 Applications

Keratin is regarded as a good source of sulfur, nitrogen, and carbon, which can be
changed in nature into a number of other chemicals. Keratinase enzymes offer a
wide range of commercial and biotechnological applications because of their ability
to degrade keratins. Numerous applications of keratinase enzyme are presented in
Fig. 11.5.

11.6.1 Keratinase as Nutrition, Food Technology,

and Livestock Feed

The minerals copper, calcium, phosphorus, potassium, zinc, magnesium, iron, man-
ganese, and nitrogen as well as peptides and critical amino acids are thought to be
abundant in chicken feathers (Kshetri et al. 2018). Due to the presence of enormous
nutritional value, processed feather meal by microbial keratinase is more viable and
simple to produce (Gurav et al. 2020).

Fig. 11.5 Numerous applications of keratinase enzyme

218 M. Jayakumar et al.

Because there is no enzyme to breaking down the disulfide bonds in the protein
in traditionally processed animal feeds of keratin origin, the metabolism is improper
(Wang et al. 2006; Qiu et al. 2020). Therefore, the protein digestibility must be
improved for the keratin-based feed-products so as to enhance the nutritive value
and nutrient availability (Nnolim et al. 2020a, b). By using a submerged or solid
state fermentative method, keratin solubilization by keratinase aids in enhancing the
nutritional characteristics of keratin-based feed products (Łaba and Szczekala
2013). Keratinase-processed aquafeed can substitute cattle keratin for a portion of
other protein sources (Jumini 2017). It is a wonderful substitute protein source that
causes the body to experience less stress (Zhang et al. 2014) and increase the digest-
ibility of feather keratin (Grazziotin et al. 2006).
Purified keratinase extracted from chicken feather waste was used in a Kshetri
study that demonstrated its promise as a source of antioxidant and antityrosinase
chemicals (Kshetri et al. 2020). Release of glucocorticoids, which the biological
stress response is mediated by, has the potential to suppress immunity, growth, and
reproduction when induced repeatedly. Corticosterone is a major glucocorticoid in
birds and its amounts may be extracted from feathers and monitored (Alba et al.
2019). Study using chicken feathers as a substrate and biochemical and biophysical
characterization of keratinase for greater comprehension and implications in indus-
trial applications was published by Jana et al. (2022) to provide a new path for kera-
tinase research. They reported that B. cereus IIPK35 keratinase displayed promising
application potential as milk clotting agent.

11.6.2 Leather Industries

Chicken feather is a non-disposable and persistently accumulating waste (Brandelli

et al. 2010). Due to its composition of keratinous material, which is primarily made
up of keratin, chicken feather does not easily degrade in nature (Călin et al. 2017;
Moran et al. 1966). Using chicken feather as a substrate, the keratinolytic bacterium
(Bacillus paralicheniformis MKU3) is found to be generated keratinase, a protease
(Kalaikumari et al. 2019). Numerous microorganisms such as Eucarya, Bacteria,
and Archea domains manufacture the keratinase enzyme. A type of proteolytic
enzyme known as microbial keratinase may break down the keratin structural pro-
tein, an insoluble substance that is present in feathers, hair, and wool. Keratin is a
protein that is resistant to being broken down by normal proteolytic enzymes such
as trypsin, pepsin, and papain because of the amount and molecular structure of the
amino acids present in this protein. The ecosystem is seriously threatened by the
enormous number of keratinase wastes that accumulate in nature (Gupta and
Ramnani 2006). The biochemical and biophysical characteristics of keratinases are
quite diverse (Brandelli et al. 2010). Wastewater effluent from the leather industry
could be biologically treated with keratinolytic proteases to significantly reduce its
volume and toxicity (Wang et al. 2016a, b).
11 Keratinase: A Futuristic Green Catalyst and Potential Applications 219

The raw hide must first undergo a number of chemical processes before it can be
turned into the lovely leather. This procedure involves bating, degreasing, deliming,
dehairing, liming, soaking, and pickling (Kamini et al. 1999). Lime and sodium
sulfide, which are both used to effectively dehair skin, are the two main leather
industrial chemicals. Additionally, when skin is chemically treated, it has been
claimed that dehairing is not completed and that this damages the skin and lowers
the quality of the leather. The sheep skin is successfully dehaired by the extracel-
lular keratinase (Briki et al. 2016; Kim et al. 2001). Study reported by Akhter et al.
(2020) proved that the leather pieces were immersed in enzymes and chemicals
(Na2S, CaO) separately for a total of 16 h to demonstrate the superiority of keratin-
ase enzyme over chemicals in the dehairing process. After 12 h, 100% enzyme
dehairing proved to be more efficient than chemicals without damaging the leather.
Na2S damaged leather after 16 h, whereas CaO’s dehairing was still not complete.
Additionally, when chemical treatment was applied, the hair pulp had a harsh tex-
ture. Few investigations on the enzymatic leather process and quality evaluations
have been published, despite the fact that many keratinases-producing strains have
been documented in numerous research articles (Thanikaivelan et al. 2004).
The quality of the leather is greatly affected by the process of eliminating unfa-
vorable proteins from animal hide or skin, which is known as “bating.” Enzymatic
treatment is necessary in the procedure, which has been carried out using a variety
of techniques throughout history, to clean, smoothen, and fine-tune the grain surface
of the final leather (Hameed et al. 1996). In several stages of leather processing,
keratinases are used in many processes such as soaking, dehairing, and bating
(Jaouadi et al. 2015).

11.6.3 Detergent Formulation

Drains and clothes stained with keratinous waste have been cleaned using keratin-
ases as a detergent (Brandelli 2008). The use of Aspergillus sp. DHE7 keratinase in
detergent formulations (as an additive) and in a number of biotechnological applica-
tions are proposed as potential options (El-Ghonemy and Ali 2021). Keratinases can
clean quickly without compromising the fiber’s strength and structure because of
their substrate specificity (Paul et al. 2014). Keratinase when combined with deter-
gents expel blood, turmeric strains, egg yolk, fruit juice, and chocolate stains from
the cloth (Cavello et al. 2012; Manivasagan et al. 2014; Reddy et al. 2017). Detergent
formulations can utilize keratinase in a variety of ways, such as adding it to clear
keratinase waste-clogged drains and improving the wash performance of enzyme-­
based laundry detergents (Rai et al. 2009). The ideal detergent protease should be
compatible with the constituents of the detergent, have good activity at the right pH
and washing temperature, and be stable with oxidants and bleach (Rai et al. 2010;
Manni et al. 2010). Except for a few scant examples, there are not many studies on
detergent and oxidant-stable microbial alkaline keratinase that can function at room
temperature (23 °C).
220 M. Jayakumar et al.

Presently, keratinase accounts for 90% of the total market sale in the detergent
industry because of its stability toward a variety of surfactants, bleaches, and other
additives in the detergent, thereby improving its washing performance and increased
efficiency in stain removal (Paul et al. 2014). El-Ghonemy and Ali (2021) purified
and characterized a thermo-surfactant stable extracellular keratinolytic enzyme pro-
duced by the recently discovered terrestrial fungus Aspergillus sp. DHE 7 (acces-
sion no. KX950801), which was grown in an ideal medium with submerged
fermentation utilizing turkey feather as a keratinous substrate. Additionally, the sus-
tainability and compatibility of enzymes with commercial laundry detergents had
been researched. Drains and clothes stained with keratinous waste have been cleaned
using keratinases as a detergent (Brandelli 2008). By removing blood stains from
surgical cloths, the alkaline keratinase of P. woosongensis TKB2 demonstrated its
use in the laundry industry. It also achieved excellent results in the removal of the
composite stain of blood, egg yolk, and chocolate in a short period of time without
altering texture, strength (27.18 g/tex), or fibers of the cloth. With the use of this
detergent formula, there is no longer any impact on aquatic ecology from the efflu-
ents generated after material washing. Thus, by using this environmentally friendly
detergent formulation, pollution issues related to the effluent generated after wash-
ing clothes can be avoided (Paul et al. 2014).

11.6.4 Agriculture and Plant Biostimulants

Due to its enormous nutritional value, processed feather meal by microbial keratin-
ase is more viable and simple to produce (Gurav and Jadhav 2013). Additional
research has revealed that it significantly improves plant development properties,
thus it may be confidently marketed as an affordable and effective organic fertilizer
(Adetunji and Adejumo 2018). By taking this activity, keratinous wastes will be
converted into inorganic and sulfur compounds that plants can use right away
(Nayaka and Vidyasagar 2013).
Huge amounts of keratinous wastes are produced annually, particularly by the
poultry, textile, and leather industries. Additional research has revealed that it sig-
nificantly improves plant growth properties, and it can be safely regarded as an
affordable, effective, and promising organic fertilizer (Adetunji and Adejumo 2018).
In order to biodegrade chicken feathers into a digestible and nutritionally beneficial
feather lysate that is rich in free amino acids, peptides, and ammonium ions, kerati-
nolytic bacteria are used.
In addition to providing plants with nitrogenous fertilizers, feather lysate can
also be fed to animals as a protein-rich meal (Tamreihao et al. 2019). By doing this,
keratinous wastes will be transformed into inorganic and sulfur compounds, which
the plants may use right away (Nayaka and Vidyasagar 2013). By using a practical
and environmentally beneficial way of recycling, microbial keratinases hasten the
composting process of used chicken feathers into nitrogen-rich fertilizer. The com-
parative study between feather hydrolysate and keratinolytic bacteria shows that the
11 Keratinase: A Futuristic Green Catalyst and Potential Applications 221

feather hydrolysate, which is a rich source of nitrogen and carbon, can be used to
encourage beneficial microbial activity in soil and accelerate plant growth. By pro-
ducing indole-3-acetic acid, siderophore, solubilizing inorganic P, and other signifi-
cant growth promotion features, keratinolytic bacteria exhibits biocontrol and plant
growth promoting (PGP) capabilities that can shield plants from dangerous patho-
gens and boost their growth. In addition to promoting human health, environment,
organic farming, agroecosystem, and soil biological activity, the employment of
keratinolytic bacteria in agriculture increases crop productivity and raises aware-
ness of sustainable agricultural practices.

11.6.5 Pharmaceuticals, Medicine, and Cosmetic Production

In the pharmaceutical sector, keratinases are seen as promising biocatalysts. In the

biomedical industry, keratinases and keratinolytic organisms were crucial. The
medication administration methods used in the pharmaceutical business are
expected to change as a result of this technique (Gupta et al. 2013b). Studies have
shown that keratinases have significant therapeutic results when used to treat hyper-
keratosis such as in the case of corns, calluses, and psoriasis (Gupta et al. 2017).
According to reports, some of these proteases are used in hair-improving products
as they enhance hair quality. Similarly, keratinases are efficient in treating acne and
pimples, which are the frequent skin conditions brought on by an excessive buildup
of keratin in the sebaceous gland (Spyros 2003). It can be utilized as a supporting
component to encourage the efficient adsorption of cosmetics and medications
(Mohorčič et al. 2007). According to certain reports, keratinase helps medications
penetrate the nail more deeply, enhancing their bioavailability (Tiwary and Gupta
2010). The effect of keratinase on skin and nails shows that keratins make it easier
to remove dead skin and nail cells from surfaces. It has been applied topically to
treat a number of skin conditions, including hyperkeratosis (a thickening of the skin
brought on by a buildup of too much keratin) and acne, by removing extra keratin.
There are now commercially available keratinase-infused face scrubs, anti-dandruff
shampoos, and other personal care items for hair removal and glowing skin (Gupta
et al. 2013b). It has many more applications in modern medicine. In the area of
contemporary medicine, keratinases have a lot more applications. According to
reports, keratinases have the ability to deactivate and disassemble misfolded prion
proteins. This could be viewed as very encouragement for future treatments
(Langeveld et al. 2003; Narayan and Dutta 2005). They can also exfoliate dead skin
while substituting traditional treatments (Gupta and Ramnani 2006). These bum-­
forming cells in skin can also be unblocked using keratinase (Selvam and Vishnupriya
2012). When injected, keratinase can increase medicine delivery and break down
viral proteins. It has been demonstrated to improve drug penetration through the
nail plate, a very strong pharmacological barrier (Mohorčič et al. 2007). Due to their
capacity to destroy prions, they are also helpful in sterilizing equipment and instru-
ments (infectious protein) (Liang et al. 2010).
222 M. Jayakumar et al.

Keratinases have been used in topical hair removal products as an active ingredi-
ent in the cosmetic industry (Adelere and Lateef 2016). The enzyme has the power
to significantly harden the hyperkeratosis (dead skin layer) present in appendages.
Therefore, it might be a viable substitute for the salicylic acid that is now being used
(Gupta and Ramnani 2006). Hydrolysates, which are used to manufacture hair and
skincare products, have been made from a variety of protein sources, including
wheat protein, wool keratin, and collagen (Kshetri et al. 2020). They typically pro-
vide improved sensation, hydration, and protect the skin’s natural integrity (Barba
et al. 2008; Villa et al. 2013). Acne is a common skin condition that develops when
too much keratin blocks the sebaceous gland (Selvam and Vishnupriya 2012). The
development of anaerobic bacteria in clogged sebaceous glands causes acne. The
sebaceous gland opens and functions normally when the keratinase enzymes are
applied. As long as the pores are treated and kept enzymatically open, the gland’s
internal environment will become aerobic, and the acne-causing bacteria would not
be able to grow new colonies. In 2001, a keratinase-based product (enzymatic pow-
der or tablet) that can be a successful adjuvant in the treatment of acne was patented
(Spyros 2003). Both Keratopeel PB (Proteo Biotech) and Keratoclean Sensitive PB
are commercially marketed products for delicate enzymatic peeling. Similarly, ker-
atinases have uses in the treatment of scars and the regeneration of epithelium
(Gupta et al. 2013b).
Less molecular weight peptides are produced during keratinase-mediated keratin
biodegradation (Stiborova et al. 2016). These peptides have been used more fre-
quently in the creation of cosmetic products such as moisturizers and conditioners
since they tend to penetrate the hair or nail cuticles in comparison to hydrolysates
from other sources (Villa et al. 2013). The biological formulation’s hair-removal
action was replaced by purified keratinase enzyme rather than thioglycolate
(Sanghvi et al. 2016). Keratinase from B. subtilis has been shown to be effective at
hair removing. It is intriguing that the cream containing keratinase removed hair
more effectively than the chemical-based cream (Nnolim et al. 2020a, b).

11.6.6 Environmental and Wildlife Protection

Keratin biomass is generated in enormous quantities from the tannery, poultry, tex-
tile, wool industries, and so on, which are disposed into environment, causing pol-
lution. Further, worldwide meat producing sectors grow vastly and they generate
enormous offal, manure, and feather waste and pose a significant impact on environ-
ment, particularly on water, land, nitrogen oxide, carbon dioxide, soil erosion,
eutrophication of water reservoirs, and so on (Godfray et al. 2018). Feathers from
poultry accumulate more to the ecosystem and also it causes local disturbance such
as enormous flies, rodents, bad odor, contamination, and eutrophication problems
(Gerber et al. 2007; Sharma and Gupta 2016). The microbes Vibrio and Salmonella
11 Keratinase: A Futuristic Green Catalyst and Potential Applications 223

found in feather waste may cause the atmosphere’s concentrations of ammonia,

nitrous oxide, and hydrogen sulfide to increase (Tesfaye et al. 2017). Processing,
such as burning, increases the greenhouse impact (Cheong et al. 2018), and con-
trolled landfilling generates significant amounts of trash from organic materials
(Tesfaye et al. 2017). The productivity, energy use, effluent generation, and waste
management benefits of enzymatic hydrolysis of keratin may be greater. Keratinases
increase the value of poultry and industrial waste, resulting in more sustainable
economic and environmental practices (Srivastava et al. 2020). Peptides, vital amino
acids, and minerals including calcium, potassium, phosphorus, and nitrogen are all
present in feathers.

11.6.7 Textile Industry

Currently, the main techniques for limiting wool felting shrinkage are chlorine-­
Hercosett and enzyme treatments. Since decades, the chlorine-Hercosett technique
has been utilized as a successful commercial shrink resist finishing. One of the main
issues with this procedure is the issue of environmental degradation brought on by
the disposal of absorbable organic chlorides. The creation of eco-friendly and regu-
lated wool shrink-resist finishing techniques is urgently required. In the textile
industry, keratinase from Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, a bacterial strain that pro-
duces keratinase, has been hailed as a potentially useful tool for removing wool
scale layers and as a safe, efficient substitute for the traditional chemical technique.
After being treated with enzymes, felting shrinkage was calculated and then the
leather materials had been dried and dewatered. Fabric tensile strength was assessed
using a material testing machine. The morphology of the treated and untreated wool
fabrics was investigated using a scanning electron microscope. Using a scanning
electron microscope, the morphology of the treated and untreated wool fabrics was
examined (Cai et al. 2011; Zhang et al. 2016).
The elimination of bound fatty acids from the wool surface by keratinase treat-
ment increased the hydrophilicity of wool fibers. The hydrophilicity of wool fibers
is significantly recovered by this treatment. It was found that hydrophilicity
decreases with increasing keratinase concentration (Gunes et al. 2018). In the textile
industry’s wool processing, the existence of wool scale was considered to be the
primary factor, affecting directional friction, wool fiber shrinkage, and dyeing effi-
ciency (Shen et al. 2007). It was anticipated that the scale will be removed to address
these drawbacks. Dichlorodicyanuric acid is traditionally used to chlorinate wool
fabrics, although this process has the potential to pollute the environment (Wang
et al. 2009). Keratinase has drawn a lot of attention as a potential replacement for
the standard chemical technique in the leather industry because of the growing con-
cern about environmental protection (Gradisar et al. 2000) (Table 11.2).
224 M. Jayakumar et al.

Table 11.2 A brief summary of keratinase applications in various industries

S.
no. Source Application Field References
1 B. cereus IIPK35 Milk clotting agent Dairy industry Almahasheer
et al. (2022)
2 Bacillus licheniformis Treatment of chicken Poultry industry Babbar et al.
feathers (2022)
3 Trichoderma Detergent formulation Leather and Bagewadi et al.
harzianum isolate detergent industries (2018)
HZN12
4 Chryseobacterium sp. Biotreatment of wool Textile industry Liang et al.
L99 fibers (2010)
5 Aspergillus sp. DHE7 Detergent formulations Detergent industry El-Ghonemy
and Ali (2021)
6 Bacillus sp. Antioxidant and Pharmaceutical Kshetri et al.
RCM-SSR-102 antityrosinase compounds industry (2020)
7 Bacillus sp. Okoh-K1 Used as reducing agents, Biotechnology and Nnolim et al.
organic solvents, detergent industry (2020a, b)
surfactants, and laundry
detergents

11.7 Recommendation and Futuristic Prospects

Keratin, one of the most prevalent hard substances in soil, is challenging to break
down naturally. However, turning these chemicals into useful end products is sim-
pler and less expensive when done by microbial and fungal breakdown (Gopinath
et al. 2015). To increase keratinase synthesis, numerous microorganisms have been
suggested and used in a range of industrial applications. Additionally, new keratin-
ase research has made additional advancements (Daroit and Brandelli 2014; Gupta
and Singh 2014). However, a very sensitive technique for keratinase testing is not
yet available. Additionally, recombinant keratinase chimeras need to be enhanced in
order to produce efficient keratinase. The manufacturing and detection of keratinase
will be more quickly applied to industries and environmental waste management as
more effective technologies are developed. Therefore, tremendous efforts are
required to enhance the current production strategies and create a completely new,
efficient way with few limitations. There is reason to anticipate that enhanced kera-
tinase will soon be able to resolve the nutrition, food technology, livestock feed,
leather industries, detergent formulation agriculture, plant biostimulants, pharma-
ceuticals, medicine, cosmetic, environmental, and wildlife protection applications,
given the significant advancements already made and the increased interest and
input in the field. Soon, further research and development in this area are needed to
provide enough advancement in the valorization of food sector waste.
11 Keratinase: A Futuristic Green Catalyst and Potential Applications 225

11.8 Conclusion

Keratinase enzyme is well-known industrial important enzyme that has a wide

range of applications in different fields as green catalyst. This enzyme has countless
opportunities to thank with numerous potential applications including nutrition,
food technology, livestock feed, leather industries, detergent formulation agricul-
ture, plant biostimulants, pharmaceuticals, medicine, cosmetic, environmental, and
wildlife protection. It can be synthesized from microbial degradation practices
using the waste chicken feathers via environmentally friendly method for managing
poultry feather waste. In this context, a detailed purview has been provided in this
chapter with respect to keratinase enzyme, derived from waste resources, and recent
developments in keratinase enzyme production, with its biochemical and functional
properties have been also covered.

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Chapter 12
Valorization of Aquatic Waste Biomass

J. Suresh Kumar and Veerapandi Loganathan

Abstract The affluence of livestock in India is enormously conferred with the rate
growing at 6% per annum. The livestock industry, especially the fisheries industries,
contributes around 1.07% of GDP to the Indian economy. Environmental pollutions
and the economy of the fish processing industry have a direct impact on the utiliza-
tion of by-products. Besides pollution and hazard aspects, wastes from aquatic
products have a potential role in converting into products of higher value. Treated
aquatic waste has explored numerous applications among which the most important
are animal feed, biodiesel/biogas, dietetic products (chitosan), natural pigments
(after extraction), and cosmetics (collagen). Additives utilized in food industries are
derived synthetically, which creates an adverse allergic condition and also a nega-
tive impact on some consumers. Such failings can be overcome by the additives
derived from natural sources such as aquatic by-products and they paves way for the
production of additives such as chitin and chitosan, hydroxyapatite, antifreeze pro-
teins, astaxanthin, and enzymes. This chapter summarizes the potential utilization
of aquatic wastes as food additives.

Keywords Aquatic processing waste · Biosorbents · Chitin · Chitosan · Fish silage

· Squalene

12.1 Introduction

Since it contains a broad spectrum of phytochemical compounds, such as phenol,

enzymes, and polymers, ocean debris constitutes a biological substrate with such a
wide range of compositional and physiological characteristics. There is an increas-
ing necessity to suggest alternative food sources and alternative treatments due to

J. S. Kumar
Department of Food Technology, Saintgits College of Engineering, Kottayam, India
V. Loganathan (*)
Nehru Institute of Technology, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 231
E. Cherian, B. Gurunathan (eds.), Value Added Products From Food Waste,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48143-7_12
232 J. S. Kumar and V. Loganathan

the scarcity of terrestrial sources and the fast-growing aging population. Increasing
awareness of the correlation among both health and nutrition is growing, increasing
demand for innovative fish products that have enhanced nutritional and physiologi-
cal attributes (al Khawli et al. 2019). Besides, musculoskeletal disorders are still the
major leading cause of disability, as reported by the World Health Organization
(WHO) (2021), Consequently, specific treatments, surgeries, and components for
cell therapy are highly investigated. Despite it is usually underestimated, marine
debris could be a better alternative source to solve a variety of social and economic
problems (Ahmed et al. 2021). This study concentrates on current knowledge of the
value-added possibilities from marine wastes. It also addresses the utilization of
marine biomass and the valorization of seafood by-products, whether directly or
through the separation of biomaterials, as prospective alternatives that could result
in a significantly economically beneficial and eco-friendly use of ocean sources.
It is essential to start processing coastal debris or marine by-products as soon as
possible to reduce physiological, biochemical, and microbiological deterioration.
Refrigeration, cooling, or hydrolysis with organic substances are employed to retain
their natural characteristics (Remme & Austnes, n.d.). By using proper collection,
purification, and bioprocess approaches, by-products from waste or other streams
are frequently utilized in their present condition (Fig. 12.1).
In addition to being improved for separation and synthesis of concentrates marine
oil, beneficial rich protein ingredients and products, pharmacological biomaterials,
and fabrics, alternative processes such as digestion with enzymes, ensilaging, acidi-
fication, and gelatinization (surimi synthesis from the fish protein content) are also
produced (Kim and Mendis 2006; Teixeira et al. 2014). Bacillus subtilis,
Lactobacillus bulgaricus, and Pichia pastoris have all been shown synthesize hyal-
uronic acid (Badri et al. 2019; Oliveira et al. 2020). The complicated regulatory
systems and in vivo crosslinking remain significant barriers to the efficient produc-
tion of biodegradable polymers utilizing microbes. However, utilizing molecular

Complex process of
No
production
Sourcing the producer
organisms
Side-stream marine by-products are applicable for Scale up Production
use without pre- processing?
Production in
Simple bio based
Heterologous
production including
purification Yes
Bioreactors

Growth conditions
favoring metabolic
production

Fig. 12.1 Utilization of marine by-products

12 Valorization of Aquatic Waste Biomass 233

markers and transcriptional and/or controlled molecular switches markers, which

including CRISPR-Cas tools, used to transcription of endogenous or exogenous
genomes has already developed. Various by-products have been researched and
developed from the marine wastes, which adds value in the market of waste utiliza-
tion and is discussed further.

12.2 Biosorbents

Biosorbents are the removal of impurities using materials of biological source (bio-
mass), and most of the aquatic biowastes are efficiently applied as biosorbents in
residual water for the removal of radionuclides, inorganic and organic pollutants,
and so on (Fig. 12.2). It is an operation generally independent of energy, exploiting
dead or waste biomass of low cost. Based on the presence of functional group in
biosorbents, the mechanisms of absorption of pollutants gets differ during the inter-
action with the target pollutants. Considering the aquatic environment, the aquatic
pollutants such as metals, metal ions, and dyes are being removed extensively with
microalgae, seagrasses, and macroalgae. The polysaccharide composition of algal
cell wall has numerous functional groups that play as binding sites for pollutants
and metals. Among aquatic biosorbents, brown algae are very efficient on removing
the varied ions from the water because of the huge content of alginate and higher
uptake capacities. It adds a valuable point that it is unlimited and spread over the
vast region of the ocean. Davis et al. and Mazur et al. discussed that marine brown
macroalgae remove toxic metals by acting as a natural cation exchanger. Such

Marine Biomass

Heavy Metals Industrial Dyes Inorganic Nutrients Organic Compounds

Algae Crab Shell Shrimp Shell Algae Seagrass Algae Algae

Acridine Orange,
Astrazon Red
Antimony, Cadmium, Lead, Zinc, Mercury Nickel Bismarck Brown Y, Nitrates, Phosphates
Safranin O
Lead,Copper, Brilliant Green,
Methylene Blue
Cadmium,Nickel,Zinc, Crystal Violet,
Acid Black Tetracycline,
Mercury, Cobalt, Methylene
Arsenic, Chromium Anionic dyes, Blue, Nile Blue A, Progesterone,
Methylene Blue, Safranin O Norgestrel, Triclosan
Malachite Green, Acid Sulfamethoxazole
Black Sulfacetamide
Acridine orange, Paracetamol
Crystal violet,
Malachite Green,
Methylene Blue,
Safranin O
Malachite Green
Brilliant Green

Fig. 12.2 Various applications as biosorbents

234 J. S. Kumar and V. Loganathan

biomass from seagrasses and macroalgae can be obtained in larger quantities at a

lower price without affecting their ecosystem in their aquatic environment. The new
or emerging concept of magnetically responsive which have a significant applica-
tion on eradicating various organic and inorganic pollutants from wastewater with
magnetic modification to obtain smart biomaterials which exhibits numerous
response types to an external magnetic field of marine-derived biosorbents. Usually,
magnetic oxides of iron nano- and microparticles are used as magnetic tags for
marine biomass changes (Vita Rudovica et al. 2021).
Several dyes such as methylene blue and safranin are being removed from the
water by the magnetically modified algal biomass of Sargassum swartzii, Cystoseir
barabata, and Cymopolia barbata, respectively. Figure 12.2 shows the various
applications of aquatic biomass and their respective applications in removing the
pollutants.

12.3 Biofuels

The world energy depend on the fossil fuel, which have significant effect on global
warming with the emission of the greenhouse gases. The alternative for this emis-
sion is being targeted with the technologies behind the production of biofuel, and
many studies are being conducted worldwide to overcome the global energy
demands. Considering the above statements, biorefineries that process the waste are
attracting significant interest globally, because sustainable waste management solu-
tions (Vita Rudovica et al. 2021) meet the energy need and solution for the manage-
ment of wastes. Production of the biofuels from corn, sugarcane, soybean, and palm
oil creates ecology damage, shortage of water, and fuel and food debate. Considering
such problems, the second- and the third-generations have alternative options for
production of biofuel, which are respectively produced from microbes and waste
materials (municipal sludge, plant, and agricultural waste). Microalgae are utilized
to produce biofuel on incorporation with wastewater, which benefits both economi-
cally and environmentally. This process includes the microalgae as biosorbent for
pretreatment and on applying conversion technologies, biofuels are produced,
which includes the chemical conversion – extraction and transesterification (bio-
diesel), fermentation (bioethanol), and biochemical – anaerobic digestion (biogas)
(Kumar et al. 2020).
Direct combustion, pyrolysis, and gasification are the alternative processes that
include the non-fermentation process for the production of energy from microalgae
(Vita Rudovica et al. 2021). A mild pyrolytic process called torrefaction, which is a
destructive drying and slow pyrolysis, attracts recent attention that upgrades and
pretreats the low quality fuels and also for the biochar production. This procedure
may be ordered at scales ranging from extensive industrial facilities down to indi-
vidual farms and even at the inland level, making it applicable to various socioeco-
nomic situations. Figure 12.3 précises the most significant algal biofuels, their
applications, and production mechanisms. Algae, especially microalgae, because of
12 Valorization of Aquatic Waste Biomass 235

• Natural convertors - Water - Sunlight - Carbondioxide

• Applied Convertors - Heat - Chemicals - Microorganisams
Converters

• Proteins
Algal • Carbohydrates
Biomass/ • Lipids
Microalgae

• Biochemical
• Thermochemical
Conversion • Chemical
ways

• Extraction - Anaerobic digetion or fermentation - Photobiological

production of H2 -Liquefaction - Gasification - Pyrolysis -
Conversion Transesterificaton
process

• Gaseous Fuels (hydrogen, syngas, methane) - Liquid Fuels -

(syndiesel,biodiesel, biooil,ethanol ,butanol, methanol) - Solid
Outcoming fuels (biochar)
Products

Fig. 12.3 Process of biofuel production

their huge availability and continuous supply, is considered as the most promising
source of waste for biofuel production and the techniques of production differs on
the algal type and end product. Thus, the use of algae can still be regarded as a fea-
sible option for the next generation of biofuels.

12.4 Feed Supplements

Due to the high protein and lipid content of fish wastes, it is used extensively for the
production of fishmeal decades before. However, recent studies and research showed
that fishmeal is not the only choice, and products such as fish mince, gelatines, fish
proteins hydrolysates, and oils can be manufactured from the discards of fish plants
or hatches. Industrial processing of fish generates wastes such as offal and meats,
236 J. S. Kumar and V. Loganathan

which are rich in protein content that can be converted to peptones and are being
used as growth medium for bacteria in laboratories. The rich contents of proteins,
lipids, carbohydrates, minerals, and carotenoid pigments of mussel meat are having
a potent application as feed supplements, somewhere as food supplement, preserva-
tives, and enzymes. Seaweeds are the best source of aqua feed and cattle feed and
being utilized traditionally. Seaweeds provide the rumens with great sums of rumen-­
degradable protein or can be used as a source of palatable and digestible bypass
protein (Molina-Alcaide et al. 2017). Asparagopsis taxiformis is a seaweed that
have anti-methanogenic activity over fermentation and able to cease methanogene-
sis at very low inclusion levels in the rumen (Machado et al. 2016).

12.5 Protein Hydrolysate

The breakdown of protein into peptides and free amino acids is referred to as protein
hydrolysate. Because of the wide application of protein in food and pharma indus-
tries globally, industries are keen on recovery of protein from various sources and
increase the biological and nutritional value of the final output. This wide applica-
tion steps into aquaculture and aquaculture wastes and acts as an excellent source
for the extraction and recovery of the protein by either enzymatic or chemical meth-
ods by forming peptides and functional products. The products from aqua wastes
can be applied as stabilizers, protein supplements, and flavor enhancers. Proteins
are extracted in the form of hydrolysates from the aqua wastes as shown in Fig. 12.4.
Fish protein hydrolysates (FPH) are amorphous powders and hygroscopic in
nature, which are extracted entirely from the fish wastes. These powders contain
higher protein of 81–93% when the fat is present at a lower level of 5%, 3–8% ash,
and 1–8% moisture. Lean fish species or their processing wastes are the ideal raw
material for FPH and their process is shown in Fig. 12.4. This FPH was being used
in many applications as a gelling agent, nutritional supplement, and food binders.
Besides, aquafeed and liquid fertilizers are utilizing this FPH as a cryoprotectant
and nutritional additive (Vita Rudovica et al. 2021).
The sources of proteins from animals are more nutritious on comparing the
plants due to the better stability of the dietary essential amino acids. Various prod-
ucts were continuously developed in recent days in protein hydrolysis resulted in
various applications. Many studies of lipid profile and amino acid composition

Protein
Isolation Pretreatment Hydrolysis
recovery

Fig. 12.4 Process of production of protein hydrolysate

12 Valorization of Aquatic Waste Biomass 237

confirm the nutritional value and high quality of fish protein hydrolysate. The agri-
cultural, food, cosmetic, pharmaceutical, and nutraceutical industries commonly
use protein hydrolysate and could be employed as sources of protein in diets for
farmed animals and aquatic organisms. Finally, the enzymatic hydrolysis results in
the solid material, which can be used as a fertilizer (Ormanci et al. 2019).

12.6 Natural Pigments

Products from aquaculture and fish have a diverse range of colors, which impacts
customers’ choice to purchase them. Shrimps and prawns are one of the most impor-
tant sources of natural carotenoids. The production of seafood, which is gradually
increasing, generates a large volume of industrial wastes. The color of shells, skin,
and exoskeleton of aquatic organisms, which is rich in yellow, orange, and red color,
is caused by carotenoids, one of the most commonly known natural pigments
obtained from industry waste after shrimp, crabs, trout, lobster, crayfish, salmon,
snapper, and tuna processing, which can be found in other nonaquatic organisms as
well (Paulina et al. 2017). Carotenoids can be extracted from body carapace, head,
and rest of shrimp waste with different organic solvents such as isopropyl alcohol
(IPA), methanol, ethyl acetate, hexane, ethylmethyl ketone, petroleum ether, etha-
nol, and solvent mixtures at diverse conditions of extraction (Paulina et al. 2017).
Consumers start to avoid foods containing artificial colorants, which results in
higher level of environmental awareness. Shrimps waste is a significant source of
natural pigments, which could replace the addition of various synthetic colorants.

12.7 Products from Fish Wastes

The recent biotechnological improvements and the intervention of food processing

made abundant changes in the field of utilization of wastes, especially of aquatic
outputs. They serve as efficient alternatives to the chemical and mechanical process
of scrubbing and produce various valuable products. The processing plants of fishes
leaves scraps as waste and it was supposed to be dumbed and affects the environ-
ment as pollutants. An alternative to these pollutants emerges as the utilization of
the scraps and converting into products as discussed earlier. Tables 12.1 and 12.2
explain various sources of aquatic wastes and their application. The products that
are being utilized globally out of fish wastes are chitin and chitosan, shrimp extract,
fish meal, fish body oil, pearl essence, isinglass, fish silage, and so on. Certain
aquatic wastes recovered and their utilization are tabulated in Table 12.1.
238 J. S. Kumar and V. Loganathan

Table 12.1 Sources of by-products and their active components and applications
By-product Components of importance Application
Heads Proteins, lipids, peptides, Food-grade hydrolysates, animal-grade
collagen, gelatin, minerals hydrolysates, fish meal, fish oil, pet food,
including calcium nutraceuticals, cosmetics
Frames (bones, Proteins, lipids, peptides, Pet food, fish meal, food-grade hydrolysates,
flesh, fins) collagen, gelatin, minerals animal-grade hydrolysates, fish oil,
including calcium nutraceuticals, cosmetics
Trimmings Proteins, lipids, peptides Fish meal, fish oil, food-grade hydrolysates,
animal-grade hydrolysates, pet food
Viscera Proteins, lipids, peptides, Food-grade hydrolysates, animal-grade
enzymes such as lipases hydrolysates, fish meal, fish oil, fuel,
fertilizers
Skin (with belly Collagen, gelatin, proteins, Fish meal, fish oil, cosmetics, food, fish
flap) peptides, lipids, minerals meal, nutraceuticals, leather, fuel, cosmetics,
fertilizers
Blood Proteins, peptides, lipids, Fuel, therapeutics, fertilizer
thrombin and fibrin

12.7.1 Chitin and Chitosan

The second most abundant biopolymer next to cellulose is chitin and chitosan of
white, inelastic, hard polysaccharide and are added as ingredients in several prod-
ucts and processes including clarification, packaging films, and so on. The chitin
and chitosan can be extracted from many sources but the abundant shrimp shell
wastes act as great sources for the preparation of these substances. Deproteinization
and demineralization are the two major operations that shells undergo and produce
this chitin, and after deacetylation of chitin, chitosan is produced. Chitosan has
several industrial and medicinal uses as a growth promoter in pets, feed ingredients,
clarifying agents in juice, purification of water, wastewater treatment, textiles, cos-
metics, and pharma industries.

12.7.2 Fish Meal

Fish meal is an excellent protein source mainly used as feed for aquaculture species
and livestock. The major process aspects involved in fish meal product is cooking,
pressing, drying and grinding from the scraps of the fishes at the moment of indus-
trial processing. Typical species are small fatty species such as anchovy, sprat, her-
ring, and krill. Next to the cooking and drying process is the fish that is turned into
rough brown flour called as fish meal and packed for further logistics.
12 Valorization of Aquatic Waste Biomass 239

Table 12.2 Biowaste utilization of aquatic sources

Percentage Valuable bioactive
Biowaste of utilization Sources components
Head, shell 65–85 Crustacean Shrimp/ Chitin, chitosan,
prawn N-acetyl-­
chitooligosaccharides,
chitosan oligosaccharides,
N-acetyl-d-glucosamine,
pigment protein, d-
glucosamine, protein
hydrolysate,
enzymes, flavor
Back shell, 60–70 Crab Chitin, pigment
viscera, gills,
claws shell
Head, shell <60 Lobster Pigment, chitin, flavor
Head, shell 71–74 Krill Chitin, protein, pigment,
hydrolysate, oil
Head, shell <85 Crayfish Chitin, pigment, oil, flavor
Shell, 60–80 Mollusks Scallop, Enzyme, protein hydrolysate,
nonedible body including clam, oyster, flavor
part cephalopods mussel, etc.
Ink bag, 25–32 Squid Chitin, enzymes, bioactive
gladius or pen, peptides, collagen, gelatin
liver, other
organs
Intestine, 10–20 Octopus Collagen, gelatin
mouth
apparatus, eyes
Shell, viscera Coelenterate Sea urchin Gelatin, collagen,
and echinoderm Sea cucumber Protein hydrolysate, bioactive,
collagen, gelatin
Jelly fish Protein hydrolysate, collagen,
gelatin

12.7.3 Pearl Essence

Pearl essence is the product obtained by suspending the epidermal layer of guanine
present in scales of pelagic fishes in the solvent. This guanine is crystalline in nature
and largely present in the scales of fishes. The scales are soaked and allowed to
separate the pearl essence from the water and protein mixture. The pearl essence is
transferred into gasoline where it floats to the surface. The separation is then filtered
into fine particles as pearl essence. These particles of pearl essence are used for the
manufacture of artificial pearls, to give shiny coating to the trays, used for fishing
rods, glazers in covers, textiles, and sometimes electrical switches.
240 J. S. Kumar and V. Loganathan

12.7.4 Isinglass/Fish Maws

Fish maws, also called as isinglass, are produced out of fish air bladders (swim blad-
ders) and by application of drying. The swim bladers of catfish, carps, eels, polyne-
mids, sciaenids, sea bass, and so on are mostly preferred for the manufacture of fish
maws. They are rich in collagen and used as a delicacy in Chinese soups. The blad-
ders are first separated from the selected fish and blood and associated fat materials
are scraped off and cleaned with running water after cut opening the swim bladder.
Subsequently, the outer black membrane is removed and mined into pieces and
dried under sun or mechanical dryers to less than 8% moisture. Wine, beer, and
vinegar are being is used to clarify with the application of isinglass. Around 2–0.05%
of the suspended solids in beer are removed and increase the filtration rate from
3000 to 11,000 L. It can also be used in confectionery products, Indian ink, and as
an adhesive base for leather pottery and glass.

12.7.5 Fish Silage

Fish silage is a liquid product made from fish offal and trashed fish. The waster is
enzymatically treated and liquified in the presence of an acidic environment.
Bromelain was the most preferred enzyme for silage preparation with the presence
of Lactobacillus plantarum. The enzymes break down the protein into minimum
particle-sized soluble units and the process gets accelerated because of the acidic
condition and prevents spoilage. Formic, phosphoric, and sulfuric acids are used for
fish silage preparation at the level of 3–4%, and a pH of 4.0 or below is maintained.
This fish silage is being used as fish feed and animal feed.

12.8 Importance of Value Addition

Value addition is one of the prospective ways to improve the sustainability of the
seafood processing sector, and it is the most frequently used term in the industry,
especially in that sector. Enhancing the value of aquatic species is known as value
addition (Kim and Mendis 2006). An analysis of the strategic planning indicates
that the development of value-added aquatic products contributes to overall value
(Thorkelsson and Kristinsson 2009). Value addition enhances the product’s worth or
value after undergoing any of the basic or extensive processing operations listed in
Table 12.3, as well as increases processing efficiency, maintains with customer
demands, and provides a range of value-added aquatic products (Thorkelsson et al.
2009; Undeland et al. 2009).
An extremely perishable food product is fish meat because of high water activity
(aw) and a neutral pH, and it provides microorganisms with favorable conditions for
adequate nutrient availability (Adams and Moss 2000). A considerable surface
12 Valorization of Aquatic Waste Biomass 241

Table 12.3 Processing Traditional methods Modern methods

operations
Drying Chilling, freezing
Curing Canning
Smoking Retort processing
Fermentation/pickling Baking
Extrusion
Fortification
Minimal processing
Source: Thorkelsson et al. (2009), Undeland et al. (2009)

temperature in tropical locations enhances the problem caused in fish flesh’s inher-
ent compatibility as a substrate for bacterial growth. In these circumstances, fish
was started spoiling after 12 h. The processing technologies of chilling, freezing,
and canning can enhance the shelf life of fish (Onyuka and Ofulla 2013).
Due to poor postharvest facilities, postharvest fishery losses range around 10%,
which is a significant problem in fish processing industries across the nation. The
physicochemical and microbiological degradation that takes place after fish death is
a common cause of postharvest fish wastage. When a fish is alive, its natural protec-
tion strives to prevent it from deteriorating. There are numerous things that can
influence how quickly fish spoils, including time, temperature, handling practices
and poor processing techniques (Ólafsdóttir et al. 2006).
In recent years, the amount of waste generated from the fisheries sector has
increased, raising concerns worldwide, which are impacted by a variety of socio-
economic, biological, and operational factors as well as technological and opera-
tional constraints (Nitta and Numata 2013). Low-value or underutilized fish species
are referred to as fish wastes (Raveendran et al. 2013; Raveendran et al. 2013).
Furthermore, more than 50% of the fish portions that are processed (such as fins,
heads, skin, and other parts) are collected as “fish wastes” (Scotland 2015). Discards
from global fisheries, which comprise “nontarget” species, by-products, and waste
from fish processing, total to around 20 million tons per annum or 25% of the over-
all production of marine fishery catch (Buschmann et al. 2017). The fish’s composi-
tion is influenced by its species, sex, age, nutritional state, weather, and health
(Johansen et al. 2019).

12.8.1 Fish Pickle

The biochemical process of fermentation involves the conversion of sugars, carbo-

hydrates, and organic acids by microorganisms and enzymes. Foods become much
more nutritionally and easily digestible due to microorganisms such as bacteria and
yeast. Other techniques of preserving, such as canning and freezing, can halt the
fermentation process. Although having very slight similarity, both fermentation and
pickling are processes of food preservation. Pickling is a fermentation process in
which foods are preserved by the inclusion of acids.
242 J. S. Kumar and V. Loganathan

Chop ginger, green chilli and garlic

Grind to fine paste

Heat oil and curry leaves and the paste to it (sauté for 30 min)

In a separate pan roast mustard, asafoetida and cumin powder together and powder it

Add this mixture to the sautéed paste

Add chilli powder, garam masala, and salt to it

Add required amount of vinegar and stir well

Add citric acid and sodium benzoate to the sauce

Fry the turmeric masala separately and add to it

Leave it for overnight and pack it in required packaging material

Fig. 12.5 Fish pickle (Shikha et al. 2019)

Pickling is a technique that may be used to maintain or increase the shelf life of
food. Because to its low pH, this can hold perishable foodstuffs fresher for months.
Pickling really does have an influence on the food’s aroma, mouthfeel, and taste.
There are antibacterial characteristics in the materials utilized, such as garlic and
mustard seed (Shikha et al. 2019). The process for making fish pickles is shown in
Fig. 12.5, which is also applicable to manufacturing prawn pickle.

12.8.2 Dried Fish

Dried fish is one of the popular foods not only in India but also in other countries.
The taste of dried fish is unique. It can be consumed either sprinkling with edible oil
after roasting or by cooking or frying. Although the basis techniques of dried fish
production are similar in principles, not all production methods are identically the
same depending on the species and size of the fish. Dried fish is one of the main
dishes for rural areas and fish-deficient areas such as upper Myanmar. One of the
main quality concerns for dried fish is molding (Kent 2019; Siddhnath et al. 2022).
12 Valorization of Aquatic Waste Biomass 243

Dried fish can get molding easily if the moisture content exceeds 40%, and due to
poor sanitation and packaging quality. Quality can be improved, and shelf life can
be prolonged when vacuum packaging technique is used. By using vacuum packing,
it is possible to increase quality and extend shelf life.
Dehydration is a component of drying. Fish that have been dried have already
had their moisture removed, protecting it from pathogenic bacteria or enzymatic
activity. Whenever fish are kept in humid temperatures and optimum moisture con-
tent drop by up to 10%, they would not become rotten. Both natural and artificial
methods were employed to dry fish (Onyuka and Ofulla 2013; Singh et al. 2018).
Fish is quickly processed after being caught, skinned, dried whole or split, salted,
and dried in an open place or sun-drying system. It has a pungent odor, is heavily
salted, and tastes richly cheesy.

12.8.3 Smoked Fish

One technique of fish preservation is smoking, which operates as a kind of acidic

coating on the fish’s surface and inhibits the development of microbes. Dehydrating
the fish during the smoking process assists in lowering the environment’s capabili-
ties for bacteria to exist. There are typically two forms of smoking performed. At
high temperatures (150 °C), hot smoking has been done, while cold smoking has
been done at temperatures of 100 °C or lower. Both the pre-smoking and the smok-
ing processes can be followed.
There should be no remains of the kidney, gill, or intestine. Fish can be immersed
in a strong brine (permitted colous may be added to the brine). The duration of con-
tact time is influenced by the fish’s size and saturated fat (Assogba et al. 2019;
Degnon et al. 2013; Idah and Nwankwo 2013). The fish is then placed to dripping
inside the kilns in which it dries as well and collects smoke on the surface. The brin-
ing and smoking durations of shellfish includes mussels, clams, oysters, and shrimp.
The methodology for preparing smoked fish is depicted in Fig. 12.6.

12.8.4 Fish Noodles and Pasta

Pasta and noodles are both prepared by cooking fish in boiling water before con-
sumption. These days, it is also eaten with ketchup or in soup, and occasionally it is
fried. Noodles are lengthy pasta shapes that can be strained, extruded, flattened, and
then trimmed into a wide range of shapes such as long waves, tubes, strings, thin
strips, and others. There are many distinct forms and identities for short pasta. They
can be refrigerated for a limited shelf life or dried and preserved. In order to enhance
the product’s nutritional value, fish is added. To make these products nutritious, dif-
ferent compositions might be utilized in their production (Jesmi et al. 2017).
244 J. S. Kumar and V. Loganathan

Fig. 12.6 Smoked fish Fish

(Assogba et al. 2019)

Descaling, evisceration, Cleaning

washing and cutting

Curing

Draining Washing in running water

Partial drying

Smoking

12.9 Future Aspects

The future of the fish waste utilization is moving toward a widespread zone of
importance. The fish silage and fish bone mineral extraction processes are getting
updated, which increases the profitability of the production unit. Squalene, an
intriguing bioactive component, has been reported to be found in fish oil and their
applications receive a wide scope in future for the treatment of cancer, diabetes, and
tuberculosis. The agricultural field are moving toward the demand of the fertilizer
and organic components produced with the fish wastes. Researchers are working
toward the better utilization of fish wastes and bring new value-added products out
of aquatic biowastes.

12.10 Conclusion

Products with additional value satisfy the needs of changing consumer lifestyles.
Value-added products typically provide greater yields than raw fish and other fish.
Also, there are certain drawbacks. Value addition elevates the price of a product and
requires specialized technology, aesthetic packaging, and cold storage, among other
things. There are other benefits, though. Value is a combination of quality, service,
and price. Value-added fish items are typically considered to be those that have
additional features such as a seasoning or flavor, are prepared, sliced, or in some
other manner offer the consumer additional convenience. In terms of food, the func-
tional and psychological advantages of excellent quality and nourishment, ease of
preparation, and great food taste at an affordable price are the key benefits of value
addition. Finding ways to use low-value fish species more effectively and producing
protein-rich convenience products have been highlighted as the two main benefits of
value addition.
12 Valorization of Aquatic Waste Biomass 245

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 Part VI
Conversion of Food Waste into Biofuel and
Electricity
Chapter 13
Valorization of Agro-Waste Biomass into
Biofuel: A Step Towards Effective
Agro-­Waste Management

Pratyush Kumar Das, Bidyut Prava Das, Patitapaban Dash,

Bikash Kumar Das, and Baskar Gurunathan

Abstract The increase in population and accompanying agricultural production

generates tons of agro-wastes. Sustainable management of agro-waste is essential
for efficient food production and minimization of environmental pollution. A mil-
lion tons of agro-wastes produced per annum have enough renewable energy con-
tent. The energy-rich lignocellulosic biomass has the potential to generate biofuel
that can bridge the gap between production and consumption in the available energy
pool. The pretreatment and treatment of agro-wastes produce biofuels having mul-
tipurpose utility. Industrial development and change in lifestyle patterns increase
the pressure on the consumption of conventional energy resources. Biofuel is a
product of biomass valorization. It is a cheap source of nonconventional energy,
having the ability to fulfill the energy demands of society, without environmental
degradation. In view of the increased demand for agro-waste management, the
transformation of these wastes to biofuel is a viable option. Further study on this
aspect is required to improve the efficiency of this biofuel production system.

Keywords Agro-wastes · Biofuel · Biomass valorization · Energy · Environmental

pollution · Renewable · Waste management

P. K. Das · P. Dash (*) · B. K. Das

Centre for Biotechnology, Siksha ‘O’ Anusandhan (Deemed to be University),
Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
e-mail: patitapabandash@soa.ac.in
B. P. Das
Department of Botany, Sailabala Women’s Autonomous College, Cuttack, Odisha, India
B. Gurunathan
Department of Biotechnology, St. Joseph’s College of Engineering,
Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
School of Engineering, Lebanese American University,
Byblos, Lebanon

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 249
E. Cherian, B. Gurunathan (eds.), Value Added Products From Food Waste,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48143-7_13
250 P. K. Das et al.

13.1 Introduction

The synchronization of economic growth at national and international levels with

the generation and utilization of renewable energy resources can maintain an equa-
tion on a sustainable basis. Environmental health is becoming degraded with mod-
ern economic development, due to the overexploitation of nonrenewable natural
resources (Sharma et al. 2020). It is adversely affecting our natural environment in
the form of ozone depletion, acid rain, and greenhouse effects and is responsible for
wide-scale pollution of environmental components. Economic growth is not at all
acceptable at the cost of environmental health (Das et al. 2021). It is the time to
broaden the horizon of the generation and consumption of renewable energy
resources to meet the requirements of energy-demanding processes. The aim of this
strategy is to relieve pressure on commonly used fossil-based energy resources and
to promote the exploration of alternative renewable energy forms such as solar,
wind, tidal, geothermal, and biomass-based energies.
The excessive consumption of nonrenewable energy resources is responsible for
the depletion of the coal and petroleum reserves, increasing environmental toxicity,
and is equally responsible for the disruption of biogeochemical cycles. The use of
renewable energy is a possible alternative to restrict the present-day devastation,
caused by the increase in carbon and heat budget of the environment. Under the
prevailing situation, the harnessing of biofuel from potential biomass, using biodi-
gester, looks promising (Barr et al. 2021). Plant biomass is a ready and rich source
of chemical energy, formed by the transformation of radiant energy in solar light
during photosynthesis (Das et al. 2009). The photosynthetic yield of the plant along
with its catabolism, determines the quantity of its storable energy pool (Das et al.
2008). The storable energy of biomass acts as the source of the quantum of energy
required for transformation into the heat/electrical energy of biofuel.
Biofuel, an eco-friendly, renewable, and alternative form of fuel, can be har-
nessed from agro-wastes, using biomass as feedstock (Prasad et al. 2020; Ajayi and
Lateef 2023). The disposal of agro-waste biomass is a costly, labor-intensive, and
time-consuming process during agronomical practices. These wastes are rich in car-
bohydrates, proteins, lipids, and their derivatives (Dixit and Yadav 2020). The feed-
stock, rich in polysaccharides and lipids, is a good source of organic carbon.
Similarly, proteins and amino acids present in the feedstock serve as a good source
of organic nitrogen. The chemical bonds of these polymeric molecules contain
enough stored energy. This in turn makes biomass from agro-wastes to be a good
source of energy having the potential for biofuel production (Das et al. 2022a, b;
Kumar et al. 2023). Nonconventional energy sources, such as bioethanol, biodiesel,
biohydrogen, and biogas, can reduce overexploitation and dependency on conven-
tional sources of energy such as fossil-based fuels. To a certain extent, these biofu-
els can act as substitutes for fossil fuels to meet the demands of domestic, industrial,
agricultural, and transport sectors.
The chapter highlights the current state of the nonconventional/renewable energy
sector along with their possible sources of generation. It also lays emphasis on the
conversion of agro-waste biomass into biofuels to cope with the current energy
13 Valorization of Agro-Waste Biomass into Biofuel: A Step Towards Effective… 251

deficit, and environmental pollution scenario arising due to the rampant use of con-
ventional fuel sources. Taking environmental sustainability into the equation (Jose
and Ramakrishna 2021), the biochemical processes involved in the valorization of
agro-­waste biomass into biofuels in the form of bioethanol, biodiesel, biogas, and
biohydrogen have been extensively discussed. Various factors impacting the biofuel
generation process along with safety measures required to be taken during the valo-
rization steps have been highlighted. Biofuel generation from agro-waste biomass
unquestionably not only provides several opportunities in the renewable energy sec-
tor but also faces several challenges as far as its implementation is considered in
developing nations like India. The chapter concludes by pointing out such chal-
lenges and emphasizing the need for improved government policies, infrastructural
facilities, stringent emissions, and waste management standards. It invites further
attention from researchers and policymakers in this regard to make it a cost-­effective
and widely acceptable technology.

13.2 Current Status of Nonconventional Energy Resources

The rise in global pollution coupled with dwindling fossil fuel reserves have initi-
ated the need to look out for clean energy (nonconventional) sources. The energy
sector is a vital part of a nation’s economic growth and should be given more
priority.
The utilization of renewable energy increased by 3% in 2020. It can be mostly
attributed to a 7% additional generation of electricity from renewable sources.
Figure 13.1 provides an account of available sources of renewable energy in India
as of the year 2020. The contribution from nonconventional sources toward the
generation of electricity on a global scale has increased from 27% in 2019 to 29%
in the year 2020. China is set to be the highest renewable electricity-producing
country followed by the countries such as United States of America (USA),
European Union (EU), and India. China and USA are expected to contribute almost
50% of global energy output from the wind (Ji et al. 2020; Dey et al. 2022). This
section provides the updated status of energy production from renewable resources
on a global scale.

13.2.1 Solar Energy

It is one of the most widely available energies on the earth’s surface. The quantity
of this form of energy available on earth in an hour is enough to meet the per annum
global energy requirements. The earth is absorbing approximately 385,000 exa
joules of this energy. It includes the absorbance by air, ocean, and land components.
The energy harvested from the sun is mostly used in the generation of electricity,
water heating, and cooking (Elliott 2000).
252 P. K. Das et al.

Fig. 13.1 Total installed capacity for generation of renewable energy in India. (Source: Ji et al.
2020; Dey et al. 2022)

13.2.2 Wind Energy

It is generally obtained through windmills that make use of wind flow to rotate a
turbine. The mechanical energy obtained from the turbine is transformed into the
required electrical form of energy. China boasts of the world’s largest windmill with
a production capacity of 6000 MW (megawatt). On a global scale, approximately
534.5 TWh (terawatt-hour) of wind power is produced (Pappas 2017). Energy gen-
eration from wind power in India increased from 1.58 GW (gigawatt) in the finan-
cial year 2018–19 to 2.07 GW in 2019–20, an almost 31% increase in comparison
to the previous year (Ragaert et al. 2017).

13.2.3 Tidal Energy

It is one type of hydro-energy that makes use of tides that happens twice on a daily
basis. This form of energy uses ocean tides to rotate turbines. India as a developing
country has the potential for the generation of an 8000 MW tidal form of energy
(Himri et al. 2009).
13 Valorization of Agro-Waste Biomass into Biofuel: A Step Towards Effective… 253

13.2.4 Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy makes use of the gradient of heat energy present below the
earth’s surface to generate electricity. The 4760 MW capacity, Vindhyachal Thermal
Power Station is the biggest of its kind in India. It is situated in the Singrauli district
of Madhya Pradesh. As per the reports of the International Geothermal Association,
around 24 countries in the world collectively produce 10,715 MW of geothermal
power (Ruggero 2007).

13.2.5 Energy from Biomass

It involves the conversion of agricultural, industrial, and domestic solid biowastes

into fuels of different types. The energy derived from these sources is economical
and friendly to the environment. Plants or crops make use of sunlight during photo-
synthesis to produce biomass. These biomasses are further converted into usable
fuel forms such as biogas, bioethanol, biodiesel, or biohydrogen. This implies plants
utilize solar energy to convert it into biomass energy, which is further converted into
desirable fuels. On a global scale, approximately billion tons of biomass are pro-
duced. In India, on an annual basis, biomass availability is projected to be around
750 MMT (million metric tons) (Wang et al. 2022). The power generation from
biomass by the top five Indian states is provided in Fig. 13.2. Out of these states,
Uttar Pradesh has the highest production capacity of 592.50 MW of power from
biomass in India. It is followed by states such as Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra,
Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh with biomass power production capacities of
488.20, 403, 365.18, and 363.25 MW, respectively (Dey et al. 2022).

13.3 Types of Agro-wastes Produced and Their Sources

The rise in human population in the last few decades has brought about the necessity
to increase agricultural production. The last half of the century has seen more than
three times an increase in agricultural production. Technological advancements and
the extension of land for farming are some of the other reasons for increased agri-
cultural production (FAO 2017a; FAO and OECD 2019). The increased agricultural
production involves the production of food for humans, industrial utilities, and feed
for animals (FAO 2017b). Increased agricultural production implies the increased
generation of solid agro-wastes at each and every step of production, processing,
and consumption (Adejumo and Adebiyi 2020). This makes agriculture one of the
leading sectors producing solid biowastes that not only accumulate but also pose a
threat to environmental health (Bracco et al. 2018). Figure 13.3 shows the conven-
tional use of postharvest rice residues in India. The residues are either used as cattle
254 P. K. Das et al.

Fig. 13.2 Power generation from biomass (in MW) by the top five Indian states. (Source: Dey
et al. 2022)

feed or dumped conventionally away from the sites or are burnt on the field, thereby
causing pollution of the environment on a larger scale.
Agro-wastes can be classified into four different categories on the basis of
sources of production like residues from crops, wastes generated from agro-­
industries, wastes from livestock, and wastes generated from fruits and vegetables
(Fig. 13.4).
One of the commonly available and cost-effective forms of agro-waste is resi-
dues from crops. It mainly includes straws and husks of rice and wheat plant along
with stover of corn and sugarcane bagasse. Besides, other residues include dried
leaves, stems, and seed pods. Specifically, in India, by the year 2030, straw as waste
from rice crops is estimated to reach 221.8 million tons per annum (Kumar et al.
2018). The agricultural residues mostly from rice and wheat cultivation are usually
left on the fields. These solid wastes are to some extent used as animal fodder while
a majority of these are burnt in the fields (Adhikari et al. 2018).
Wastes from agro-industries mainly include the by-products generated during
food processing and after it. These include residues such as sugarcane bagasse, fruit
and vegetable peels, starch, molasses, fruit pomace, seed cakes, animal meat, and
fat residues. Sugarcane bagasse accounts for the largest waste generated from agro-­
industries (Saini et al. 2015). The global palm oil industry also accounts for 41% of
waste generated from approximately 86 million tons of fresh palm fruit biomass
(Sukiran et al. 2017). In a similar fashion, apple pomace as a waste account maxi-
mum up to 30% of the total apple biomass processed (Hijosa-Valsero et al. 2017).
The third major type of agro-wastes is generated from livestock, which mainly
includes liquid manures in the form of urinary wastes and solid manures. Liquid
manures are responsible for surface water pollution and aid in pathogen contamina-
tion. Solid manures contribute to air pollution by releasing carbon dioxide and
methane up to 18 and 37%, respectively (Holm-Nielsen et al. 2009).
The agro-wastes from commodities such as fruits and vegetables include unpro-
cessed fruits and vegetables. In India, these wastes are mostly dumped on the
13 Valorization of Agro-Waste Biomass into Biofuel: A Step Towards Effective… 255

Fig. 13.3 Cultivation of rice plant and the fate of postharvest residues: (a) cultivation of rice crops
on a field; (b) postharvest rice residues; (c) people engaged in the collection of postharvest rice
residues; (d) environmental pollution by dumping of postharvest residues with other organic mat-
ter; (e) rice straws being used as a cattle feed; (f) separation of rice grains from husks. These husks
are disposed of as they do not have any such significant usage

outskirts of cities. They are a major contributor to environmental pollution, which

may be attributed to their highly putrescible nature.
256 P. K. Das et al.

Fig. 13.4 Classification of agro-wastes based upon the source of production

13.4 Socioeconomic Problems Caused by Generated

Agro-Wastes

The proper disposal of agro-waste is the cause of major environmental concern as

tons of agro-waste, generated on a daily basis by the production and finishing of
edible agro yields. Highly populous nations such as China and India have a wide
acreage of lands that is used for paddy cultivation. The preservation, processing, and
storage of edible cereals are difficult to handle in these countries. It is a source for
the generation of nutrient-rich biodegradable wastes in tons. The edible cereal wast-
age is more in China (50 million tons/annum) as compared to its wastage in India
(23 million tons/annum). African countries are also not spared from this problem
with almost one-fourth of crop wastes being generated due to bad harvesting prac-
tices (Panahi et al. 2022). It is a problem that tends to compound with the increase
in population and demand (Anwar Saeed et al. 2018).
These unaddressed problems are responsible for environmental degradation,
economic loss, and public health issues. Transportation cost is a major hurdle for the
safe disposal of agro-waste in rural areas. The economic condition of the marginal
section of people acts as a hindrance to the disposal of agro-waste in an eco-friendly
manner. To avoid the transportation cost, the open burning of agro-wastes on the
crop fields by the concerned group of people is a common practice in rural areas.
The resultant excessive release of greenhouse gases is responsible for environmen-
tal pollution, scaling up of mean earth temperature, and erratic monsoons (Sharma
et al. 2021). Some of the major socioeconomic problems that cropped up in this
regard are highlighted below.
13 Valorization of Agro-Waste Biomass into Biofuel: A Step Towards Effective… 257

13.4.1 Emerging Challenges to the Environment

Good environmental health is of prime concern for the safety of public health. The
accumulation of agro-wastes may lead to the release of VOCs (volatile organic com-
pounds) such as alcohol, aldehydes, and ketones in the environment. These wastes
are usually generated during the production, processing, transportation, storage, or
consumption of agricultural commodities. The secondary environmental pollution
caused due to the accumulation of these wastes is one of the possible factors for
ozone depletion in the stratosphere, pollution, greenhouse effects, global warming,
acid rain, and climate change (Sharma et al. 2021).

13.4.2 Degradation in Soil Quality

Improper/conventional agro-waste management leads to the accumulation of agro-­

waste/partially degraded biowastes on crop fields. It can cause alteration of particle
size, porosity, aeration, field capacity, temperature, pH, and levels of mineral nutri-
ents in the soil. Subsequently, it changes the composition of soil microbial flora and
ruins the soil quality (Sharma et al. 2021). Alterations in the soil quality may not
allow the growth of the cultivars on the same piece of land, which had supported its
growth prior to such changes.

13.4.3 The Declining Trend of Crop Yield

The stagnation of generated agro-wastes can lead to the loss of cultivable areas for
cultivation purposes. The declining trend of crop yield may be due to the alteration
in quality and quantity of cultivable lands caused by the waste load.

13.4.4 Immobilization of Resources

The accumulation and improper management of agro-wastes lead to the unavail-

ability of these resources for mineral cycling in nature. After the prolonged continu-
ation of this trend, it can lead to stagnation of minerals in reservoirs with a long
residence time. The accumulation of disproportionate fractions of nutrients in the
soil is one of the possible reasons behind undesirable soil quality and its adverse
effects.
258 P. K. Das et al.

13.4.5 Additional Financial Burden

The normal cost involved with agricultural production processes such as irrigation,
nutrient supplementation, processing of raw agro-products, and transportation is
high. Farmers incur huge losses with the wastage of unused food products and the
mid-failure of crops. The farmers have to take an additional financial burden for the
safe disposal of agro-residues (Sharma et al. 2021). The in situ disposal of agro-­
wastes is a costly process and the marginal farmers have to bear the additional
expenditure for it. The financial burden on farmers is still high at the time of ex situ
remediation due to the involvement of transport costs. The additional expenditure
can be curtailed by the production of biofuel using agro-wastes. The cogeneration
of multiple value-added products by involving the intermediates of a reaction for
one product as reactants for the generation of other products is beneficial in this
context.
The declining trend of crop yield is a possible factor for the loss of earnings,
faced by marginal rural farmers. The loss of fertility of the soil by the conventional
open burning of agro-wastes on crop fields may require the purchase of fertilizers
by the farmer to restore the soil fertility of cultivable lands. For it, the farmers incur
more expenditure. The socioeconomic conditions of rural farmers may be ruined by
these factors.

13.5 Agro-wastes as a Source of Biofuel

The agro-wastes represent the differences between the volume of produced biomass
and that of edible biomass, generated during agricultural practices. Primary and
secondary agro-wastes management is a real problem for farmers, during agronomi-
cal practices. The clearing of accumulated agro-wastes on agricultural fields, the in
situ disposal of these wastes at the site of waste accumulation, and the shifting of
these wastes for ex situ disposal are examples of agro-waste-based expensive, time-­
consuming, and labor-intensive environmental problems. The primary agro-wastes
such as roots, stems, stalks, and leaves are produced during crop harvesting and the
accumulation of those wastes occurs during postharvesting stages.
The agro-wastes have the energy potential to transform their stored energy pool
into value-added energy sources such as bioethanol, biodiesel, biohydrogen, and
biogas. The waste biomass from cereal crops such as rice and maize is a suitable
feedstock for bioethanol production by hydrolysis, fermentation, and distillation.
Similarly, the wastes from oilseed crops such as oil palm, soybean, peanut, and
rapeseed are rich in fatty acids and glycerol. These wastes are suitable as feedstock
for fatty acid methyl ester (FAME)/biodiesel production by transesterification
(Schwaiger et al. 2011).
The agro-wastes are generated as field residues (roots, stems, and leaves), pro-
cess residues (husk and bagasse), and kitchen residues (vegetable peels, leaves, and
13 Valorization of Agro-Waste Biomass into Biofuel: A Step Towards Effective… 259

seeds) (Li et al. 2016). The generation of waste from unused food items creates a
problem for waste management and the occurrence of environmental pollution
across the world. More food waste is generated from unused root crops that account
for almost half of its production per annum. Almost one-third of unused dairy, cere-
als, and meat have been added to the soil directly or indirectly, thereby increasing
the volume of generated biowaste per annum (Jin et al. 2018).
After harvesting the crop, the agro-wastes are present as residues either on the
crop fields or accumulated at the processing sites until transformation to other
value-added products such as the spectrum of biofuels useful in different contexts.
Without it, the crop productivity of the soil slowly drops down.
The molasses of sugarcane and purging nuts are huge raw sources of biofuel
production. The residues (50–80%) are used for biofuel purposes in Africa (Sekoai
and Yoro 2016; Oluseun et al. 2014). The production of bioethanol is possible using
organic wastes such as fermentable sugars, cellulose, and hemicelluloses
(Karaosmanoglu et al. 1999).

13.6 Mechanism of Generation of Biofuel from Agro-Wastes

Agro-wastes largely contribute to environmental pollution and need to be disposed

of in a sustainable manner. Keeping in mind the current scenario of the global fuel
crisis due to dwindling stocks of fossil fuels, the generation of biofuels from agro-­
wastes offers to be an excellent alternative. The current biofuel industry is mainly
focused on the production of comparatively cleaner fuel sources that include bio-
char (solid biofuel), bioethanol and biodiesel (liquid biofuels), biogas, and biohy-
drogen (gaseous biofuels).
Solid biofuels are composed of solid organic matter and include wood wastes,
charcoal, animal excreta, and other biological biomass of nonfossil origin. These
biofuels are mostly consumed for heating or operation of cooking and electrical
appliances (Dahman et al. 2019).
Liquid biofuels are generally produced from natural plant and animal biomasses
rich in lignocellulosic content and/or lipids (Alalwan et al. 2019). These types of
biofuels are comparatively far less polluting than solid biofuels. Moreover, they
provide high energy in comparison to both solid and liquid types of biofuels along
with being easy to store and transport (Mahapatra et al. 2021). The liquid biofuels
mainly used are bioethanol and biodiesel.
Gaseous biofuels have low density and include biogas and biohydrogen (No and
No 2019). Gasification and pyrolysis are the two most commonly followed methods
for the generation of these biofuels. These energy forms have the potential to meet
the requirements for heating and electrical purposes. In comparison to gaseous bio-
fuels, solid and liquid biofuels are mostly preferred for electricity generation.
Table 13.1 provides information on the year-wise increase in global electricity gen-
eration (up to the year 2020) collectively from solid and liquid biofuels keeping
2010 as the base reference year.
260 P. K. Das et al.

Table 13.1 Annual increase Increase in electricity generation (in GWh)

(2011–2020) in global Year collectively from solid and liquid biofuels
electricity generation
2010 1869 (BRYV)
collectively from solid and
liquid biofuels in comparison 2011 BRYV+38
to that of the reference 2012 BRYV+197
year (2010) 2013 BRYV+172
2014 BRYV+469
2015 BRYV+550
2016 BRYV+453
2017 BRYV+1364
2018 BRYV+1349
2019 BRYV+1686
2020 BRYV+1686
Source: Mahapatra et al. (2021). BRYV stands for base
reference year value

Table 13.2 Comparison of different thermochemical processes for the generation of biofuels
Major
Process Method Products Drawbacks References
Pyrolysis Application of heat to Syngas A huge amount of heat Ruan et al.
the feedstock under is required (2019)
anaerobic conditions
Carbonization Slow pyrolysis/ Charcoal Secondary pollution Ruan et al.
controlled combustion (2019)
Combustion Burning biomass/ Heat and Large-scale emission Hassan et al.
feedstock in the electricity of pollutants such as (2020)
presence of air CO2, nitric acid, and
particulate matter
Gasification Converts biomass fuel Syngas, fuel High demand for WBA
into rich gaseous gas, methanol, energy (2020)
products and H2
Liquefaction Application of low Bio oils Technical problems Hassan et al.
temperature and high and limited utility (2020)
pressure using hydrogen
to organic biomass

The global electricity generation from solid and liquid biofuels was reported as
1869 GWh in 2010. There has been a subsequent increase in electricity generation
in the following years with a 90.2% spike in 2020 as compared to 2010.
Generation of biofuels from agro-wastes can be carried out via two different
processes such as thermochemical and biochemical methods. The thermochemical
processes involve techniques such as pyrolysis (WBA 2020), carbonization (Ruan
et al. 2019), combustion (Hassan et al. 2020), gasification (WBA 2020; Patel et al.
2016), and liquefaction (Hassan et al. 2020). Table 13.2 provides a comparative
account of thermochemical processes for biofuel generation. The thermochemical
13 Valorization of Agro-Waste Biomass into Biofuel: A Step Towards Effective… 261

processes are fast but have major drawbacks in the form of high energy require-
ments and chances of secondary pollution. This is the reason for us to lay more
emphasis and concentrate our discussion on the biochemical mechanisms of biofuel
generation.

13.7 Biochemical Processes in the Generation of Biofuels

The biochemical process is a cleaner approach to generate biofuels. It involves sev-

eral steps such as fermentation (for ethanol production), anaerobic digestion (for the
generation of biogas), transesterification (for biodiesel production), and dark fer-
mentation (for biohydrogen formation). However, prior to the initiation of the pro-
duction process, there are several initial procedures that need to be carried out for
processing the raw materials into usable forms. These include steps such as pretreat-
ment and hydrolysis (Pattanaik et al. 2019). Figure 13.5 provides an overview of
different biofuel generation techniques.

Fig. 13.5 Overview of techniques involved in the generation of biofuels from agro-wastes,
residues/by-products formed, and their sustainable utilization
262 P. K. Das et al.

13.7.1 Pretreatment of Agro-Wastes

The lignocellulosic biomass of agro-wastes is composed of lignin as a protecting

layer besides hemicelluloses and celluloses. The lignin is difficult to degrade com-
ponents of those wastes and a pretreatment process is required for biomass deligni-
fication. The pretreatment process also helps in the decomposition of hemicelluloses
and subsequent increase in porosity of the biomass. Table 13.3 provides an account
of several pretreatment techniques along with their operating conditions and respec-
tive functions.

Table 13.3 Pretreatment techniques employed in the biofuel generation process

Pretreatment
technique Methods Treatment conditions Function References
Physical Milling (wet, Grinding of crop Reduced size of Zabed et al.
dry, biomass biomass (2016)
compression) Decreased cellulose
Crystallinity
Microwave Use of electromagnetic Weakened Ethaib et al.
irradiation radiation on crop interaction between (2015)
residues components of
biomass
Ultrasound Exposure of biomass Weakening of Subhedar
treatment to ultrasound waves cellulose bond and and Gogate
generated from a delignification of (2016)
sonicator biomass
Chemical Acid treatment Treatment with acids Hydrolyzation of Nwosu-­
such as HCl and hemicellulose and Obieogu
H2SO4 cellulose et al. (2016)
Alkali Treatment with alkalis Dissolving lignin Nwosu-­
treatment such as NaOH and Obieogu
KOH et al. (2016)
Physiochemical Steam Treatment with steam Hydrolyzation of Alvira et al.
explosion at high temperatures hemicellulose (2010)
and pressure Increased xylan
yield
Supercritical Treatment in CO2 Removal of lignin Alvira et al.
CO2 medium at temperature (2010)
>31.1 °C and pressure
>73 bar
Subcritical Treatment with hot Hydrolyzation of Pérez et al.
water water at 170–230 °C hemicellulose (2008)
and 5 bar pressure
Ammonia fiber Similar to the Decomposition of Teymouri
explosion subcritical method hemicellulose, et al. (2004)
with ammonia Removal of lignin
replacing water
Biological Microbe Treatment with Delignification Taha et al.
assisted microbial enzymes Decomposition of (2016)
hemicellulose
13 Valorization of Agro-Waste Biomass into Biofuel: A Step Towards Effective… 263

13.7.2 Hydrolysis

The pretreatment step is followed by the hydrolysis of biomass. The process of acid
hydrolysis or enzymatic hydrolysis converts the pretreated lignocellulosic biomass,
rich in celluloses and hemicelluloses, to their respective monomeric forms (Shi
et al. 2023). However, enzymatic hydrolysis is more efficient as compared to the
conventional acid hydrolysis process (Table 13.4).

Table 13.4 Comparison between the techniques of acid hydrolysis and enzymatic hydrolysis
Acid hydrolysis
Concentrated acid Two-stage
Dilute acid hydrolysis hydrolysis hydrolysis Enzymatic hydrolysis
Employs Low acid Employs high acid 1st stage operates at Employs commercial
concentrations concentrations (41% a lower temperature enzymes and/or microbes
(0.5–1.5% H2SO4), HCl, 70–90% of <180 °C followed (cellulases,
high temperature, high H2SO4), longer by 2nd stage at hemicellulases, ligninases)
pressure, short reaction time 230−240 °C
duration
Degradation of Converts Degrades Cellulases convert
hemicellulose hemicellulose and hemicellulose cellulose to glucose
cellulose to sugars followed by Hemicellulases convert
conversion of hemicellulose to pentose
cellulose to glucose sugars, hexose sugars, and
uronic acid
Ligninases degrade lignin
and provide better access
to other cellulases and
hemicellulases
Causes corrosion of equipment, environmentally hazardous, forms Noncorrosive, nontoxic,
inhibitory by-products comparatively less
inhibitory products formed
Depends on biomass structure, crystallinity, rigidity, acid Depends on sources and
concentration, temperature, and applied pressure efficiency of the enzymes
involved. It also depends
upon biomass structure,
crystallinity, particle size,
and porosity
264 P. K. Das et al.

13.7.3 Generation of Bioethanol
from Agro-wastes (Fermentation)

Sugar yields during the process of hydrolysis can be converted to bioethanol using
the fermentation process (Das et al. 2019). Fermentation requires the presence of
microorganisms in a bioreactor during batch/continuous/semicontinuous mode of
operations. The microbes such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Pichia stipites,
Clostridium thermocellum, and Klebsiella aerogenes are involved in the fermenta-
tion process. The fermentation process yields crude ethanol that can be further dis-
tilled to produce pure ethanol. A distillation tower is employed for the purification
of ethanol. In it, the water is drained out using the bottom outlet and the ethanol
through the top outlet. The evaporation of ethanol at 78 °C is a possible mechanism
for the elimination of insignificant water present in it at the post-distillation stage
(Das et al. 2020).

13.7.4 Generation of Biogas from Agro-wastes

(Anaerobic Digestion)

The production of biogas following anaerobic digestion involves a series of steps.

The initial step is hydrolysis and it involves the conversion of polymeric structures
of macromolecules such as carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids into their respective
monomeric constituents. This step is catalyzed by an enzyme called hydrolase,
secreted by the anaerobes. It is followed by acidogenesis. The monomeric units
formed during the previous step are converted to organic acids, alcohol, CO2, and H2
in the acidogenic phase. Besides, other products such as volatile fatty acids, H2S,
and NH3 are also produced in this step. The H2 and CO2 produced during the previ-
ous phase undergo reduction to form acetic acid by homoacetogenic microbes in the
acetogenic phase. The acetate is produced in this step from the earlier formed
organic acids and alcohols. The generated acetate as a substrate leads to the produc-
tion of methane during methanogenesis. The CO2 and H2O are produced during the
production of methane in the methanogenic phase (Chandra et al. 2012). Hydrogen
is one of the major unwanted by-products released, and inhibits acetate formation,
during digestion under anaerobic conditions. The favorable conditions promote the
production of CH4 with the consumption of hydrogen by the methanogenic bacte-
ria. Employing further purification techniques can improve methane formation up to
90%. CH4 can also be converted into liquid methanol following a biorefinery
approach (Naik et al. 2010). Moreover, the waste slurry containing the digested
biomass generated during the process can be used as manure for increasing
soil health.
13 Valorization of Agro-Waste Biomass into Biofuel: A Step Towards Effective… 265

13.7.5 Generation of Biodiesel
from Agro-wastes (Transesterification)

Transesterification is the most widely accepted and followed method for biodiesel
production, which may be attributed to its higher productivity and low cost of pro-
duction. In this process, generally, seeds from oil-yielding plants such as Pongamia
and Jatropha are used. Oils from the seeds are extracted using mechanical pressure,
solvents, or suitable enzymes. The oils tend to be rich in lipids and fatty acids and
undergo a transesterification process to generate the least toxic fatty acid methyl
ester (FAME) compound or biodiesel, which is viscous and biodegradable in nature
(Das et al. 2022a, b).

13.7.6 Generation of Biohydrogen from Agro-wastes

(Dark Fermentation)

The suitable method for the production of hydrogen from organic wastes is dark
fermentation (Ghimire et al. 2015). In the process, carbohydrate-rich biomasses are
degraded by facultative/obligate anaerobes to produce molecular hydrogen
(Villanueva-Galindo et al. 2023). The entire process is similar to the anaerobic
digestion process excluding the methanogenic step. Electrons are generated upon
oxidation of organic substances under anaerobic conditions. These electrons are
accepted by protons to form hydrogen (Pattanaik et al. 2019).

13.8 Factors Involved in the Valorization of Agro-wastes

to Biofuel

The optimized production of biofuel from agro-wastes is the key to sustainability

(Sharma et al. 2022). The valorization of agro-wastes to biofuel is dependent upon
certain factors, including the type of biomass, techniques used, by-product utiliza-
tion, optimum temperature, pH, and the use of suitable enzymes and/or microbial
species.
Biomass type plays a major role in providing higher biofuel yield. Agro-residues
with high content of carbohydrates and lipids will definitely provide a higher yield
of biofuels. Almost 33% of produced grains on a global scale remain unutilized or
damaged during the processing of food grains. It leads to the addition of 1.3 billion
tons of food wastes to the pool of agro-wastes (Singh et al. 2022). Pretreatment
techniques used also decide the efficiency of the biofuel generation process. Physical
or chemical pretreatment techniques have lesser yield as compared to biological
techniques. This may be attributed to the secondary by-products produced during
the process that acts as a limiting factor. Proper utilization of by-products minimizes
266 P. K. Das et al.

the production loss and improves the biofuels yield. Maintaining optimum pH and
temperature conditions in the bioreactor is the key to the successful generation of
biofuels. Selection of suitable enzymes and/or microbes also ensures high produc-
tion yield (Singhania et al. 2022).

13.9 Safety Measures Required During Valorization

of Agro-Wastes

The radiant energy of solar light is the ultimate source of energy stored in organic
materials of agro-wastes as chemical energy after transformation. The valorization
of agro-wastes to biofuel looks promising. The biofuels such as bioethanol, bio-
diesel, biohydrogen, and biogas are the best and ultimate energy forms to replace
the conventional energy requirements (Panpatte and Jhala 2019). To obtain sustain-
able development with public and environmental safety, the following measures
have to be taken during the valorization of agro-wastes to biofuel.

13.9.1 Reduction in Greenhouse Gas Emission

The reduction in the emission of greenhouse gases to the environmental compo-

nents is an essential feature and it needs to be monitored for protecting environmen-
tal components from global warming. Generally, the average energy contents of
biofuels such as bioethanol and biodiesel are less than the respective conventional
fuels. The energy contents of bioethanol and biodiesel are 66 and 88–95% of con-
ventional petrol and diesel forms, respectively. Upgradation of the octane level of
these fuels has the possibility to carry out complete combustion and minimization
of pollution due to the release of fewer greenhouse gases. The application of the
multienzyme system for waste treatment at the site of waste generation is preferable
as compared to its offsite application. It may be due to the 40% less release of green-
house gases during the application of multienzyme systems at the site of waste
release (Singh et al. 2022). The carbon dioxide gas released during the process is
less and biogenic (Soam et al. 2016). So, the transformation of agro-waste to bioen-
ergy is treated as a green technology.

13.9.2 Consistency in Biofuel Production

The residues from crops and their products, with or without processing, generate
voluminous agro-wastes. The agro-residues obtained from grasses such as the straw
of rice, wheat, corn, and molasses of sugarcane are used as biofuel feedstock
13 Valorization of Agro-Waste Biomass into Biofuel: A Step Towards Effective… 267

(Escobar et al. 2009). Besides, unused edible foods such as grains, oilseeds, raw
vegetables, and pulses add tons of biowastes to the soil resources and degrade their
quality over the years. It is good to follow a circular bioeconomy approach by
adopting waste disposal and energy generation at the same time (Mak et al. 2020).
The bulk generation of agro-residues such as sugar, as well as molasses, have the
requisite potential to make biofuels such as the production of ethanol in a consistent
manner. The limitations in policies, availability of residues as feedstock, and
expenses involved with the process are certain constraints for bioethanol production
from biomass. The rectification in policies and long-term planning can improve the
success of the biofuel program in India. It is required for maintaining an equilibrium
between energy availability and the socioeconomic status of people in India
(Gopinathan and Sudhakaran 2009).

13.9.3 Selection of Specific Consortia of Microbes

The individual steps of biofuel production from agro-waste are guided by a specific
group of microbes. In a specific consortium, the microbes present should be com-
patible and capable of sharing a common bioreactor environment. Deviation from it
can affect the efficiency of the productivity of biofuel. The enzyme complex pro-
duced from the microbial consortia is effective against specific substrates of agro-­
waste during catabolism (Singhania et al. 2022).

13.9.4 Maintenance of Bioreactor Parameters

The bioreactor parameters at pilot and field scale conditions required to be moni-
tored include optimal levels of pH, aeration, temperature, growth media concentra-
tion, compartmentalization, and microbial population. Deviation from the optimal
range can adversely affect the production process (Aryal et al. 2018).

13.9.5 Quality of Biofuel

The regular monitoring and optimization of factors controlling upstream and down-
stream processing is highly essential. It is required for upscaling the production of
biofuel qualitatively and quantitatively.
268 P. K. Das et al.

13.10 Agro-wastes to Biofuel: Opportunities and Challenges

Generation and proper disposal of agro-wastes are major concerns. The principle of
waste to energy was therefore developed to tackle not only the load of agro-wastes
but also other solid wastes generated (Brunner and Rechberger 2015). The conver-
sion of agro-wastes to biofuels is one of the most decorated waste-to-energy pro-
cesses. With the utilization of agro-residues for energy production, the carbon
footprint can be reduced on a global scale. The European Union (EU) currently
utilizes 22% of renewable energy and achieved the target of reducing CO2 emissions
by 20%. It further targets achieving a 32% utilization of nonconventional energy
and a 55% reduced emission of greenhouse gases by 2030 (Commission and
Energy 2022).
The generation of biofuels from agro-wastes has several advantages. The process
helps in reducing the accumulation of organic waste loads in the environment. This
helps in preventing air and soil pollution. Farmers are also benefitted from the pro-
curement of agro-waste by biofuel-producing companies, thus providing them
another source of earning. Increased utilization of wastes means increased biofuel
generation and use and thus a reduced dependence on fossil fuels. Reduced combus-
tion of fossil fuels keeps a check on the release of toxic pollutants and gases in the
atmosphere.
There are several challenges that crop up in the case of developing nations like
India. These are uncertainty in regulations and policies, lack of financial support,
and sustainability (Yap and Nixon 2015). The generation of biofuels from agro-­
wastes reduces the carbon footprint as compared to other conventional waste utili-
zation methods such as a landfill. However, these waste-to-energy facilities still
emit several toxic pollutants into the atmosphere. The solid residues generated from
the production plants are still dumped at landfilling sites, thus causing soil pollution
(Karmakar et al. 2023). The global emission standard is better as compared to its
standard in India (Nixon et al. 2017). This requires proper framing and implementa-
tion of regulations to mitigate the hazards of the pollutants released from the pro-
duction plants on the local public. India also lacks technologically advanced and
indigenous infrastructural facilities and equipment. The current equipment for the
generation of biofuels is mostly procured from American and European nations that
do not have the capability of processing biomasses with high moisture content
(40–50%) as mostly found among Indian agro-wastes. Unavailability of skilled
technicians, operators, and a high cost of production are some of the other major
challenges being faced in this regard.
13 Valorization of Agro-Waste Biomass into Biofuel: A Step Towards Effective… 269

13.11 Future Prospects

Biofuels are suitable energy forms to support the present energy-demanding situa-
tion. The transformation of stored biochemical energy of agro-wastes to heat or
electrical energy of biofuel is promising but requires certain improvements in the
process of its generation. Further study on this aspect is required to improve biofuel
production efficiency.

13.12 Conclusion

The change in lifestyle, especially at the urban sites, is due to rapid change in socio-
economic developmental patterns. It is closely linked with the overexploitation of
traditional limited energy forms. The modern energy consumption sectors are
depleting the reservoir of nonrenewable energy forms as well as responsible for
upscaling in environmental pollution. It is widening the gap between the production
and demand situation in the energy sector. These problems can be solved to a certain
extent by the valorization of agro-waste into bioenergy following a circular bio-
economy approach. This gap can be bridged by contributions from nonconventional,
renewable energy resources. Biofuel is a better form of renewable energy resource
obtained from biomass. The use of carbon-based agro-wastes is a good alternative
energy source to replace the use of traditional fuels for developmental purposes.
Biofuels such as bioethanol and biodiesel have the ability to run the vehicles in their
available present technology. The biofuels from agro-waste consume those wastes
and help in agro-waste management. It helps the rural sector in converting wastes to
energy and improving the environmental parameters of the area accumulated with
agro-wastes. The developed countries are working on the production and consump-
tion of biofuels such as bioethanol to phase out the consumption of fossil fuels from
different sectors. It is beneficial to see the integration of compatible multiple pro-
duction units through cogeneration to obtain resource mobilization and waste
minimization.

Acknowledgements It is an opportunity for the author(s) to acknowledge the inspiration and sup-
port provided by the Siksha ‘O’ Anusandhan (Deemed to be University), Bhubaneswar, Odisha, to
carry out this work in its present form.

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Chapter 14
Food Process Industry Waste Biomass
as a Promising Alternative for Green
Energy Production

Anjali Sethumadhavan, Siddh Rajesh Shah, Mani Jayakumar,

Gnanasundaram Nirmala, and Magesh Rangaraju

Abstract The most significant renewable energy source in the world is biomass,
and as national energy strategy and policy place more emphasis on renewable
energy sources and conservation, biomass will become even more significant.
Biomass has the potential to deliver a reasonable and long-lasting supply of green
energy in the future. Green bioenergy synthesis from food waste is growing in popu-
larity in recent days, gaining more recognition as a renewable energy source that
could help manage rising energy costs and perhaps provide income to industries
involved in food processing. Food waste can potentially be exploited for the synthe-
sis of green fuel. Green bioenergy produced from biomass derived from food waste
offers incomparable socioeconomic, environmental, and strategic advantages and
can be viewed as a safe and cleaner liquid and gaseous fuel substitute for conven-
tional fossil fuels. Renewable and sustainable energy sources are gaining impor-
tance due to global warming and the world’s energy future. At the bench scale, there
has been a significant advancement in the creation of green energy (biohydrogen,
biomethane, biodiesel, biohythane, and bioethanol) from food waste. Based on
information from recent literature, the purpose of this chapter is to investigate the
possibility of producing green energy from food waste using modern conversion
technologies. Additionally, the state of biomass-based green energy production

A. Sethumadhavan · S. R. Shah · G. Nirmala

Mass Transfer Laboratory, School of Chemical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology,
Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
M. Jayakumar (*)
Department of Chemical Engineering, Haramaya Institute of Technology, Haramaya
University, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia
e-mail: drjayakumarmani@haramaya.edu.et
Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Engineering, Karpagam Academy of Higher
Education, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India
M. Rangaraju
Department of Chemical Engineering, Wachemo University, Hossana, Ethiopia

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 275
E. Cherian, B. Gurunathan (eds.), Value Added Products From Food Waste,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48143-7_14
276 A. Sethumadhavan et al.

methods using food waste is thoroughly discussed, which might make it simpler for
the scientific and industrial communities to properly utilize food waste.

Keywords Green energy · Food waste · Biohydrogen · Biomethane · Biodiesel ·

Biohythane · Bioethanol

14.1 Introduction

Due to ongoing population growth, the worldwide need for energy has been rising
exponentially (Shanmugam et al. 2023; Jayakumar et al. 2023). By 2100, approxi-
mately six times as much energy will be consumed worldwide (Kothari et al. 2010).
The fossil fuel reserves have been reduced, and due to the emissions of greenhouse
gases (GHGs), when fossil fuels are burned, it has a severe impact on the environ-
ment (Kapdan and Kargi 2006). There is a great need for an alternative source of
energy that could potentially substitute fossil fuel. This is the need of the hour.
Additionally, as the world’s population has increased, food production has
increased. As per studies, by 2050, global food demand has been expected to rise by
59–98% (Mong et al. 2022). As a result of this rapid growth, the food processing
industry is experiencing an increase in demand, resulting in large quantities of food
waste. In the food processing sector, waste may be generated directly or indirectly,
through the separation of desirable products from undesirable by-products. These
wastes may be product-specific (Barik 2019).
All processing industries (processing, packaging, storage, and transportation)
produce substantial amounts of waste due to their inherent efficiency in waste man-
agement. Owing to their high water content and high accumulation rates, they pose
severe problems such as bacteria contamination and so on. Due to the poor develop-
ment of effective waste management measures for these food processing wastes, the
problem of extensive waste build-up valorization in the environment has intensified
(Ravindran and Jaiswal 2016). Biodiversity and the environment are also adversely
affected by them. Hence, the valorization of these food wastes into useful products
has been considered a promising approach since they offer solutions to waste man-
agement and disposal problems and the need for an alternative renewable energy
source (Barik 2019).
In the food processing sector, waste may be generated directly or indirectly
through the separation of desirable products from undesirable by-products. These
wastes may be product-specific and are synthesized in liquid, solid and, semisolid
forms. These effluents are rich in large amounts of organic matter, suspended solids,
carbohydrates, fats, oils, and several other inorganic materials (Barik 2019). Food
processing wastes (FPW) are mainly characterized by substrate concentrations of
almost 19–346 g/L COD and BOD. According to studies, they have a higher car-
bon–nitrogen ratio of 14:37, with an inherent 75–90% moisture content and
25.5–143 g/L carbohydrate content. Despite the fact that most food wastes are uti-
lized in some way, not all of them have been fully utilized. All of these
14 Food Process Industry Waste Biomass as a Promising Alternative for Green Energy… 277

characteristics make FPW a promising and potential approach for substituting fossil
fuels and resolving the waste disposal problem (Shanmugam et al. 2023; Yasin
et al. 2013).
Several renewable fuels that may be produced from FPW include biohydrogen,
biogas (methane), biohythane, biodiesel, ethanol, biochar, and so on. These biofuels
have gained a lot of importance over the years due to their enhanced properties and
large energy yield. Since their conventional production methods may contribute to
the contamination of the environment, biological methods have been investigated in
search of environment-friendly and sustainable production methods. In this review,
different biofuels, their properties, their different production methods, and the limi-
tations encountered will be summarized.
This chapter addresses the detailed information connected to the food industry
waste lignocellulosic biomass feedstocks and different biofuels, their properties,
numerous production methods such as direct biophotolysis, dark fermentation,
microbial electrolysis cells, indirect biophotolysis, photofermentation, anaerobic
digestion, transesterification, microwave-assisted reaction, ultrasound-assisted
reaction, supercritical fluid extraction and saccharification fermentation. In addi-
tion, future prospects and challenges are also discussed. The goal of the current
chapter is to advance future research on the use of industrial waste biomass for the
production of bioenergy by assisting the scientific community and related industries
in understanding the potential and constraints of food waste biomass for the produc-
tion and application of green energy.

14.2 Identifying Waste Sources in Food Processing

The food processing industry can be primarily divided into six categories, which are
the dairy industry, fermentation industry, beverage industry, fruit and vegetable
industry, meat and poultry industry, and seafood industry. These can be divided into
further subsectors such as grain processing, confectionery manufacture, aquacul-
ture, and so on. Each of these industries has separate operations that lead to the
production of waste. Some of these operations include blanching, washing, cooling,
packaging, rendering, and scalding (Khedkar and Singh 2017). Due to its lignocel-
lulosic nature and high cellulose and lignin content, food processing waste has gen-
erated a lot of interest in the renewable energy sector. This is considered an attractive
quality of feed that can be used to prepare a large range of biofuels (Ravindran and
Jaiswal 2016).
Different wastes are utilized in different manners to produce different biofuels
based on their chemical composition and properties (Kavitha et al. 2020). The meat
and poultry sectors produce waste with high protein and fat contents, while the dairy
industry leans toward high soluble sugar content. The fruit and beverage industry,
coupled with the fermentation industry, produces large amounts of carbohydrate
and lignin-rich waste. The Agri-based industry plays a crucial role in providing
waste with lignocellulosic waste (Meena et al. 2020). All of these industries
278 A. Sethumadhavan et al.

contribute their waste as feedstock to different biofuel production plants. For exam-
ple, you would need some feedstock rich in carbohydrates, while for biomethane
production, some feedstock rich in lipids (fats) is necessary.

14.3 Biofuel

A fuel made from biomass is known as biofuel. Biologically derived from plants
and animals, it is a natural substance. It mostly consists of forestry by-products,
animal wastes, wood, aquatic plants, waste and leftovers, and agricultural crops and
products. In its broadest sense, a biofuel is any sort of fuel that can be produced
from biomass, including solid, gaseous, and liquid fuels (Benti et al. 2021). The
major classes of biofuels that are most frequently utilized are biohythane, biohydro-
gen biodiesel, biomethane, and ethanol. A comparison of the carbon emissions and
energy output of various biofuels has been provided in Table 14.1.

14.3.1 Biohydrogen

Hydrogen is viewed as a promising substitute for fossil fuels in the search for more
environmentally friendly energy sources. It is said to be the “energy carrier” of the
future (Kapdan and Kargi 2006). With limited or close to zero utilization of hydro-
carbons, hydrogen is recognized as a clean, renewable, and environmentally friendly
fuel. When burned, it produces more water than greenhouse gases, unlike fossil
fuels (Kothari et al. 2010). Further, hydrogen fuel has a 2.75-fold higher energy
yield than hydrocarbon fuels (Kapdan and Kargi 2006). Since hydrogen is consid-
ered a climate-neutral energy source, according to predictions, it will be the main
energy source by the year 2100, moving toward a greener and more sustainable
economy (Kothari et al. 2010). In order to use hydrogen as fuel, however, expensive
and pollution-causing production methods are required (Kapdan and Kargi 2006).

Table 14.1 Comparison of the carbon emissions and energy output of various biofuels
Type of Specific carbon emission (kg C/ Energy per unit volume Energy per unit mass
fuel kg fuel) (J/m3) (J/kg)
LH 0.00 10.10 141.90
GH 0.00 0.013 141.90
ML 0.50 18.10 22.30
EL 0.50 23.60 29.90
BD 0.50 33.00 37.00
NG 0.46 0.04 50.00
LH liquid hydrogen, GH gaseous hydrogen, ML methanol, EL ethanol, BD biodiesel, NG
natural gas
14 Food Process Industry Waste Biomass as a Promising Alternative for Green Energy… 279

Conventionally, the production of hydrogen involves processes such as steam

reforming of hydrocarbons, autothermal reforming, non-catalytic partial oxidation,
and conventional gasification. A majority of these practices are energy-intensive
techniques, with a temperature requirement of more than 800 °C (Kapdan and Kargi
2006). These biological methods are highly advantageous due to their low energy
requirements, low investment costs, and efficient production of a clean energy
source from waste materials (Kothari et al. 2010). To move toward a more environ-
mentally friendly approach, the synthesize of hydrogen from the biological degra-
dation of renewable organic substrates has been highly sought after. Due to their
high sugar content, food processing wastes serve as one of the most promising alter-
natives for the efficient synthesis of biohydrogen. It is considered the most suitable
and efficient substrate to generate hydrogen.
Hydrogen is most commonly produced through dark fermentation, microbial
electrolysis, photofermentation, and direct biophotolysis, followed by indirect bio-
photolysis (Kothari et al. 2010).

14.3.1.1 Direct Biophotolysis

Biophotolysis is the direct production of hydrogen from water through photolysis.

Cyanobacteria, microalgae, and other biological organisms that can perform photo-
synthesis directly split the water molecules in the presence of sunlight without any
intermediate reaction. As a result, in both the photosystem I’s reducing site and the
photosystem II’s oxidizing site, hydrogen and oxygen ions are generated, respec-
tively. The by-product electrons that are produced are used by the hydrogenase
enzyme to convert hydrogen ions to hydrogen gas (Singh and Das 2019):

2H 2 O  Light  2H 2  O 2 (14.1)

14.3.1.2 Indirect Biophotolysis

Hydrogen is produced in two phases during indirect biophotolysis. In the first phase,
the autotrophic organisms, in the presence of sunlight, produce carbohydrate bio-
mass by absorbing CO2 from the atmosphere and water from the soil, which is
stored (Kamran 2021). In the second stage, this carbohydrate substrate undergoes
fermentation to produce hydrogen. These two stages are separated for the efficient
production of hydrogen since oxygen evolution may pose problems in hydrogen
production (Singh and Das 2019):

12H 2 O  6CO2  Light  C6 H12 O6  6O 2 (14.2)

C6 H12 O6  12H 2 O  Light  12H 2  6CO2 (14.3)

280 A. Sethumadhavan et al.

14.3.1.3 Photofermentation

In this process, organic matter present in the waste is transformed into hydrogen in
the presence of sunlight by the combined action of various microorganisms. There
are numerous organic compounds present in the food processing wastes such as
volatile fatty acids, glucose, and sucrose. Photosynthetic bacteria, which is purple
non-sulfur bacteria (PNS), break down these organic compounds under anaerobic
conditions and produce H2 and CO2. In this process, in the absence of molecular
nitrogen, the nitrogenase enzyme produces hydrogen (Singh and Das 2019).

2H   2e   4 ATP  Light  Nitrogenase  H 2  4 ADP  4 Pi (14.4)

14.3.1.4 Dark Fermentation

Dark fermentation is one of the simplest and most promising method to produce
biohydrogen. In this process, organic matter undergoes anaerobic digestion in the
absence of sunlight to produce hydrogen. It takes place at normal temperature and
pressure (Singh and Das 2019). It converts the organic substrates present in the
waste to biohydrogen, CO2, and compounds such as butyrate and acetate. This
method is highly popular due to its simple reactor design and high hydrogen pro-
duction rates (Ding et al. 2016):

C6 H12 O6  2H 2 O  2C 2 H 4 O 2  2CO2  4H 2 (14.5)

14.3.1.5 Microbial Electrolysis Cell (MEC)

The most recent and promising method of production of biohydrogen is through the
microbial electrolysis cell (MEC). Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) directly convert
organic matter into electricity using several microbes. Upon modifying the MFCs
into MECs, hydrogen can be effectively produced. In the anodic chamber, the
microbes present ferment the organic substrate through dark fermentation, and the
cathodic chamber acts as an electron acceptor. Upon supplying a small amount of
electricity, hydrogen may be produced by electrohydrogenesis. Even though they
have immense potential in large-scale hydrogen production, there are several limita-
tions such as high cost and great current density, which must be overcome (Singh
and Das 2019).
All the above technologies have their own disadvantages and limitations. In
order to overcome these shortcomings and facilitate the smooth and efficient pro-
duction of hydrogen, several integrated systems are proposed. They include photo-
fermentation plus dark fermentation, dark fermentation plus MEC, and so on. They
overcome the limitations of each individual process and allow the continuous and
green production of hydrogen.
14 Food Process Industry Waste Biomass as a Promising Alternative for Green Energy… 281

14.3.2 Biomethane

Lately, biomass from food processing has been researched with various processes
for valorization in the search for a viable alternative to fossil fuels. The upgradation
of these products, ranging from hydrogen to biomethane (biogas) has been well
sought out since it presents enormous advantages with respect to production, distri-
bution, and usage. The most significant processes for biogas production from food
processing industry waste are pyrolysis, gasification, and anaerobic digestion.
Pyrolysis and gasification are thermochemical processes that work on the principle
of thermal degradation of feedstocks to produce more valuable products (Appels
et al. 2011). These require copious amounts of energy to maintain the high tempera-
ture by burning fossil fuels and hence cannot be considered a source of green energy.

14.3.2.1 Anaerobic Digestion

Anaerobic digestion (AD), a biochemical process, is one of the most promising

waste utilization methods, low residual waste production, and its utilization as a
renewable resource (Chozhavendhan et al. 2022). AD greatly uses lipid-rich waste,
which is produced in abundance by the food processing industries, meat and poultry
industries, edible oil industries, dairy industries, and olive oil mill. Residues from
food crops such as leaves and vegetable waste and from energy crops (maze, wheat,
and beet) provide a large potential for the AD (Appels et al. 2011) as illustrated in
Fig. 14.1.
The process of AD consists of four distinctive steps for converting raw material
into biogas.

Hydrolysis

Hydrolysis breaks down large organic polymers such as carbohydrates, lipids, and
proteins into simpler compounds such as amino acids, fatty acids, and simple sugars.

Acidogenesis

This is the conversion of low molecular weight compounds into volatile fatty acids,
carbonic acids, and alcohols. Some other by-products that are generated are H2,
CO2, and NH3.
282 A. Sethumadhavan et al.

Fig. 14.1 Anaerobic digestion process

Acetogenesis

The primary function of this stage is to use acetogenic bacteria to produce acetic
acid with CO2 and H2O.

Methanogenesis

With the action of methanogenic bacteria on the products of acetogenesis, methane

is produced with CO2 and traces of other gases. It can yield anywhere from 50% to
75% methane (Hall and Howe 2012).
The AD process configuration can be done in the following two ways:
• Single-stage anaerobic digestion
• The entire process takes place simultaneously in a single reactor, including
hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis, and methanogenesis. This is a relatively
inexpensive process that does not have too many errors as well (Kiran et al. 2014).
• Two-stage anaerobic digestion
• The first stage in this process uses H2-generating microbes for the synthesis of
H2, which is followed by the second stage, which is dedicated to methane pro-
duction. This is a much more efficient method that results in greater yields of
methane while also producing biohydrogen (Kiran et al. 2014).
AD is an extremely attractive method of biogas production since it is a well-­
established technology (Hall and Howe 2012). Moreover, the biomass feed can be
extremely wet and still be useable without treatment unlike other methods (gasifica-
tion and pyrolysis), which would greatly depend on the drying operation before the
feed can be utilized. For gasification and pyrolysis, the energy efficiency drastically
decreases if wet feed is used. The primary disadvantage of AD is that the process
14 Food Process Industry Waste Biomass as a Promising Alternative for Green Energy… 283

has very long retention times such as 20–30 days. This is largely because the action
of anaerobic microorganisms is ineffective on certain types of biomasses. However,
this can be reduced with pretreatment methods such as disintegration, which change
the structure and substrate concentration of the biomass. Finally, anaerobic diges-
tion offers some advantages over other available technologies (Appels et al. 2011).

14.3.3 Biodiesel

Biodiesel (fatty acid methyl esters; FAME) has greatly grown in popularity as one
of the better alternatives to petroleum-derived fuels. Biodiesel production has
greatly advanced over the years (Wang et al. 2014). The scientific community has
become increasingly interested in biodiesel due to its similar physicochemical and
fuel qualities to pure diesel fuel and the decrease in harmful gas emissions (except
for NOx) (Ashine et al. 2023). Plant oils and nonedible animal fats are used as feed-
stocks for biofuel, as are algal oils, waste oils, and oleaginous microorganism oils
(Amini et al. 2017). The feedstock must be rich in triglycerides, diglycerides, and
monoglycerides since these are the molecules responsible for the production of
FAME. Some organic materials could be directly used in diesel engines; however,
they are highly viscous and hence not viable. A few methods that can be used to
reduce viscosity are blending, emulsification, pyrolysis, and transesterification.
Blending and emulsification are not popular since they can be used for a few selec-
tive feedstocks (Demirbas et al. 2009). Transesterification is therefore of greatest
interest to the scientific community. It is also one of the most widely utilized prac-
tices for the production of biodiesel.

14.3.3.1 Transesterification (Alcoholysis)

This method aims to convert triglycerides to triacylglycerols. This can be achieved

by using alcohol with a catalyst (Jayakumar et al. 2022a, b). The most common
acceptors are methanol and ethanol because of their relatively low prices. Biodiesel
is the result of the following three sequential reactions between triglycerides and
methanol (Ferella et al. 2010):

Triglyceride  CH 3OH  Diglyceride  FAME (14.6)

Diglyceride  CH 3OH  Monoglyceride  FAME (14.7)

Monoglyceride  CH 3OH  Glycerol  FAME (14.8)

For the reaction to occur, the ratio of methanol to triglyceride must be at least
3:1. It is crucial to choose the right catalyst when designing an efficient process to
maximize material value and minimize waste production. There is a vast array of
284 A. Sethumadhavan et al.

catalysts to choose for transesterification: homogeneous, heterogeneous, and bio-

catalysts. It was found that a base catalyst was more suitable for transesterification
compared to an acid catalyst (Amini et al. 2017).

14.3.3.2 Supercritical Fluids (SCF)

SCF is a green technology method in which transesterification takes place with

alcohol at supercritical conditions (Patil et al. 2023). This poses several advantages
such as better heat and mass transfer, better species mixing, and a greater rate of
reaction. It was found that due to the ease of continuous production, it had good
scalability. However, with these advantages come a number of disadvantages. To
maintain supercritical temperature and pressure, a high amount of energy is required,
which in turn means high operational costs. Moreover, maintaining such high tem-
peratures and pressure also poses a safety issue (Amini et al. 2017).

14.3.3.3 Microwave-Assisted Reaction

In this method, microwaves are introduced in all steps of the process-feedstock

preparation, extraction, and transesterification. Microwave irradiation applies heat
directly to the reactant, which acts as a source of heating. This ensures better heat
transfer than conventional methods of heating. This also leads to a fast reaction due
to increased catalyst activity in the presence of microwaves. Overall, these advan-
tages add up to a significant reduction in the operation cost, better efficiency, and
increased safety (Amini et al. 2017).

14.3.3.4 Ultrasound-Assisted Reaction

It works on the same principle as microwave-assisted reactions. It enhances mass

transfer, reduces reaction time, and hence the operation cost (Amini et al. 2017).
The entire world has taken great interest in the production of biodiesel and has been
trying to work on this technology for decades now. With more such technological
advances, it is considered to be one of the most viable technologies.

14.3.4 Biohythane

Biohythane, a mixture of biohydrogen and methane and a more advanced biofuel,

has gained considerable interest in recent years. This fuel consists of a maximum
percentage of methane (60%), followed by 30% carbon dioxide and 10% hydrogen
(Yeshanew et al. 2016). It displays remarkable advantages over several preexisting
fuels, especially in vehicles and combustion engines (Yeshanew et al. 2016).
14 Food Process Industry Waste Biomass as a Promising Alternative for Green Energy… 285

Biohythane is a better vehicular fuel, owing to the significant presence of H2,

which improves the performance of the fuel and stimulates the effective combustion
of methane in the engine. As a clean, energy-efficient, and ecologically sustainable
alternative to utilizing food processing waste, biohythane offers enhanced fuel and
heat efficiency, as well as the ability to ignite engines with less input energy
(Yeshanew et al. 2016). Additionally, the hydrogen present in the fuel also reduces
the carbon content of the fuel, thereby reducing greenhouse emissions into the
atmosphere (Bolzonella et al. 2018). Recently, hythane has also been commercial-
ized as a vehicular fuel by countries such as India and the USA (Yeshanew
et al. 2016).
In this current blend of hydrogen and methane, the molecular hydrogen present
is mostly obtained from fossil fuels through environment-impacting methods such
as steam reforming (Sarkar et al. 2021). Thus, an alternate and more sustainable
method to produce hydrogen must be sought. The commonly used method for bio-
methane production is the two-stage anaerobic digestion (AD) process, which facil-
itates the simultaneous production of methane and biohydrogen (Yeshanew et al.
2016). In the first stage, biohydrogen is produced via dark fermentation (DF), fol-
lowed by methane production by anaerobic digestion. This method is found to have
a better performance than the single-stage AD due to higher energy recovery, which
is related to higher methane production due to the enhanced methanogenic activities
in the anaerobic bioreactors (Ghimire et al. 2021).
For this two-stage system, different reactor configurations have been imple-
mented. Due to more biomass retention, better operational simplicity, and reduced
energy consumption, the best configuration was an integrated system with a
biohydrogen-­producing CSTR (continuous stirred tank reactor) and a methane-­
producing AFBR (anaerobic fixed-bed reactor) arrangement, used for dark fermen-
tation and methanogenic phases, respectively (Yeshanew et al. 2016). Yeshanew
et al. (2016) tested the two-stage AD with a CSTR–AFBR configuration, and the
reactors were found to operate smoothly for over 200 days. The CSTR depicted a
promising hydrogen production rate of a maximum of 115 L of hydrogen and a
methane production rate higher than 330 L/kg of food waste fed (Bolzonella et al.
2018). At the end of this dual-stage process, the final product is biohythane, which
contains hydrogen, methane, and carbon dioxide in the ratio of 1:6:3.

14.3.5 Bioethanol

Another important product obtained from the valorization of food processing waste
is alcohol. Alcohol production has become highly popular, with ethanol being the
most widely utilized alcohol. However, several other biofuels such as propanol and
1-butanol are also becoming more prominent. However, there are several downfalls
to utilizing propanol as a fuel, owing to its relatively higher viscosity, and butanol
has also not been widely used as an efficient fuel blend. Methanol, produced by
chemical synthesis, is used as a fuel to an even lower extent (Hegde et al. 2018).
286 A. Sethumadhavan et al.

However, ethanol has been gaining a lot of attention as a potential alternative fuel
due to its production from renewable bio-based sources (Jayakumar et al. 2022a, b,
2023). Aside from reducing particulate emissions, its oxygenated nature could also
reduce engine particulate emissions. Additionally, it is also used to synthesize eth-
ylene, which is one of the key materials used in the production of polyethene and
other plastics (Kiran et al. 2014). Thus, the synthesis of bioethanol from cheap and
renewable feedstocks has become a matter of great interest.
Ethanol can be produced from different raw materials, with the most common
being sugarcane molasses and corn (Hegde et al. 2018). Its production from food
processing wastes has become a cheap and effective method, owing to the large
proportion of carbohydrates present in the organic substrate.

14.3.5.1 Saccharification–Fermentation

Bioethanol is produced from the organic matter present in food processing wastes
by a combined saccharification–fermentation process. They are directly converted
using microbial strains such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Due to the complex
nature of the conversion of lignocellulose in the waste to bioethanol, it undergoes
the following three steps: (1) Delignification – the breaking of the bond between the
carbohydrate and aromatic polymers, i.e., between the cellulose and lignin; (2)
Saccharification and hydrolysis – the depolymerization of carbohydrate polymers
into free sugars; and (iii) Fermentation – the conversion of released sugars such as
pentose and hexose to bioethanol (main) (Demirbas et al. 2009) as presented in
Fig. 14.2.

Fig. 14.2 Simultaneous saccharification fermentation process

14 Food Process Industry Waste Biomass as a Promising Alternative for Green Energy… 287

Despite considerable research on this method, it is necessary to conduct more

research on the integration of fermentation, enzymatic hydrolysis, and saccharifica-
tion to advance the process and overcome any shortcomings for the sustainable
generation of bioethanol from food industry waste.

14.4 Future Prospects and Challenges

14.4.1 Prospects

Using biomass waste from the food and feed processing sector could be a significant
source of alternative renewable energy. Nonetheless, there is little doubt that green
energy production from food waste has a bright future. More energy production,
cheaper production costs, and greater efficiency can all arise from this. Additionally,
this may pave the way for commercially effective green energy recovery. The poten-
tial of global food processing waste streams as sources of renewable green energy
must be considered from an economic, ecological, and resource perspective.
Biomass can be considered one of the best options, with immense potential to
ensure future fuel and energy supplies. At present, it contributes to 10–15% of the
world’s energy usage, and various scenario studies predict the potential market
share to rise as high as 50% by the year 2050. However, before reaching that, vari-
ous obstacles such as environmental, technological, and social challenges must be
overcome.
To attain sustainability, multiple factors play a role: electricity cost, efficiencies,
GHGs, availability, and limitations. All these methods suffer from distinct disadvan-
tages such as the low yield of the biofuel. Further extensive research and develop-
ment studies are highly necessary to improve these novel methods for the efficient
and sustainable production of biofuels and, by extension, green energy. Optimizing
the digestion system also requires the development of mathematical models. It is
widely accepted that biogas production can be improved by increasing conversion
ratios, but pretreatment methods need to be improved. To achieve this, it is possible
to pinpoint the specific changes in biomass structure that promote gas generation.
Efforts need to be focused on more efficient bioreactors, optimizing the work condi-
tions, effective microbe cultures, and so on. The world is heading on the right path
by diverting its focus toward biofuels, which show remarkable promise for a greener
future. Last but not least, it is advised that the stakeholders create marketing strate-
gies to inform their clients of the advantages and benefits of using current technolo-
gies to recover green energy from food waste.
288 A. Sethumadhavan et al.

14.4.2 Challenges

It is necessary, however, to thoroughly understand the environmental impacts,

energy policy, emission characterizations, and life cycle assessments (LCAs) asso-
ciated with biofuels in order to make their use a legitimate energy source (Chung
2013). Currently, there are no comprehensive national policies that direct biomass
energy activities in a well-thought-out manner. In some cases, when certain tech-
nologies need to be promoted, policies could be announced that do not adhere to
renewable energy plans. Biomass is not governed by a defined framework (Benti
et al. 2021).
It is important to develop institutions with long-term oriented plans and strong
mandates. Interinstitutional coordination is lacking among the organizations, agen-
cies, and stakeholders involved in the progress of lignocellulosic food waste bio-
mass energy. It is due to this lack of coordination, collaboration, and delays that
biomass energy production is limited. Investing in this area has been limited due to
a lack of coordination in implementing policies. For small developers, or native
producers, interested in undertaking biomass energy projects, including biogas, it
may be challenging for the relevant states to prepare pre-feasibility reports. There
are no established or properly functioning research centers for the development of
renewable infrastructure. Additionally, renewable energy developers do not have
access to customer service centers. Underdeveloped manufacturing industries and
insufficient technology transfers lead to high foreign exchange expenditures.
Particularly in rural areas, storing and converting biogas into electricity is impossi-
ble given a lack of equipment and facilities (Benti et al. 2021; Smith et al. 2014).

14.5 Summary

As a result of rapid industrialization’s debt to energy consumption, currently, the

world’s primary energy source is fossil fuels. Due to global warming and the world’s
energy future, renewable and sustainable sources of energy are becoming increas-
ingly important. Waste products from the food industry offer a lot of promise for
making alternative energy. High levels of lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates can be
converted into numerous forms of energy. Biohydrogen, biomethane, biodiesel, bio-
hythane, and bioethanol have all been touted as potential energy sources for clean
development in this area. Gaining access to a waste-to-well approach is made pos-
sible by the utilization of food waste biomass materials in green energy generation
practices. Green energy has a significant potential to be developed and emerge as a
clean, environmentally friendly energy carrier, despite the fact that it is expensive
(due to low rates of green energy generation and a lengthy process). As a result,
food waste biomass is a viable local source of sustainable green energy production.
14 Food Process Industry Waste Biomass as a Promising Alternative for Green Energy… 289

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Index

A Biohythane, 277, 278, 284–285, 288

Agro-wastes, 29–31, 78, 79, 90, 132, 209, 250, Biomass valorization, 249–269
251, 253–269 Biomethane, 155–156, 278, 281–283, 285, 288
Aquatic processing waste, 236, 237 Biorefinery, 90, 161, 187, 197–199, 202,
234, 264
Biosorbents, 233–234
B By-products, 10–13, 20–35, 84, 90, 108, 112,
Bacteria, 30, 31, 34, 77, 84, 85, 90, 112, 133, 113, 115–118, 120, 128–130, 132–134,
150, 156, 210, 212, 213, 218, 220–222, 136, 138, 139, 151, 158–162, 170, 175,
236, 241, 243, 264, 276, 280, 282 178, 186–202, 232, 233, 238, 241, 254,
Bagasse, 78, 80, 90, 130, 132, 136, 187–188, 261, 263–265, 276, 278, 281
190–202, 254, 258 By-products valorization, 20, 232, 265
Bioactive compounds, 10, 30–31, 43, 90,
120–121, 131, 135–137, 139, 148, 151,
159, 162, 170 C
Biodegradable polymer, 148, 232 Cattle feed, 201, 236, 253–255
Biodiesel, 29, 32, 152, 153, 234, 250, 251, Cereals, 5, 8, 11, 23, 42–55, 77, 129, 134, 170,
253, 258, 259, 261, 265, 266, 269, 277, 171, 180, 201, 256, 258, 259
278, 283–284, 288 Chicken feather (CF), 217, 218, 220,
Bioenergy, 32, 33, 132, 155, 194, 266, 224, 225
269, 277 Chitin, 68, 88, 214, 237–239
Bioenzyme, 76–91 Chitosan, 63, 67, 68, 133, 159, 210, 237–239
Bioethanol, 46, 85–86, 91, 110, 119, 132,
152–153, 192, 198, 199, 234, 250, 251,
253, 258, 259, 264, 266, 267, D
269, 285–288 Dairy waste, 20, 29–33
Biofuel, 20, 31–35, 81, 85–86, 90, 91, Disintegrating, 180
117–119, 122, 132, 148, 151–157, 162,
198, 209, 234–235, 250, 251,
258–269, 277–288 E
Biohydrogen, 31, 32, 89, 91, 152, 155, 250, Edible coatings, 62–65, 69, 138
251, 253, 258, 259, 261, 265, 266, Energy, 5, 29, 42, 69, 80, 109, 132, 151, 172,
277–280, 282, 284, 285, 288 186, 208, 233, 250, 276

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to 291
Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024
E. Cherian, B. Gurunathan (eds.), Value Added Products From Food Waste,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48143-7
292 Index

Environmental pollution, 5, 77, 112, 114, 139, R

186, 188, 189, 197, 251, 255–257, Renewable, 29, 64, 77, 85, 118, 119, 122, 132,
259, 269 148, 158, 197, 250–252, 268, 269,
Enzyme, 11, 20, 51, 62, 77, 110, 133, 148, 276–279, 281, 286–288
198, 208, 231, 264, 279

S
F Skim milk (SM), 20–23, 32, 35
Fish silage, 237, 240, 244 Squalene, 244
Food processing, 10, 21, 90, 113, 114, 120, Sugarcane industry, 187–189, 195, 197,
123, 130, 151, 179–180, 237, 254, 198, 200
276–281, 285–287 Sustainable, 4, 10, 13, 20–35, 54, 66, 77, 81,
Food security, 4, 5, 7–10, 51, 118 85–87, 90, 91, 119, 122, 123, 128, 133,
Food waste, 4–13, 55, 70, 76, 77, 79, 81, 139, 149, 151, 156, 158, 159, 162, 170,
84–86, 89, 90, 115, 116, 128, 129, 132, 171, 181, 186, 187, 194, 197–200, 202,
134, 139, 148, 149, 156, 160, 170, 194, 208, 221, 223, 234, 250, 259, 261, 266,
259, 265, 276, 277, 285, 287, 288 277, 278, 285, 287, 288
Fruits, 5, 22, 43, 63, 77, 108, 128, 149, 170,
219, 254, 277
Fruit waste, 76, 78, 87, 109–111, 113–115, T
117–122, 130, 132, 133, 135, 153, Tamarind kernel powder (TKP), 171, 175–181
155, 158 Thickening, 54, 67, 173–175, 179, 180, 221
Fungi, 31, 85, 88, 133, 208, 212, 213, 220

U
G Utilization, 10, 21, 22, 24, 26, 29, 34, 35, 53,
Ghee residue (GR), 20, 27–29, 34, 35 55, 112–115, 133, 158, 170, 181, 190,
Green catalyst, 208–225 195, 197, 202, 232, 237, 239, 244, 250,
Green energy, 277, 281, 287, 288 251, 261, 265, 268, 278, 281, 288

H V
Human diets, 20, 42 Value-added products, 10, 51–54, 76–91, 109,
128–139, 148, 151, 152, 188, 195, 244,
258, 259
K Vegetables, 5, 27, 43, 67, 77, 114, 128, 148,
Keratin, 65, 208, 212, 214–218, 221–224 173, 254, 277
Keratinase, 208–225 Vegetable waste, 5, 79, 80, 83, 115, 119,
128–132, 134–139, 148–160, 162, 281

L
Lactose, 20, 22, 24, 26–28, 30–33, 35 W
Waste disposal, 10, 112, 149, 158, 267, 277
Waste management, 5, 86, 138, 139, 149, 186,
N 223, 224, 234, 251, 259, 276
Nanoparticles, 64, 87, 88, 115, 148, 151, Wastes, 4, 20, 51, 70, 76, 108, 129, 148, 170,
157–158, 162, 209 186, 208, 232, 250, 276
Nutritional value, 27, 46, 51, 63, 113, 116, Waste utilization, 113, 149, 150, 233, 244,
138, 180, 201, 202, 217, 220, 268, 281
236, 243 Whey, 20, 63, 84
Nutrition security, 4–13 Whey protein concentrate, 25, 26