ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

ANATOMY
• The study of the structure or morphology of the body and how the body parts are organized
• The branch of science concerned with the bodily structure of humans, animals, and other living organisms,
especially as revealed by dissection and the separation of parts.
PHYSIOLOGY
• The study of the functions of the body parts, what they do and how they do it.
• The branch of biology that deals with the normal functions of living organisms and their parts.

LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY

Anatomical Position:
• the body is upright, directly facing the observer
• feet flat and directed forward
• upper limbs at the body's sides with the palms facing forward.

1. Regional Terms

2. Directional Terms
superior or cranial -
inferior or caudal -
anterior or ventral -
posterior or dorsal -
medial -
lateral -
proximal -
distal -
3. Planes of the body
Median (Sagittal) Plane-
Frontal (Coronal) Plane
Transverse Plane-
4. Body cavities
Dorsal body cavity
Cranial
Spinal/ vertebral

Ventral body cavity

Thoracic
Abdominal
Pelvic cavity

CELLS AND TISSUES

Atomic Subparticles:
Atom- Greek word meaning “incapable of being divided,”
Protons- positive charge; Neutrons- uncharged or neutral; Electrons- negative charge

I. CELLS- building blocks

Two types of Cells:
1. EUKARYOTIC- contains nucleus (single or multicellular)
2. PROKARYOTIC- no nucleus (single celled)
A. Cellular Composition:
 1. Nucleus- control center; parts- nuclear envelope, nucleolus, chromatin
2. Cytoplasmic Membrane/ Plasma membrane- fragile, transparent barrier; contains cell contents; consists
of 2 phospholipid or fat layer (The fluid mosaic model)
Hydrophobic- “water fearing”; avoid water and line up in the center
Hydrophilic- “water loving”; attracted to water
Cell membrane junctions:
a. Tight junctions- impermeable junctions that encircle the cells and bind them together into leakproof
sheets
b. Desmosomes- anchoring junctions that scattered like rivets along the sides of adjacent cells
c. Gap junctions- communicating junctions
3. Cytoplasm- cellular materials outside nucleus and inside plasma membrane; “factory floor”
3 major components:
a. Cytosol
b. Organelles:
i. Mitochondria- power house; supply most ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
ii. Ribosomes- actual sites of protein synthesis in the cell
iii. Endoplasmic reticulum- network within the cytoplasm; mini circulatory system for the cell;
network channel for carrying substances from one part of the cell to another; rough
endoplasmic reticulum- studded with ribosomes; smooth endoplasmic reticulum- lacks
ribosomes, but functions in lipid metabolism
iv. Golgi apparatus- “traffic director”; modify, pack and ship proteins
v. Lysosomes- “breakdown bodies”; membranous sacs containing powerful digestive
enzymes
vi. Peroxisomes- membranous sacs containing powerful oxidase enzymes for detoxification
c. Inclusions- stored nutrients or cells floating in the cytosol
4. Cell extensions:
Cilia and Flagella
Microvilli

B. Homeostasis – State of Equilibrium

Feedback Mechanisms:
Negative Feedback
- most homeostatic control are negative feedback mechanisms
- shut off the original stimulus or reduce intensity
Positive Feedbacks:
-increase the original disturbance (stimulus)
Cell diversity
Special Cells:
• Cells that connect body parts- Fibroblasts, Erythrocytes (Red blood cells)
• Cells that cover and line organs- Epithelial cell
• Cells that move organs and body parts- skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle cells
• Cells that stores nutrients- fat cells
• Cells that fight disease- white blood cells
• Cells that gather information and control body functions- nerve cell (neuron)
• Cells of reproduction- oocyte (female)

CELL PHYSIOLOGY
MEMBRANE TRANSPORT:
Solute- components or substances
Solvent- dissolving medium; water- body’s chief solvent
Intracellular fluid- collectively the nucleoplasm and the cytosol
Extracellular fluid- outside the cell
Interstitial fluid
Selective permeability- plasma membrane is a selective permeable barrier; allows some substances to pass through it
while excluding others; allow nutrients to enter the cell but keeps many undesirable or unnecessary substances out.

Passive Processes: Diffusion and Filtration

1. Diffusion- process by which molecules move away from areas where they are more concentrated to areas where
they are less concentrated
a. Simple diffusion- unassisted diffusion through plasma membrane
b. Osmosis- diffusion of water through selectively permeable membrane
c. Facilitated diffusion- passage of substances facilitated through a channel protein, mostly ions
2. Filtration- process by which water and solutes are forced through a membrane by fluid, or hydrostatic pressure
Active Processes:
1. Active Transport- “solute pumping”; requires protein to allow transport; uses ATO to energize protein carriers
which are called solute pumps
*sodium-potassium (Na+-K+) pump- alternately carries sodium ions (Na+) out of and potassium (K+) into the
cell.
*PISO (Potassium In Sodium Out)
**Potassium (K+)- major intracellular ion
 **Sodium (Na+)- major extracellular ion
Vesicular Transport- substances that cannot get through the plasma membrane by active or passive transport utilizes
vesicular transport; involves help of ATP to fuse or separate membrane vesicles and the cell membrane, moves
substances into or out of cells “in bulk” without actually crossing the plasma membrane directly.
1. Exocytosis- “out of the cell”; mechanism that cells use to actively secrete hormones, mucus, and other cell
products, or to eject certain cellular waste; the product to be release is first “packed” into a secretory vesicle
2. Endocytosis- “into the cell”; includes those ATP- requiring processes that take up, engulf extracellular substances
by enclosing them in a vesicle
a. Phagocytosis- “cell eating”
b. Pinocytosis- “cell drinking”
Receptor-mediated endocytosis- receptor proteins on the plasma membrane bind exclusively with certain
substance

CELL DIVISION:
Events of Cell Division
Mitosis- process of dividing a nucleus into two daughter nuclei with exactly same genes as the “mother” nucleus
• Prophase
• Metaphase
• Anaphase
• Telophase

Cytokinesis- division of the cytoplasm

Protein Synthesis
Protein- key substance for all aspects of cell life
Gene- DNA segment that carries the information for building one protein
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) - is rather like a coded message; its information is not useful until it is decoded; it requires
not only a decoder but also a messenger to carry instructions for building protein to the ribosomes
RNA (ribonucleic acid)- messenger and decoder

II.BODY TISSUES- cellular organization

1.EPITHELIAL TISSUES- protects internal part of the body; closely packed

3 PRINCIPAL SHAPES:
1.Squamous

2.Cuboidal

3. Columnar

2.CONNECTIVE TISSUES- support or connect other tissues

3 TYPES:
1.Connective Tissue Proper- areolar, adipose
2.Tendon- muscle to bone
3. Ligament- bone to bone

3. MUSCLE TISSUES- bring about movement in the body or its parts

3 TYPES:
1.Voluntary Muscles
2.Involuntary Muscles

3.Cardiac Muscles- pumping

NERVOUS TISSUES
- neurons
- cells found in the brain and spinal cord; conducts messages
- forward messages
- each nerve cell has- cell body, dendrites and axon

SKIN AND BODY MEMBRANES

FUNCTIONS OF BODY MEMBRANES:

- Cover body surfaces
-Line body cavities
- Form protective sheets around organs

2 MAJOR GROUPS:
1.Epithelial membranes- cutaneous, mucous and serous

2. Connective Membranes- synovial

SKELETAL SYSTEM

• Skeleton comes from a Greek word meaning dried up body.

• Bone appears dead and dried up, but it is not!
• Bone is living tissue
• Newborn human has 350 bones
• Adult human has 206 bones
Functions:
• Support of the body (framework)
• Protection of soft organs
• Movement- Serve as levers (with help from muscles)
• Storage of minerals and fats (calcium)
• Blood cell formation- hematopoiesis –bone marrow

Two basic types of bone tissue

1. Compact bone
• Dense/hard
2. Spongy bone
• (Cancellous)
• Many open spaces

Classification of Bones:
• Long bones
• Typically longer than wide
• Have a shaft with heads at both ends
• Contain mostly compact bone
• Found in legs and arms
• Examples: Femur, humerus
• Short bones
• Generally cube-shape and small
• Contain mostly spongy bone
• Found in wrist, ankles, and toes
• Examples: Carpals, tarsals
• Flat bones
• Thin and flattened
• Usually curved
• Cover organs/provide surface for lg. muscle
• Thin layers of compact bone around a layer of spongy bone
• Examples: Skull, ribs, sternum
Irregular bones
 • Irregular shape
• Do not fit into other bone classification categories
• Example: Vertebrae and hip

Gross Anatomy of a Bone

• Diaphysis
• Shaft
• Composed of compact bone
• Epiphysis
• Ends of the bone
• Composed mostly of spongy bone

Structure of a Long Bone

• Periosteum
• Outside covering of the diaphysis
• Fibrous connective tissue membrane
Serves as an attachment for muscle
• Arteries
• Supply bone cells with nutrients
• Articular cartilage-
• Covers the external surface of the epiphyses
• Made of hyaline cartilage
• Decreases friction at joint surfaces
• Medullary cavity- or the yellow marrow
• Cavity of the shaft
• Contains yellow marrow (mostly fat) in adults
• Contains red marrow (for blood cell formation) in infants

Changes in the Human Skeleton

• In embryos, the skeleton is primarily hyaline cartilage
• During development, much of this cartilage is replaced by bone
• Cartilage remains in isolated areas
• Bridge of the nose
• Parts of ribs
• Joints
Bone Growth
• Epiphyseal plates allow for growth of long bone during childhood
• New cartilage is continuously formed
• Older cartilage becomes ossified (cartilage to bone)
• Cartilage is broken down
• Bone replaces cartilage
• Bones are remodeled and lengthened until growth stops
• Grow longitudinally for height
• Bones grow in width to support weight
Epiphyseal Disc
• Growth plate
• The cartilage near the epiphyseal disc multiplies and eventually becomes ossified (turns to bone)
• As long as new cartilage continues to form the bone continues to lengthen.
• When the growth plate hardens and becomes ossified, growth stops
• Hormones play a big part in this
• Growth hormone stimulates growth
• Sex hormones stop growth

Bone Width
• Long after longitudinal bone growth has stopped, bones continue to grow in thickness and width.
• Bones are continuously being reshaped
Type of Bone Cells
• Osteocytes
• Mature bone cells
• Osteoblasts
• Bone-forming cells
• Osteoclasts
• Bone-destroying cells
• Break down bone matrix for remodeling and release of calcium
• Bone remodeling is a process by both osteoblasts and osteoclasts

Bone Remodelling
• A combined action of osteoblasts (bone forming cells) and osteoclasts (bone destroying cells)

Common Type of fractures

Skeletal System
• Divided into two divisions
• Axial skeleton ~ bones of the cranium, face, vertebral column, and bony thorax.
• Appendicular skeleton ~ includes the bones of the pelvic girdles, the upper extremities and lower
extremities.

AXIAL SKELETON:
The Skull (22 bones)
• Sits on top of the vertebral column
• Two sets of bones
• Cranium (8 bones)
• Frontal bone
• Parietal bone
• Temporal bone
• Occipital bone
• Sphenoid bone
• Ethmoid bone
• Facial bones (14 bones)
• Mandible
• maxilla (2)
• palantine bones (2)
• zygomatic bones (2)
• Other Facial Bones
• Lacrimal Bones (2) ~ inner wall of eye sockets
• Nasal Bones (2) ~ bridge of nose
• Vomer ~ nasal septum
• Inferior Nasal Conchae (2)

• Bones are joined by sutures

• Only the mandible is attached by a freely movable joint

Paranasal sinuses- air filled cavities; lighten the skull; give resonance and amplification of voice

The fetal skull

Sutures – fibrous membranes connecting the cranial bones
• Fontanelles
 • Allow the brain
to grow
• Convert to bone within 24 months after birth

Hyoid bone- u shaped; found in the upper neck

Middle Ear
• 3 Tiny bones ~ transmit vibrations
• All derived from Latin words
• Malleus (hammer)
• Incus (anvil)
• Stapes (stirrup)
• Smallest bone in the body

The vertebral column

• The backbone or spine
• Consists of 26 bones called vertebrae
• Vertebrae separated by intervertebral discs (act as shock absorbers)
• The spine has a normal curvature
• 7 cervical vertebrae- C1-C7 ~ in the neck region
• 12 thoracic vertebrae- T1-T12 ~ located in the chest region
• 5 lumbar vertebrae- L1-L5 ~ located in the lower back

The Bony Thorax (Thoracic Cage)

• The chest region
• Forms a cage to protect major organs
• Composed of sternum, ribs and thoracic vertebrae.
• Sternum ~ breastbone.
• Dagger-shaped bone located along the midline of the anterior chest.
• Ribs ~ 12 pairs of ribs attach posteriorly to the thoracic vertebrae
• True ribs ~ first 7 pair
• False ribs ~ last 5 pairs

APPENDICULAR SKELETON

The pectoral (shoulder) girdle

• Composed of two bones
• Clavicle – collarbone
• Scapula – shoulder blade
• These bones allow the upper limb to have exceptionally free movement

Bones of the upper limbs

• Humerus:
• Forearm bones:
Radius-
Ulna-
• The hand:
Carpals-
Metacarpals-
Phalanges-

Bones of the Pelvic Girdle

• Composed of two coxal bones (hip bones)
• Composed of three pair of fused bones
• Ilium
• Ischium
• Pubis
• The total weight of the upper body rests on the pelvis
• Protects several organs
• Reproductive organs
• Urinary bladder
• Part of the large intestine
Bones of the Lower limbs
• Femur:
• Patella: triangular bone
• Leg bones:
Tibia-
Fibula-
• The foot:
 Tarsal (7)-
Metatarsal (5)-
Phalanges (14)-

Joints
• Articulations of bones
• Functions of joints
• Hold bones together
• Provide flexibility
• Ways joints are classified
• By their function
a. Synarthroses – immovable joints
b. Amphiarthroses – slightly moveable joints
c. Diarthroses – freely moveable joints

C. By their structure
a. Fibrous joints- Generally immovable
b. Cartilaginous joints- Immovable or slightly moveable (ex. Pubic symphysis, intervertebral joints)
c. Synovial joints- Freely moveable; has 6 types
i. Hinge joints- elbow, knees, finger
ii. Ball and Socket joint- shoulder, hip
iii. Pivot joint- forearm joints
iv. Saddle joint- thumb
v. Gliding joint- wrist, ankle
vi. Condyloid joint- mandible, knuckles

Inflammatory Conditions Associated with Joints

• Bursitis
• Osteoarthritis
• Rheumatoid arthritis
• Gouty Arthritis

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM:
1.skin
2. skin appendages

FUNCTIONS OF THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM:

1.Insulation and cushion

2. Protects the entire body from:

STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN:

Skin tissue- Epidermis, Dermis

Hypodermis- subcutaneous

EPIDERMIS
-outer layer
-hard and tough
-stratified squamous epithelium
- keratinocytes- produces keratin
- avascular
- has 5 layers: from deepest to most superficial
▪ Stratum basale
 ▪ Stratum spinosum

▪ Stratum granulosum

▪ Stratum lucidum (thick, hairless skin only)

▪ Stratum corneum

MELANIN:

EPIDERMAL DENDRITIC CELLS:

DERMIS:

2 LAYERS OF DERMIS:

1.PAPILLARY LAYER
2. RETICULAR LAYER

OTHER DERMAL FEATURES:

SKIN COLOR:
3 PIGMENTS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO SKIN COLOR:
1. Melanin

2. Carotene

3. Hemoglobin

Redness (Erythema):
Pallor (blanching):
Jaundice (yellow cast):
Bruises (black and blue marks):

APPANDAGES OF THE SKIN:

Cutaneous glands:

Hair:

• Hair anatomy

Hair follicles:

Nails:
Sebaceous Glands (Oil):

Sweat glands (Sudoriferous):

2 Types:
1.Eccrine glands:

2. Apocrine glands:

HOMEOSTATIS IMBALANCES OF SKIN

INFECTION AND ALLERGIES:

• Athlete’s foot

• Boils

• Cold sores

• Contact dermatitis

• Impetigo

• Psoriasis

BURNS
-tissue damage and cell death caused by heat, electricity, UV radiation or chemicals
- associated dangers: Protein denaturation and cell death; dehydration and electrolyte imbalance; circulatory shock
-may result in fluid loss or infection
-extent of burn is estimated using the RULE OF NINES

Rule of Nines:
▪ Body is divided into 11 areas for quick estimation
▪ Each area represents about 9 percent of total body surface area
▪ The area surrounding the genitals (the perineum) represents 1 percent of body surface area

1. First- Degree burn (superficial burn):

2. Second- Degree burn (partial-thickness burn):

3. Third- degree burn (full-thickness burn):

4. Fourth- degree burn (full- thickness):

▪ Criteria for deeming burns critical (if any one is met):

▪ Over 30 percent of body has second-degree burns
▪ Over 10 percent of the body has third- or fourth-degree burns
▪ Third- or fourth-degree burns of the face, hands, or feet, or genitals
▪ Burns affect the airways
▪ Circumferential (around the body or limb) burns have occurred

SKIN CANCER:
▪ Skin cancer
▪ Most common form of cancer in humans
▪ Most important risk factor is overexposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation in sunlight and tanning beds
▪ Cancer can be classified two ways
▪ Benign means the neoplasm (tumor) has not spread
▪ Malignant means the neoplasm has invaded other body areas
▪ Most common types of skin cancer
▪ Basal cell carcinoma

▪ Squamous cell carcinoma

▪ Malignant melanoma

Developmental Aspects of Skin and Body Membranes:

▪ Lanugo, a downy hair, covers the body by the fifth or sixth month of fetal development but disappears by birth
▪ Vernix caseosa, an oily covering, is apparent at birth
▪ Milia, small white spots, are common at birth and disappear by the third week
▪ Acne may appear during adolescence
▪ In youth, skin is thick, resilient, and well hydrated
▪ With aging, skin loses elasticity and thins
▪ Skin cancer is a major threat to skin exposed to excessive sunlight
▪ Balding and/or graying occurs with aging; both are genetically determined; other factors that may contribute
include drugs and emotional stress

THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

3 TYPES:
1. SKELETAL MUSCLES
• also known as striated muscle and as voluntary muscle
• packaged organs called skeletal muscles that attached to bones to the skeleton
• skeletal muscle fiber- large, cigar shaped, multinucleate cells

2. CARDIAC MUSCLES
• found only in one place in the body - heart
• uninucleate and its control is involuntary
• cardiac muscle fiber- branching cells joined by special gap junctions called intercalculated discs

3. SMOOTH MUSCLES
• no striations and is involuntary
• usually found mainly in the walls of hollow (tubelike) visceral organs
 • smooth muscle fiber- spindle - shaped, uni-nucleated, and surrounded by scant endomusium
arranged in layers, one running circulatory and other longitudinally

MUSCLE FUNCTIONS:
• Produce movement
• Maintain posture and body position
• Stabilize joint
• Generate heat
• Additional:

MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF SKELETAL MUSCLE:

SARCOLEMMA- specialized plasma membrane

MYOFIBRILS – long organelles inside muscle cell

• Light (l) bands and dark (A) bands give the muscle it’s striated (banded) appearance.
• Banding Patterns:
I band- light band
• Contains only thin filaments
• Z disc is a midline interruption
A band- dark band
• Contains the entire length of the thick filaments
• H zone is a lighter central area
• M line is in center of H zone

SARCOMERE- contractile unit of a muscle fiber

• Structural and functional unit of skeletal muscle
• Organization of the Sarcomere:
• Myofilaments produce banding (striped) pattern
-Thick filaments= myosin filaments

-Thin filaments = actin filaments

SARCOPLASMIC RETICULUM (SR)

• Specialized smooth endoplasmic reticulum
• Surrounds the myofibril
• Stores and release calcium

SKELETAL MUSCLE ACTIVITY: stimulation and contraction

Special functional properties of skeletal muscles:
• Irritability (responsiveness) – ability to receive and respond to a stimulus
• Contractility – ability to forcibly shorten when an adequate stimulus is received
• Extensibility – ability of muscle cells to be stretched
• Elasticity – ability to recoil and resume resting length after stretching

The nerve Stimulus and the Action Potential:

• Skeletal muscles must be stimulated by a motor neuron (nerve cell) to contract
• Motor unit – one motor neuron and all the skeletal muscle cells stimulated by that neuron
• Neuromuscular junction – Association site of axon terminal of the motor neuron and sarcolemma of a
muscle
• Neurotransmitter – Chemical released by nerve upon arrival of nerve impulse in the axon terminal
-Acetylcholine (ACh) is the neurotransmitter that stimulates skeletal muscle
• Synaptic cleft – Gap between the nerve and muscle filled with interstitial fluid; lthough very close, the
nerve and muscle do not make contact

MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION:

The sliding Filament Theory

Changes in Muscle During Contraction

 • The distance between the Z- lines decreases
• l-bands shorten
• The A-bands move closer together

Role of Calcium in Contraction Mechanism

• Absence of calcium
• Presence of calcium ions

Cross-Bridge Cycling

Relaxation
• Acetylcholinesterase destroys acetylcholine
• Motor end-plate is no longer stimulated
• Calcium ions are transported from sarcoplasm back into sarcoplasmic reticulum
• Linkages between actin and Myosin are broken
• Muscle fiber relaxes

Energy Sources for Contraction

• Energy used to power the interaction between actin & myosin comes from ATP
• ATP stored in skeletal muscle lasts for six seconds
• Continuous ATP generation is required
• Three pathways of ATP regenerated
-Coupled reaction with creatinine phosphate
-Anaerobic cellular respiration
-Aerobic cellular respiration

Graded responses
• “all-or-none” law of muscle physiology applies to the muscle fiber, not to the whole muscle.

Muscle twitch
- Single, brief, jerky contraction

Summing of contractions
- contractions are “summed” (added) together, and one contraction is immediately followed by another

Unfused (incomplete) tetanus

- When stimulations become more frequent, muscle contractions get stronger and smoother

Fused (complete) tetanus

- contraction are so rapidly that no evidence of relaxation is seen

Providing Energy for Muscle Contraction

-ATP is the immediate source

Three Energy systems:
• Phosphagen (immediate source)
• Anaerobic (somewhat slow, uses carbohydrates)
• Aerobic (slow, uses either carbohydrate or fat)

Muscle Fatigue and Oxygen Deficit

- transient and recoverable reduction in the force of muscle contraction which occurs during exercise
-oxygen deficit- not a total lacking of oxygen

Two Main components of Muscle Fatigue:

• Central fatigue (Neural)
• Peripheral fatigue (Muscular)

POSSIBLE CAUSES OF MUSCLE FATIGUE:

 • Muscle tone-
• Flaccid
o Flaccid paralysis
o Spastic paralysis
Effect of Exercise:
• Muscle inactivity- muscle wasting, atrophy
• Exercise- increase size, endurance strength

Types of Muscle Contraction

1. Isotonic contraction

2. Isometric contraction

3. Auxotonic contraction

4. Isokinetic contraction

Muscle Attachments
• Origin-
• Insertion-

Most Common Types of Body Movements

Flexion
Extension
Rotation
Abduction
Adduction
Circumduction

Special movements:
Dorsiflexion and plantar flexion
Inversion and eversion
Supination and pronation
Opposition

INTERACTIONS OF SKELETAL MUSCLE IN THE BODY

• Prime Mover
- The muscle that is primarily responsible for a particular movement.
• Antagonists
- Muscles that oppose or reverse a movement.
• Synergists
- Help prime movers by providing the same movement or reduce undesirable movements.
• Fixators
- They are specialized synergists that hold a bone still or stabilize the origin of a prime mover.

NAMING SKELETAL MUSCLES

• By direction of the muscle fibers

Example: rectus (straight)

• By relative size of the muscle

Example: maximus (largest), minimus (smallest), and longus (long)

• By location of the muscle

Example: temporalis (temporal bone) and frontalis (frontal bone)

• By number of origin
Example: bicep (two heads) or triceps (three heads)

• By location of the muscle’s origin and insertion

Example: sterno (on the sternum) and cleido (on the clavicle)

• By shape of the muscle

Example: deltoid (triangular)

• By action of the muscle

Example: extensor (extends a bone)

Arrangement of Fascicles
• Circular
- concentric rings.
• Convergent
- converge toward a single insertion tendon.
• Parallel
- The length of the fascicles run parallel to the long axis of the muscle.

• Fusiform
- A modification of the parallel arrangement.

• Pennate
- A short fascicles attach obliquely to a central tendon.

Gross Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle

HEAD AND NECK MUSCLES

• The Facial Muscles
Parts:
- Frontalis- covers the frontal bone; runs from cranial aponeurosis to the skin of the eyebrows where it inserts
- Buccinator- across cheek and into orbicularis oris; chewing muscle
- Orbicularis Oculi - eyelids
- Zygomaticus- “smiling muscle”
- Orbicularis Oris- lips
- Masseter- covers the angle of lower jaw
- Temporalis- temporal lobe

• The Neck Muscles

Parts:
- Platysma- covers anterolateral neck
- Sternocleidomastoid- two headed muscle in which one head attaches to sternum and other to the clavicle

TRUNK MUSCLES
The Trunk muscles include:
(1) muscles that move the vertebral column (most of which are posterior antigravity muscles)
(2) anterior thorax muscles, which move the ribs, head, and arms
(3) muscles of the abdominal wall, which “hold your guts in” by forming a natural girdle and help to move the vertebral
column.
Anterior muscles:
- Pectoralis Major- fan-shaped muscle covering the upper part of the chest. Its origin is from the sternum, shoulder
girdle, and the first six ribs.
- Intercostal muscle- deep muscles found between the ribs.
- Muscles of abdominal girdle:
- Rectus abdominis- the paired strap-like rectus abdominis muscles are the most superficial muscles of the
abdomen.
- External oblique- The external oblique muscles are paired superficial muscles that make up the lateral
walls of the abdomen.
- Internal oblique- paired muscles deep to the external obliques.
- Transverse abdominis- the deepest muscle of the abdominal wall, the transversus abdominis has fibers
that run horizontally across the abdomen.
Posterior Muscles:
- Trapezius- most superficial muscle of neck and upper trunk
- Latissimus dorsi- covers lower back
- Erector spinae- prime mover of back extension
- Quadratus lumborum- form part of the posterior abdominal wall

MUSCLES OF THE UPPER LIMBS

Muscles Causing Movement at the Elbow Joint

- Deltoid- fleshy, triangle-shaped muscles that form the rounded shape of your shoulders; favorite injection site
when relatively small amounts of medication
- Biceps brachii- bulges when you flex your elbow
- Brachialis- also a prime mover of the elbow flexion
- Brachioradialis- weak muscle that arises on the humerus and inserts into the distal forearm
- Triceps brachii- the only muscle fleshing out the posterior humerus. Its three heads arise from the shoulder
girdle and proximal humerus, and it inserts into the olecranon process of the ulna
MUSCLES OF THE LOWER LIMBS
Muscles Causing Movement at the Hip Joint

- Gluteus maximus- most of the flesh of the buttock; a powerful hip extensor that acts to bring the thigh in a
straight line with the pelvis.
- Gluteus medius- runs from the ilium to the femur, beneath the gluteus maximus for most of its length; hip
abductor and is important in steadying the pelvis during walking
- Iliopsoas- fused muscle composed of two muscles, the iliacus, and the psoas major
- Adductor muscle- form the muscle mass at the medial side of each thigh; they adduct, or press, the thighs
together

Muscles Causing Movement at the Knee Joint

- Hamstring group- muscle mass of the posterior thigh
- Sartorius- strap-like sartorius muscle- not too importamt
- Quadricep group- vastus intermedius, vastus lateralis, vastus medialis

Muscles Causing Movement at the Ankle and Foot

- Tibialis anterior- arises from the upper tibia and then parallels the anterior crest as it runs to the tarsal bones,
where it inserts by a long tendon
- Extensor digitorum longus- Lateral to the tibialis anterior, the extensor digitorum longus muscle arises from the
lateral tibial condyle and proximal three-quarters of the fibula and inserts into the phalanges of toes 2 to 5.
- Fibularis muscles- longus, brevis, and tertius—are found on the lateral part of the leg. They arise from the
fibula and insert into the metatarsal bones of the foot
- Gastrocnemius- a two-bellied muscle that forms the curved calf of the posterior leg. It arises by two heads, one
from each side of the distal femur, and inserts through the large calcaneal (Achilles) tendon into the heel of the
foot
- Soleus- Deep to the gastrocnemius is the fleshy soleus muscle

Developmental Aspects of the Muscular System

• Increasing muscular control reflects the maturation of the nervous system.
• To remain healthy, muscles must be regularly exercised. Without exercise, they atrophy; with extremely
vigorous exercise, they hypertrophy.
• As we age, muscle mass decreases
• Exercise helps to retain muscle mass and strength.
Developing Embryo
• Muscular system is laid down in segments
• Muscles and their control by nervous system develop rather early in pregnancy
• First movements are called quickening (16th week of pregnancy

After Birth
• Baby’s movements are all reflex type
• Nervous system must mature before baby can control muscles
• Development of muscular system proceeds in caudal/cephalic direction then proximal/distal direction
• Gross movements precede fine ones
During Childhood
• The nervous system’s control of skeletal muscles becomes more and more precise

Midadolescent
• The natural control of muscular system is at peak of development

AGING

Muscular Dystrophy

• Duchenne's Muscular Dystrophy

• Myasthenia Gravis

Reference: Marieb and Keller (2018): Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 12 th edition