CELLS B.

CELL PHYSIOLOGY
- carry all chemical activities needed to sustain life Membrane Transport- substance movement into & out of cell
- cell (building blocks of life); tissue (cell groups) Solution- homogenous mixture of solvent (dissolving medium) & solute
 nucleus, cytoplasm, plasma membrane Intracellular Fluid- nucleoplasm, cytosol
Nucleus- DNA; control center Intercellular “ – fluid on cell exterior
N. Membrane- barrier, double phospholipid m., n. pore Passive Transport
Nucleolus- ribosomal synthesis Diffusion
Chromatin- DNA+PROTEIN; condense into chromosomes - particles distribute evenly within solution
Plasma Membrane- protein, cholesterol, glycoprotein - high to low concen./down a concentration gradient
Simple- unassisted; small lipid-soluble solutes able to pass
Osmosis- water movement across plasma membrane
Facilitated- protein carrier
Filtration- water & solutes are forced through membrane by
fluid/hydrostatic pressure; pressure-gradient must exist
- solute-containing fluid is pushed from high to low pressure
Active Transport- unable to pass by diffusion
- too large; can’t dissolve in membrane’s fat core; move
Specializations: against concentration gradient
Microvilli- finger-like; increase s. area for absorption Solute-Pumping- solute pumps (amino acids, sugars, ions)
- ATP energizes protein carriers to move substance against c.g.
Membrane Junction- tight, desmosome, gap
Bulk Transport
Cytoplasm- cytosol (suspension)
Exocytosis- vesicle fuses w/plasma membrane & empty outside
organelle (metabolic machinery)
Endocytosis (phago- & pinocytosis)
inclusion (nonfunctioning unit)

A. CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
Ribosome- RNA+PROTEIN (free/in ER)
ER- fluid-filled tubules to carry substance
Rough- build materials; protein synthesis
Smooth- cholesterol synthesis/breakdown, fat metabolism, detoxify
Golgi A.- modify & package
- secretory v., cell memb components, lysosome
Lysosome- w/enzy. (digest nonusable materials)
Peroxisome- oxidase enz. (detoxify; break down free radicals)
- replicate by pinching in half
Mitochondria- change shape; aerobic respiration, ATP
Cytoskeleton- protein structures; internal framework
Centrioles- rod-shaped made of microtubules
- directly formed of mitotic spindle in cell division Cell Cycle
Cellular Projection- appendages; movement 2 major periods: Interphase (growth; cell carry metabolic process)
Cilia (move things across surface) Division (replicate; produce more cells for growth & repair)
Flagellum (propels cell) DNA Replication- end of interphase; DNA uncoils, each side serves as template
Pseudopod (pull itself by crawling)
MITOSIS
Cell Diversity Interphase- no division; normal metabolic activity & growth
a. Connect body parts (fibroblast, erythrocyte) Prophase- centromeres migrate to poles
b. Cover & line body organs (epithelial) Metaphase- centromere spindle attach, chromosome align at middle
c. Move organs & body parts (muscle cells) Anaphase- daughter chromosomes pulled toward poles; cell elongates
d. Store nutrients (adipose/fat cell) Telophase- daughter nuclei forms; cleavage furrow
e. Fight disease (lysosome) Cytokinesis- cytoplasm divides; result to 2 IDENTICAL DAUGHTER CELLS
f. Gather information & control body functions (neurons)
Protein Synthesis
g. Reproduction (sperm & egg cell)
Gene- DNA segment that carries blueprint for protein building
Protein- structural (build materials for cell); enzymatic (catalyst)
RNA: tRNA- transfer appropriate amino acid to ribosome
rRNA- form ribosome
mRNA-carry instructions from nucleus to ribosome
Transcription- transfer info from DNA base to mRNA complimentary base
Translation- nucleic acid sequence is translated to amino acid sequence
 TISSUES
EPITHELIAL- body coverings, linings, glandular tissue Connective Tissue Proper
- protection, absorption, filtration, secretion Loose- loosely-organized fibers
Characteristics: Areolar- most widely distributed; soft & pliable; has all fiber types;
- cells fit closely together - regenerate easily soak up excess fluid
- lower surface is bound to basement protein - avascular Adipose- matrix is areolar tissue where fat globules dominate
Proper Epithelium - many cells have large lipid deposits
- acc. to shape (squamous, cuboidal, columnar) - insulation; protection; fuel storage
- acc. # of layers (simple, stratified, pseudo, transitional) Reticular- delicate network of interwoven fibers
- forms stroma (internal supporting network) of lymphoid
- allow passing by diffusion
- body cavities, lungs, & filtration
organs (immune system): lymph nodes, spleen, bone marrow
capillaries - secrete lubricating Dense- collagen fibers (main matrix element); fibroblast
substance - tendon (muscle to bone); ligaments (bone-to-bone)

- glands & ducts, kidney

- secrete & absorb
tubule walls, ovary

- include goblet cells (produce

mucus)
- absorb
- digestive tract, bladder
(nonciliated) - secrete mucus &
- bronchi, uterine tube, uterus
enzymes
(ciliated)

- respiratory tract - secrete mucus;

(ciliated) absorption

Supportive Connective Tissue

- skin, mouth, esophagus Bone (osseous tissue)- bone cells in lacunae (cavities)
- protective covering where - protect against
- hard matrix of calcium salts; many collagen fibers
friction is common abrasion
- flattened cells at free edge
Cartilage: Hyaline- most common (fetal skeleton)
- made of abundant collagen fibers & rubbery matrix
- sweat, salivary, &
Elastic- bounce back to original shape (external ear)
mammary glands - protective tissue Fibrocartilage- highly compressible (vertebrae disks)
- rare in humans Fluid Connective Tissue (cells circulate in a watery fluid; lymph & blood)
Blood-surrounded by fluid matrix; fibers visible during clotting
- transport vehicle
- rare in humans
- male urethra, ducts of - secretes & protects
large glands.

- allows urinary organs

- bladder, urethra, ureters
to expand & stretch

Glandular Epithelium
- modified cells to synthesize & secrete chemical substances
Endocrine- ductless; secrete hormones directly into bloodstream &
towards its targets
Exocrine- w/ducts; secrete sweat, mucus, saliva, breastmilk directly to
epithelial surface

CONNECTIVE- most abundant & widely distributed tissues

- Bind, Support, Protect
Characteristics: - varies in blood supply (vascular/avascular)
- extracellular matrix (nonliving materials surround living cell)
2 elements: Ground substance- mostly water, adhesion proteins, polysacchar.
Fibers- produced by cell; Collagen, Elastic, Reticular
MUSCULAR- movement
Skeletal SKIN & BODY MEMBRANES
- voluntary; cells attach to connective tissue Functions: Line/Cover, Protect, Lubricate body surfaces
- cells: striated; multinucleated; longer fibers
EPITHELIAL MEMBRANE
Cardiac
Cutaneous- SKIN; dry membrane; superficial (outermost, most superior)
- heart; pump blood involuntary - superficial epidermis (keratinized stratified squamous epith.)
- cells: attached to other cardiac m. at intercalated disks, striated, 1 nucleus - underlying dermis (DENSE connective tissue)
Smooth Mucous- surface epithelium; underlying lamina propria (loose connective t.)
- involuntary; surround hollow organs - lines cavities that are OPEN TO EXTERIOR SURFACE
- cells: attached to other smooth cells; unstriated; 1 nucleus - secretion & absorption
NERVOUS- neurons & nerve support cells; impulses (irritability, conductivity) Serous- surface simple squamous epithelium; underlying areolar connective t.)
- lines cavities that are CLOSED TO EXTERIOR
- separated by serous fluid
Peritoneum- abdominal cavity
Pericardium- around hear
Pleura- around lungs
CONNECTIVE TISSUE MEMBRANE
Synovial- connective tissue only; lines fibrous capsules around joints

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
Skin- delineates internal from external
Derivatives: Sweat gland, Oil gland, Hairs, Nails
Function: Mechanical damage Bacterial “ UV radiation
Chemical “ Thermal “ Desiccation
Heat regulation Urea/Uric acid excretion Vit D synthesis

Structure
1. Epidermis- stratified squamous epithelium; keratinized
a. Stratum corneum- barrier; shingle-like dead cells
A. TISSUE REPAIR
b. S. lucidum- holds most skin fluid; only in thick skin
Regeneration- replace destroyed tissue by same cells
c. S. granulosum
Regenerate easily: epithelial t., fibrous connective tissue & bone d. S. spinosum- Langerhans cells
“ poorly: skeletal muscle
e. S. basale/germinativum- stem cells (undergo mitosis)
Fibrosis- scar tissue; repair by dense fibrous connective tissue
Replaced by scar t: cardiac muscle; nervous tissue (brain & spinal) 2. Dermis- dense connective t.
Method Determination- type of damaged tissue; injury severity a. Papillary Layer-dermal papillae, pain receptors, capillary loop
b. Reticular L.- blood vessel, glands, nerve receptors
Events:
Capillaries become permeable (clotting proteins; wall of injured area)
Formation of granulation tissue
Regeneration of surface epithelium

B. TISSUE DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS

- epithelial tissue arise from all 3 primary germ layers
- muscle & connective tissue arise from mesoderm
- nervous tissue arise from ectoderm
- old age = decrease in tissue mass & viability
 ABCD Rule: Asymmetry (2 sides of mole don’t match)
Border irregularity (borders aren’t smooth)
Color (different colors in pigmented area)
Diameter (larger than 6mm diameter)
Pigments SKELETAL SYSTEM
Melanin- yellow-brown-black; by melanocytes (s. basale) Parts: Bones (Skeleton) Cartilage Joints Ligament
Carotene- orange-yellow; by vegetables Functions: Support body Mineral & Fat Storage Movement
Hemoglobin- red; by blood cells in dermis capillaries
Protect soft organs Blood Cell Formation
- depends on oxygen content
Bone- 206 (adult); compact (homogenous); spongy (needle-like; open spaces)
Appendages
Sebaceous Gland- oil (lubricant, kill bact.); activated in puberty Classification acc to Shape
- w/ducts that empty into hair follicles Long- longer than wide; shaft w/heads at both ends; compact (femur, humerus
Sweat Gland- Eccrine (duct to surface pore); Apocrine (duct to hair follicle) Short- cube; spongy (carpals, tarsals)
Sweat- mostly water; metabolic waste; (apocrine) fatty acids & proteins Flat- thin & flattened; curved; thin compact bone around
- dissipate excess heat, excrete waste, acidic nature inhibits bacteria spongy bone (skull, ribs, sternum)
Irregular- don’t fit in other cat. (vertebrae, hip)
Hair- made by hair bulb; hard keratinized epithelial cells; color by melanocyte
- Central Medulla, cortex (surround medulla), cuticle (keratinized) Long Bone Gross Anatomy
Hair follicle- dermal & epidermal sheath around hair root Diaphysis-shaft; compact bone
Arrector pilli- smooth muscle Epiphysis- ends; spongy bone
Sebaceous & Sweat glands
Long Bone Structures
Periosteum- diaphysis outside cover; fibrous Con. Tis.
Sharpey’s fiber- secure periosteum to underlying bone
Artery- supply bone cells w/nutrients
Articular cartilage- epiphyses outside cover
- hyaline cartilage; decrease friction at joints
Medullary Cavity- shaft cavity
- yellow marrow (fat) (adult); red marrow (bld cell formation) (baby)

Bone Markings
- Surface features
- Sites of attachments for muscles, tendons, ligaments
Nails- scale-like modifications of epidermis; heavily keratinized - Passages for nerves & blood vessels
- s. basale extends beneath nail bed (responsible for growth)
Categories: Projections & processes- grow out from bone surface
- lacking pigment makes it colorless
Depressions / cavities – indentations
- Free edge, body, nail root, Eponychium (proximal nail fold projecting onto
nail body) Microscopic Anatomy of Bone
Homeostatic Imbalances Osteon (Haversian System)- bone unit
Infection: Athlete’s Foot (Tinea pedis)- fungal infection Central/Haversian canal- opening in osteon’s center; carries b. vessels/ nerves
Boils & Carbuncles- bacterial infection Perforating/Volkman’s canal- perpendicular to central canal; “ “ “
Cold Sores- virus
Infections & Allergy: Contact dermatitis Bone cells:
Impetigo (bacterial) Osteocyte- mature
Psoriasis (triggered by trauma, infection, stress) Osteoclast- bone-breaking
Burns- tissue damage & cell death due to heat, electricity, UV, chemicals Osteoblast- bone-forming
- dangers: dehydration, electrolyte imbalance, circulatory shock
Rule of Nines- determine burn extent; body is divided to 11 areas (9% each)
1st Degree- only epidermis is damaged; skin is red & swollen
2nd Degree- epidermis & upper dermis; skin is red w/blisters
3rd Degree- entire skin layer; burn is gray-white/black
Critical burn: over 25% of body has 2nd degree
Over 10% of body has 3 rd degree
3rd degree on face, hands, feet
Cancer- abnormal cell mass (skin cancer is most common) Lacunae- contain osteocyte; concentric rings
Benign- encapsulated Malignant- metastasize; tissue invasion Lamellae- rings around central canal; lacunae site
Skin Cancer: Canaliculi- tiny canals; central canal to lacunae; form transport system
Basal Cell carcinoma- least malignant; most common; in s. basale; slow
Change in Skeleton
Squamous “ “ - move to lymph nodes; in s. spinosum; speedy
- In embryos, skeleton is primarily hyaline cartilage
Malignant melanoma- deadliest; cancer of melanocyte; ABCD Rule
- move rapidly to lymph & blood vessels - on development, cartilage is replaced by bone
 - Cartilage remains in isolated areas: nose bridge, part of ribs, joints
Bone growth- by Epiphyseal plates; new cartilage is continuously formed
- older cartilage is ossified; bones lengthened & remodeled

AXIAL- longitudinal
a. Skull- cranium & facial bone; joined by sutures
- only mandible is attached to freely movable joint

Bone Fracture
Closed (simple) –doesn’t penetrate skin
Open (compound) –penetrates through skin

Repair: Hematoma (blood-filled swelling) is formed

Break is splinted by fibrocartilage to form callus
Fibrocartilage callus replaced by bony callus
Bony callus is remodeled to form permanent patch

Paranasal Sinuses- lighten skull; voice resonance & amplification

Hyoid bone- only bone not articulated w/ another bone
- moveable base for tongue
Fetal skull- larger than total body length
Fontanelles - fibrous membranes; connect cranial bones
Skeletal Divisions: - brain growth; convert to bone 24 months after birth
 b. Vertebral Column- vertebrae separated by intervertebral discs b. Limbs/Appendages
- spine has normal curvature Upper Limbs- humerus (upper arm) ulna & radius (forearm)
- hand: carpal (wrist) metacarpal (palm) phalanges (finger)

Lower Limbs- femur (thigh) tibia & fibula (leg)

- foot: tarsus (ankle) metatarsal (sole) phalanges (toes)

c. Bony Thorax
- cage to protect major organs
- sternum, ribs, thoracic vertebrae

APPENDICULAR
a. Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle- clavicle (collarbone); scapula (shoulder blade)
- allow upper limp for free movement
c. Pelvic Girdle (Hip bone)- ilium, ischium, pubic bone (fused bones)
- where upper body’s total weight rests
- protects reproductive organs; urinary blad., large intestine

Types of Synovial J. acc to Shape

Inflammatory Conditons of Joints

JOINTS- bone articulation; hold bones & mobility Bursitis – inflammation of bursa due to blow/ friction
Structural Classification Tendonitis – “ of tendon sheaths
Fibrous- immovable; united by fibrous tissue Arthritis – inflammatory/degenerative diseases of joints; 100 types
- Suture ; Syndemose (allow more suture movement) - most widespread crippling disease
Cartilaginous- immovable/slightly moveable; connected by cartilage Osteoarthritis- most common chronic arthritis due to aging
- Pubic symphasis; Intervertebral joint Rheumatoid arthritis- autoimmune disease; immune system attacks joints
Synovial- freely moveable; articulating bones separated by joint cavity - starts w/ bilateral inflammation of joints; leads to deformities
Features: Articular/hyaline cartilage) covers ends of bones Gouty Arthritis- Inflammation due to urate crystal deposition from blood
Joint surfaces are enclosed by fibrous articular capsule - controlled w/ diet
Joint cavity filled w/ synovial fluid
Reinforced by ligaments Developmental Aspects of Skeletal System
Structures: Bursae – flattened fibrous sacs; lined w/ synovial membrane - At birth, skull bones are incomplete
- filled w/ synovial f.; not actually part of joint - Bones are joined by fontanelles (fibrous membranes)
Tendon sheath- elongated bursa; wraps around a tendon - Fontanelles are completely replaced w/ bone 2 years after birth
 ORGAN SYSTEM
Body Landmarks
CARDIOVASCULAR- transport O2, CO2, nutrients, waste through blood
LYMPHATIC- debris drainage; returns fluid to b. vessels; immunity
RESPIRATORY- keeps blood supplied w/ O2; removes CO2
DIGESTIVE- food breakdown; nutrient absorption to blood; eliminate
URINARY- elim. nitrogenous waste; acid-base bal.; regulate water/electrolyte
REPRODUCTIVE- offspring production

Body Planes

Necessary Life Functions

Maintain Boundaries- distinct internal from external env
- essential substances; protective nature: heat/dehydration, toxin, pathogen
Movement- locomotion; manipulate external env; change in position Body Cavities
Responsiveness- sense & react to changes
Digestion- breakdown/delivery of nutrients; physical/chemical
Metabolism- energy production; making body structures
Excretion- eliminate waste from metabolic reactions
Reproduction- produce future generation
Growth- increase cell size & number; construction outpaces destruction
Survival Needs
Nutrients- energy & cell-building; regulate vital chemical reactions
Oxygen- for chem reactions
Water- 60-80% of body weight; metabolic reaction; transportation
Heat/Body Temp- low: metabolism slows; high: protein/enzyme denature
Atmospheric Pressure- force air exerts on body surface; affect breathing rate

LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY Abdominopelvic Quadrant Abdominopelvic Regions

Orientation/Directional Terms

Abdominopelvic Major Organs

 Irritability- receive & respond to a stimulus
Contractility - shorten when adequate stimulus is received

Nerve Stimulus to Muscles

- Skeletal muscles must be stimulated by a nerve to contract
Motor unit- 1 neuron which stimulates myocytes
MUSCULAR SYSTEM Neuromuscular junctions – association site of nerve & muscle
- myocytes are elongated (muscle cell = muscle fiber) Synaptic cleft – gap between nerve & muscle (not in contact)
- muscle contraction is due to microfilaments’ movement - filled w/ interstitial fluid
- myo- & mys- (“muscle”); sarco- (“flesh”)
3 Types of Muscle
SKELETAL- attached by tendons to bones; multinucleated
- Striated (visible banding); voluntary
- cells are surrounded & bundled by connective tissue
Connective T. wrappings:
Endomysium – around single muscle fiber
Perimysium – around fascicle (bundle) of fibers
Epimysium –entire skeletal muscle; blends into connective t. attachment
- tendon (cord-like); aponeuroses (sheet-like)
Nerve Impulse Transmission to Muscles
Fascia –outside of epimysium
Neurotransmitter- chemical released by nerve upon nerve impulse arrival
- attaches to receptors on sarcolemma which becomes permeable to Na
- Na rushing into cell generates action potential
- once started, muscle contraction can’t be stopped
- acetylcholine (skeletal m. neurotransmitter)
Sliding Filament Theory of Muscle Contraction
- activation by nerve causes myosin heads
(crossbridges) to attach to thin - activation by nerve causes myosin heads
(crossbridges) to attach to thin
Sites of muscle attachment: Bone, Cartilage, Connective tissue coverings filament’s binding sites
SMOOTH- unstriated; mononucleated; involuntary; spindle-shaped cells - myosin heads then bind to the next thin filament’s site- myosin heads
- found mainly in hollow organs’walls then bind to the next thin
CARDIAC- straited; mononucleated; involuntary filament’s site n y
- joined to another muscle cell at intercalated disc  continued action causes myosin sliding along
Muscle Funtions  continued action causes myosin sliding along actin, causing

- Produce movement - Stabilize joints contraction continued action causes myosin sliding along
- Maintain posture - Generate heat actin, causing contraction
Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle
- nuclei just beneath sarcolemma (specialized plasma membrane)
Sarcoplasmic reticulum- specialized smooth ER; calcium storage
Myofibril- myofilament bundles; aligned to give distinct bands
- I band (light); A band (dark)
Sarcomere- contractile unit of muscle fiber

Skeletal Muscle Contraction

- muscle fiber contraction is “all or none”
- within skeletal m., not all fibers may be stimulated during same interval
Organization: Thick filament- myosin (protein) filaments; ATPase enzymes
- diff combinations of muscle fiber contractions give diff responses
- filaments have heads/extensions/cross bridges
Graded responses – diff degrees of skeletal muscle shortening
Thin “ - actin (protein) filaments
Twitch- single, brief contraction; not normal muscle function
- filaments are absent in bare zones when at rest
Tetanus (summing of contractions)
- 1 contraction is immediately followed by another
- muscle doesn’t completely return to resting state
- effects are added
Unfused/incomplete tetanus- some relaxation between contractions
- results are summed
Fused/complete tetanus- no relaxation before following contractions
- result is a sustained muscle contraction
Properties of Skeletal M. Activity
 - increase in muscle size, strength, efficiency
- Muscle becomes more fatigue resistant

Ordinary Body Movements

Muscle Response to Strong Stimuli
- muscle force depends upon number of fibers stimulated
- more fibers contracting = greater muscle tension
- muscles can continue to contract unless they run out of energy
Energy for Muscle Contraction
- initially, muscles use stored ATP
 ATP bonds are broken to release energy

 only 4-6 seconds worth of ATP is stored by muscles

- after initial time, other pathways must be utilized to produce ATP

Direct phosphorylation
- muscle cells have creatine phosphate (CP) (high-energy)
- after depleting ATP, ADP is left; CP transfers energy to ADP to regenerate ATP
- CP supplies are exhausted in 20 seconds

Aerobic Respiration
- series of metabolic pathways in mitochondria
- Glucose is broken down to CO2 & H2O, releasing energy
- slower reaction that requires continuous oxygen
Anaerobic Glycolysis
- breaks down glucose w/o oxygen into pyruvic acid to produce ATP
- Pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid (produces muscle fatigue)
- inefficient but fast; needs huge amounts of glucose

Special Movements

Muscle Fatigue & Oxygen Debt

- fatigued muscle is unable to contract due to O2 debt
 O2 must be “repaid” to tissue to remove oxygen debt

 O2 must remove accumulated lactic acid

- increasing acidity from lactic acid & lacking ATP cause muscle to contract less
Types of Muscle Contractions
Isotonic- myofilaments can slide past each other during contractions
- muscle shortens
Isometric- muscle tension increases; muscle can’t shorten

Muscle Tone- some fibers contract even in a relaxed muscle Muscle Types
- diff fibers contract at diff times to provide muscle tone Prime mover –major responsibility for certain movement
- process of stimulating various fibers is involuntary Antagonist –opposes/reverses a prime mover
Muscle & Body Movement Synergist- aids a prime mover in movement & prevent rotation
- movement = muscle moving an attached bone Fixator – stabilizes prime mover’s origin
- muscles are attached to: Naming Skeletal Muscles
- muscles are attached to: Origin (attachment to moveable bone)- muscles are a. Muscle fiber Direction (rectus=straight)
attached to: b. Relative size (maximus=largest)
Origin (attachment to moveable bone) c. Location (temporalis=for bones)
Insertion (attachment to immovable bone) d. Number of origins (triceps=3 heads)
e. Location of muscle’s origin & insertion (sterno=on sternum)
Exercise Effects on Muscle f. Shape (deltoid=triangular)
g. Action (flexor & extensor=flexes/extends a bone)

Head & Neck Muscles

 Hormonal Stimuli- hormone release in response to hormones released by other
endocrine glands (which are activated by other hormones)
Humoral S.- control of hormonal release in response to changes in ion blood levels
Neural S.- hormone release in response to neural stimulation (nerve impulse)
- most are under control of sympathetic nervous system

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
nd
Major Endocrine Organs
- 2 messenger system (hormones trigger intracellular signals)
- use chemical messages (hormones) released into blood PITUITARY G.
- grape size; hangs from hypothalamus
- hormones control: Reproduction Growth & development
- protected by sphenoid bone
Body defenses mobilization
Homeostasis maintenance ANTERIOR/ADENOHYPOPHYSIS
Metabolism Regulation - glandular tissue
- 6 hormones: 2 affect nonendocrine targets
Hormone- produced by specialized cells; secreted into extracellular fluids
: 4 stimulate other endocrine g. (tropic hormone)
- transferred by blood to target sites
- regulate other cells’ activity - hormones are: proteins/peptides
: act through 2nd messenger systems
Hormone Chemistry : regulated by hormonal stimuli (neg. feedback)
a. Water-Soluble: Amine hormones (Catecholamine, Histamine, Serotonin & Growth H. (GH)- general metabolic hormone
melatonin) - major effects directed to growth of skeletal muscles and long bones
: Peptide “ (ADH & oxytocin, human growth hormone, insulin) - causes AA to be built into proteins
: Eicosanoid “ (prostaglandins (PG), leukotrienes) - causes fats to be broken down for energy source
b. Lipid-Soluble: Steroid hormones Prolactin (PRL)- stimulates & maintains milk production after childbirth
: Thyroid “ (T3 & T4) - function in males is unknown
: Nitric Oxide Adrenocorticotropic H. (ACTH)- regulates endocrine activity of adrenal cortex
Thyroid-Stimulating H. (TSH)- influences thyroid growth & activity
Mechanism of Hormone Action
Gonadotropic H- regulate gonad hormonal activity
- Hormones affect only target cells/organs
Follicle-stimulating H. (FSH)- stimulates follicle dev’t in ovaries
- Target cells must have specific protein receptors - “ sperm dev’t in testes
- Hormone binding influences cell working
Luteinizing H. (LH)- triggers ovulation
Hormone Effects - causes ruptured follicle to become corpus luteum
- stimulates testosterone prod. (interstitial cell-stimulating H. (ICSH)
- changes in plasma membrane permeability/electrical state
- protein synthesis (enzymes) - mitosis stimulation POSTERIOR/NEUROHYPOPHYSIS
- enzyme activation/inactivation - nervous tissue
Oxytocin/Pitocin- stimulates uterus contractions during labor; milk ejection
Steroid Hormone Action
ADH/Vasopressin- inhibit urine production
- diffuse through target cells’ plasma membrane
- causes vasoconstriction leading to increased blood pressure
- enter nucleus & bind to specific protein
↑ ADH = less & more concentrated urine ↓ ADH = more urine
- bind to specific sites on cell’s DNA
- activate genes that result in synthesis of new proteins
Pituitary-Hypothalamus Relationship
Nonsteroid Hormone Action - hormone release is controlled by releasing & inhibiting
- binds to a membrane receptor; doesn’t enter cell hormones produced by hypothalamus
- sets off a series of reactions that activates an enzyme - hypothalamus produces 2 hormones transported to
- catalyzes a reaction that produces 2nd messenger molecule neurosecretory cells of posterior pituitary
- oversees additional intracellular changes to promote a specific response - posterior pituitary is not strictly an endocrine gland,
but does release hormones

Control of Hormone Release

- blood hormone levels are maintained by negative feedback
- stimulus/low blood hormone levels trigger more hormone release
- hormone release stops once an appropriate level in blood is reached
THYROID G.- base of throat; 2 lobes & connecting isthmus PANCREATIC ISLETS/ISLETS OF LANGERHANS (PANCREAS)
2 hormones: - pancreas is mixed gland
Thyroid H- major metabolic hormone; consists of 2 iodine-containing hormones: Insulin – allows glucose to cross plasma membranes into cells from beta cells
Thyroxine (T4)- by thyroid follicles Glucagon – allows glucose to enter the blood from alpha cells
Triiodothyronine (T3)- T4 conversion at target tissues; more active than T4
Calcitonin- decrease blood calcium levels by causing its deposition on bone
- antagonistic to parathyroid hormone/parathormone
- produced by C (parafollicular) cells

PARATHYROID G.- tiny masses on thyroid’s posterior

Parathormone- stimulate osteoclasts to remove calcium from bone
- “ kidneys & intestine to absorb more calcium
- raise blood calcium levels

PINEAL G. - on 3rd brain ventricle

Melatonin- establish body’s wake & sleep cycles
- may have other as-yet-unsubstantiated functions

THYMUS- posterior to sternum; largest in infants & children

Thymosin- matures some types of WBC
- important in developing immune system

OVARIES
Estrogen- by Graafian follicles or placenta
- stimulates dev’t of secondary female characteristics; maintain pregnancy
- matures female reproductive organs; prepare uterus to receive fertilized egg
- prepares breasts to produce milk
Progesterone- by corpus luteum
- w/ estrogen to bring about menstrual cycle
ADRENAL/SUPRARENAL G. - helps in embryo implantation of in uterus
- on top of kidneys
TESTES- its interstitial cells are hormone-producing; produce many androgens
- 2 glands: Cortex- outer glandular region in 3 layers
Testosterone- most important androgen; required for sperm cell production
Medulla- inner neural tissue region
- responsible for adult male secondary sex characteristics
Cortex hormones: - promotes growth & maturation of male reproductive system
Mineralocorticoid (mainly aldosterone)
- produced in outer adrenal cortex; - target organ: kidney Other Hormone-Producing Tissues/Organs
- regulate mineral content in blood, water, & electrolyte balance - Parts of small intestine - Kidneys - areas w/scattered endocrine cells
- production stimulated by renin & aldosterone - parts of stomach - Heart
- “ inhibited by atrial natriuretic peptide
PLACENTA- produces hormones that maintain pregnancy
Glucocorticoid (cortisone & cortisol) - some hormones have role in baby delivery
- produced in middle layer of adrenal cortex; promote normal cell metabolism - produce Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) aside to estrogen,
- help resist long-term stressors progesterone, & other hormones
- released in response to increased blood levels of ACTH
Developmental Aspects of Endocrine System
Sex H.- produced in inner layer of adrenal cortex
- Androgens (male), Estrogen (female) - most endocrine organs operate smoothly until old age
- menopause is due to ovaries’ lack of efficiency
Medulla hormones: - problems associated w/ reduced estrogen are common
Catecholamines- Epinephrine & Norepinephrine - Growth hormone production & endocrine glands output decline w/ age
- prepare body to deal w/ short-term stress
 CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM Blood Circulation
- closed system of heart (pumps blood) & blood vessels (circulate blood)
- deliver oxygen & nutrient; remove CO2 & waste products
- oxygenation (artery; away); deoxygenation (vein)

a. HEART (CARDIAC SYSTEM)

- thorax between lungs; pointed apex toward left hip; broad base to right shoulder
- fist size

Operation of Heart Valves

coverings:
Pericardium- double serous membrane; space between layers filled w/serous fluid
- Visceral (next to heart); Parietal (outside layer)
3 layers: Epicardium- outside (visceral pericardium); connective tissue layer
Myocardium- middle; mostly cardiac muscle; actual layer that contracts
Endocardium- inner; endothelium

CORONARY CIRCULATION
- blood in heart chambers doesn’t nourish myocardium
- heart has own nourishing circulatory system: Coronary arteries & Cardiac veins
 blood empties into right atrium via coronary sinus
CHAMBERS- right & left act as separate pumps (4 chambers)
Heart: Conduction System
Atria- receivers (upper Right & left)
INTRINSIC/NODAL CS
Ventricles- discharger (bottom Right & Left)
- heart muscle cells contract, w/o nerve impulses, in regular, continuous way
VALVES- open as blood is pumped through; close to prevent backflow - special tissue sets pace:
- held by chordae tendineae (“heart strings”) Sinoatrial node (pacemaker) Bundle branches
Atrioventricular – between atria & ventricles Atrioventricular node Purkinje fibers
- Bicuspid/Mitral (left); Tricuspid (right) Atrioventricular bundle
Semilunar- between ventricle & artery
- Pulmonary semilunar/Pulmonic ; Aortic semilunar/Systemic CONTRACTION- initiated by sinoatrial node
- sequential stimulation occurs at other autorhythmic cells
GREAT VESSELS:
Aorta- leaves left ventricle; Pulmonary artery- leave right ventricle
Vena cava- enter right atrium; Pulmonary vein (4)- enter left atrium
 Veins

CARDIAC CYCLE Anatomy

- filling of heart chambers; events of 1 complete heart beat Tunica INTIMA- endothelium
- Atria contract simultaneously; Atria relax, then ventricles contract Tunica MEDIA- smooth muscle; controlled by sympathetic NS
Systole = contraction Diastole = relaxation Tunica EXTERNA/ADVENTITIA- mostly fibrous connective tissue
Mid-to-late diastole – blood flows into ventricles Differences between Blood Vessel Types
Ventricular systole- BP builds before ventricle contracts, pushing out blood - Artery walls are thickest
Early diastole – atria finish re-filling, ventricular pressure is low - Vein lumens are larger
- Skeletal muscle “milks” blood in veins toward heart
- Capillary Walls are only 1 cell layer thick to allow blood & tissue exchanges

Movement of Blood through Vessels

- most arterial blood is pumped by heart
- veins use milking action of muscles to help move blood

CARDIAC OUTPUT- blood mount pumped by each side of heart in 1 minute

STROKE VOLUME- blood volume pumped by each ventricle in 1 contraction CAPILLARY BED- 2 types of vessels:
CO = (heart rate [HR]) x (stroke volume [SV]) Vascular shunt- directly connects arteriole to a venule
True capillaries- exchange vessels
- - O2 & nutrients cross to cells
- CO2 & metabolic waste products cross into blood

Diffusion at Capillary Beds

Heart Rate Regulation

- Stroke volume remains relatively constant
Starling’s Law of Heart – more cardiac muscle is stretched, stronger contraction
- changing heart rate is most common way to change cardiac output
Increased heart rate:
- Sympathetic NS (Crisis; Low blood pressure) - Exercise
- Hormones (Epinephrine, Thyroxine) - Decreased blood volume
Decreased heart rate:
- Parasympathetic NS - Decreased venous return
- High blood pressure/blood volume Major Arteries of
Systemic Circulation
b. BLOOD VESSELS (VASCULAR SYSTEM)
- taking blood to tissues & back
Arteries
Arterioles
Capillaries
Venules
 BLOOD PRESSURE- measured in pressure in large arteries
Systolic – at peak ventricular contraction
Diastolic – when ventricles relax
pressure in blood vessels = ↑ distance away from heart

Major Veins of Factors affecting BP:

Systemic Circulation Neural
- Autonomic NS adjustments
- (sympathetic division)
Renal- regulation by altering blood volume by Renin
Temperature
- heat = vasodilation
- Cold = vasoconstriction
Chemicals- increases/decreases BP
Diet

Measuring Arterial Blood Pressure

Arterial Supply of Brain

Comparison of Blood Pressures

in Different Vessels

Hepatic Portal Circulation Circulation to Fetus

Variations in Blood Pressure

Normal- 120–110 mm Hg systolic; 80–70 mm Hg diastolic
Hypotension- Low systolic (< 90 mm HG) (illness)
Hypertension- High systolic (>120 mm HG) (dangerous if chronic)

CAPILLARY EXCHANGE
- substances exchanged due to concentration gradients
- O2 & nutrients leave blood; CO2 & wastes leave cells
Mechanisms
a. Direct diffusion across plasma membranes
b. Endocytosis/exocytosis
c. Some capillaries have intercellular clefts (gaps)
- plasma membrane not joined by tight junctions
PULSE- blood pressure wave d. Fenestrations (pores) of some capillaries
- monitored at “pressure points” where pulse is easily palpated
 Developmental Aspects of Cardiovascular System Structures: Thyroid cartilage- largest hyaline cart; protrudes anteriorly (Adam’s apple)
- simple “tube heart” develops in embryo & pumps by 4 week th Epiglottis- superior opening; routes food to larynx, air toward trachea
- heart becomes four-chambered organ by end of 7 weeks Vocal cords (vocal folds)- vibrate w/expelled air to create sound (speech)
Glottis – opening between vocal cords
- few structural changes after 7th week
TRACHEA (WINDPIPE)
- connects larynx to bronchi
- lined w/ ciliated mucosa: beat continuously in opposite direction of incoming air
expel mucus loaded w/ dust & debris away from lungs
- walls are reinforced w/ C-shaped hyaline cartilage

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM PRIMARY BRONCHI

- gas exchange: between blood & external env - formed by division of trachea; enters lung at hilus (medial depression)
within lungs in alveoli - right bronchus is wider, shorter, straighter than left bronchus
- passageways to lungs; purify, warm, - Bronchi subdivide into smaller & smaller branches
humidify incoming air
LUNGS
- occupy most of thoracic cavity
- Apex near clavicle (superior portion); Base rests on diaphragm (inferior portion)
- each lung is divided into lobes by fissures

NOSE Left lung – 2 lobes Right lung – 3 lobes

- only externally visible part of respiratory system Covering: Pulmonary pleura: Visceral- surface Parietal- lines thoracic cavity walls
- air enters through external nares (nostrils) Pleural fluid- between layers of pleura to allow gliding
-interior: nasal cavity divided by nasal septum

Respiratory Tree Divisions:

Primary, Secondary, Tertiary Bronchi; Bronchioli, Terminal Bronchioli

Nasal Cavity Anatomy

Olfactory receptors- in mucosa on superior surface
- rest of cavity is lined w/ respiratory mucosa
- moistens air; traps incoming foreign particles
Conchae- projections in lateral walls
- Increases surface area & air turbulence within nasal cavity
Palate- separates nasal cavity from oral cavity
Anterior hard palate (bone); posterior soft palate (muscle)

PARANASAL SINUSES
- lighten skull - produce mucus that drains into nasal cavity Bronchioles
- resonance chambers for speech - absorb force/trauma - bronchi’s smallest branches
- all but smallest branches have
Cavities within bones surrounding nasal c: Frontal, Ethmoid, Sphenoid, Maxillary
reinforcing cartilage
- terminal bronchioles end in alveoli
PHARNYX (THROAT)
- muscular passage from nasal cavity to larynx
3 regions: Nasopharynx – superior; behind nasal cavity RESPIRATORY ZONE- site of gas exchange
Oropharynx – middle; behind mouth common air & food Structures: Respiratory bronchiole, alveolar duct, alveoli
Laryngopharynx – inferior; attached to larynx passageways
ALVEOLI- gas exchange in respiratory membrane
Structures: Auditory tubes- enter nasopharynx Structures: Alveolar duct, Alveolar sac, Alveolus
Tonsils: Pharyngeal (adenoids)- in nasopharynx
Palatine- in oropharynx
Respiratory Membrane (Air-Blood Barrier)
Lingual- base of tongue
- thin squamous epithelial layer lining alveolar walls
- pulmonary capillaries cover alveoli’s external surfaces
LARYNX (VOICE BOX)
- routes air & food into proper channels; speech
- made of 8 rigid hyaline cartilages & epiglottis (spoon-shaped flap of elastic cartilage)
GAS EXCHANGE- gas crosses respiratory membrane by diffusion RESPIRATORY SOUNDS- monitored w/ stethoscope
- O2 enters blood; CO2 enters alveoli Bronchial sounds – produced by air rushing through trachea & bronchi
- macrophages add protection; surfactant coats gas-exposed alveolar surfaces Vesicular breathing sounds – soft sounds of air filling alveoli
Respiration events: EXTERNAL RESPIRATION
Pulmonary ventilation – moving air in & out of lungs - O2 movement into blood; alveoli always has more O2 than blood
Respiratory Gas Transport- O2 & CO2 transport via bloodstream  O2 moves by diffusion towards lower concentration
External Respiration- LUNGS (CENTRAL) between pulmonary blood & alveoli  Pulmonary capillary blood gains O2
Internal Respiration- PERIPHERAL (INTERNAL); between blood/tissue & systemic capillaries
- CO2 movement out of blood
Mechanics of Breathing (Pulmonary Ventilation)  blood from tissues has higher CO2 conc than air in alveoli

- completely mechanical; depends on volume changes in thoracic cavity  Pulmonary capillary blood gives up CO2

- volume changes lead to pressure changes, lead to gas flow to equalize pressure - Blood leaving lungs is O2-rich & CO2-poor
2 phases: Gas Transport in Blood
INSPIRATION – flow into lung - O2 transport in blood
- diaphragm & intercostal muscles contract; thoracic cavity size increases  inside RBC attached to hemoglobin (oxyhemoglobin [HbO2])
- external air is pulled into lungs due to increase in intrapulmonary volume  small amount is carried dissolved in plasma

- CO2 transport in blood

 most is transported in plasma as bicarbonate ion (HCO3–)
 small amount is carried inside RBCs on hemoglobin but at diff binding sites

INTERNAL RESPIRATION
- gas exchange between blood & body cells
- opposite reaction in lungs
 CO2 diffuses out of tissue to blood; O2 diffuses from blood into tissue

EXPIRATION – air leaving lung

- passive; depends on natural lung elasticity; muscles relax, air is pushed out of lungs
- forced expiration occur by contracting internal intercostal muscles to depress rib cage

Pressure Differences in Thoracic Activity

- normal pressure within pleural space is ALWAYS NEGATIVE (intrapleural pressure)
- differences in lung & pleural space pressures keep lungs from collapsing

Nonrespiratory Air Movements

- caused by reflexes/voluntary actions
Ex: Cough & sneeze (clears lungs of debris), Laughing, Crying, Yawn, Hiccup

Respiratory Volumes & Capacities

- measured w/ spirometer
TIDAL VOLUME [TV]: Normal breathing- moves 500 ml of air per breath
Factors affecting resp capacity: person’s size, Sex, Age, Physical condition
RESIDUAL VOLUME (RV)– air remaining n lungs after expiration (1200 ml)
INSPIRATORY RESERVE V (IRV)- air # inhaled forcibly over tidal volume (2100 - 3200 ml)
EXPIRATORY RESERVE V (ERV)- air amount forcibly exhaled (approx. 1200 ml)
Vital Capacity- total amount of exchangeable air (VC= TV + IRV + ERV)
Dead Space Volume- air remiaining in conducting zone & never reaches alveoli (150 ml)
Functional Volume- air that actually reaches respiratory zone (350 ml)
 Developmental Aspects of Respiratory System
- Lungs are filled w/fluid in fetus
- Lungs not fully inflated w/air until 2 weeks after birth
Neural Regulation of Respiration Surfactant that lowers alveolar surface tension present in late in fetal dev’t; may not be
Phrenic & Intercostal nerves- transmits respiratory muscles’ activity to brain present in premature babies
Neural centers- in medulla; control rate & depth Birth defects: Cystic fibrosis – oversecretion of thick mucus clogs respiratory system
Pons- smoothen respiratory rate Cleft palate
Normal respiratory rate (eupnea): 12–15 respirations per minute (RPM/CPM)
Hypernia- increased respiratory rate due to extra O2 needs Aging Effects
Factors Influencing Respiratory Rate & Depth - lung elasticity, vital capacity, blood O2 levels, CO2 stimulating effects decreases
a. Physical: increased body temp, exercise, talking, coughing - more risks of respiratory tract infection
b. Volition (conscious control)
c. Emotional Respiratory Rate Changes throughout Life
d. Chemical: Newborns – 40- 80 RPM Age 5 – 25 RPM
CO2 levels: in blood is main regulatory chemical for respiration Infants – 30 RPM Adults – 12 - 18 RPM
: increased CO2 increases respiration - Rate often increases somewhat w/ old age
: CO2 changes act directly on medulla oblongata
O2 levels: O2 changes in blood detected by chemoreceptors in aorta & carotid artery
: info is sent to medulla oblongata
BLOOD
Respiratory Disorders: Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) - only fluid tissue in humans; classified as connective tissue
- exemplified by chronic bronchitis & emphysema Living cells = formed elements [erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets (cell fragments)]
- major causes of death & disability in USA Non-living matrix = plasma
Features: Patients have smoking history
Labored breathing (dyspnea) becomes progressively more severe
Coughing & frequent pulmonary infections are common
Victims retain CO2, are hypoxic, have respiratory acidosis
Those infected ultimately develop respiratory failure
EMPHYSEMA
- Alveoli enlarge as adjacent chambers break through
- chronic inflammation promotes lung fibrosis; airways collapse during expiration
- patients use large amount of energy to exhale
- lung overinflation leads to a permanently expanded barrel chest
- cyanosis appears late
CHRONIC BRONCHITIS
- mucosa of lower respiratory passages severely inflamed
- mucus production increases; pooled mucus impairs ventilation & gas exchange
- increased lung infection risk; pneumonia is common; Hypoxia & cyanosis occur early Physical Characteristics
Scarlet red- O2-rich Dull red- O2-poor; pH: 7.35–7.45; temp: slightly higher to body temp
PLASMA- 90% water; dissolved substances (Nutrients, Salts/metal ions, Respiratory gases,
Hormones, Proteins, Waste products)
Proteins: Albumin – regulates osmotic pressure
Clotting proteins –stem blood loss when a blood vessel is injured
Antibodies – protect body from antigens

LUNG CANCER
- cause 1/3 of cancer deaths in USA
- Increased incidence associated w/ smoking
3 common types: Squamous cell carcinoma, Adenocarcinoma, Small cell carcinoma
SUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDROME (SIDS)
- healthy infant stops breathing & dies during sleep
- problem of neural respiratory control center
- 1/3 of cases due to heart rhythm abnormalities
ASTHMA
- Chronic inflamed hypersensitive bronchiole passages
- response to irritants w/ dyspnea, coughing, & wheezing
 - Thrombin joins fibrinogen proteins into hair-like fibrin
- Fibrin forms a meshwork (the basis for a clot)

Blood Clotting- within 3-6 minutes; use positive feedback

- clot remains as endothelium regenerates; broken down after tissue repair
Undesirable clotting:
Thrombus- in unbroken blood vessel; deadly in heart
Embolus- thrombus breaks away & floats freely in bloodstream; clog vessels in brain
Bleeding disorders:
ERYTHROCYTE- carry O2; outnumber leukocytes 1000:1 Thrombocytopenia- platelet deficiency; normal movements cause bleeding from small
Anatomy: Biconcave disks Anucleate (no nucleus) blood vessels that require platelets for clotting
Bags of hemoglobin (90%) Contain very few organelles Hemophilia- hereditary bleeding disorder; normal clotting factors are missing
Fate: unable to divide, grow, synthesize proteins wear out in 100- 120 days
when worn out, are eliminated by phagocytes in spleen/ liver Blood Groups & Transfusions
lost cells replaced by division of hemocytoblasts - Hemorrhage: Blood loss of 15-30% cause weakness; >30% causes shock (fatal)
Transfusions- only way to replace blood quickly; transfused blood is same blood group
control of production:
- Rate controlled by erythropoietin (hormone) Blood Group
- Kidneys produce most - blood have genetically determined proteins
erythropoietin as response to reduced blood O2 levels - antigen (foreign protein) may be attacked by immune sys; >30 common RBC antigens
- Homeostasis maintained by negative - blood is “typed” by using antibodies that cause blood w/certain proteins agglutination
feedback from blood O2 levels - most vigorous transfusion reactions are caused by ABO & Rh blood group antigens

- fewer efferent than afferent vessels cause flow to be slowed

ABO Blood Group- presence/absence of 2 antigens: Type A & Type B
O- lack 2 antigens; A&B antibodies AB- A & B antigens; no antibodies
Hemoglobin- protein w/iron; binds strongly but reversibly to O2 A- antigen A; B-antibodies B- antigen B; A antibodies
- each molecule has 4 O2 binding sites; each RBC has 250M hemoglobin molecules

LEUKOCYTE- defense against disease; complete cells (w/nucleus & organelles)

- diapedesis (move into & out of blood vessels); move by ameboid motion
- respond to chemicals released by damaged tissues
Rh Blood Group
Levels: normal = 4000-11000 per mL
- presence/absence of 1 of 8 Rh antigens: agglutinogen D; most Americans are Rh+
Leukocytosis= >11,000/ml; indicates infection
- problems occur in mixing Rh+ blood into body w/ Rh– blood
` Leukopenia- abnormally low level; caused by certain drugs
Rh Danger in pregnancy:
- when mother is Rh– & father is Rh+, child inherits Rh+ factor
- mismatch of Rh– mother w/ Rh+ baby cause problems for unborn child:
Types: 1st pregnancy proceeds w/o problems
Granulocytes- granules in cytoplasm can be stained immune system is sensitized after 1st pregnancy
Neutrophil- multilobed nucleus w/ fine granules 2nd pregnancy: mother’s immune system produce antibodies to attack Rh+ blood
- act as phagocytes at active sites of infection (hemolytic disease of newborn)
Eosinophil- large brick-red cytoplasmic granules
- response to allergy/parasitic worm
Basophil- w/histamine-containing granules; initiate inflammation
Agranulocytes- lack visible cytoplasmic granules
Lymphocyte- nucleus fills most of cell; immune response
Monocyte- largest WBC; act as macrophages; fight chronic infection
Blood Typing
THROMBOCYTE- derived from megakaryocytes (ruptured multinucleate cells) - blood samples are mixed w/ anti-A & anti-B serum
- coagulation/no coagulation determine blood type (typing for ABO & Rh factors)
- for clotting; normal platelet count = 300,000/mm3
Cross matching- testing for agglutination of donor RBCs by recipient’s serum (vice-versa)
Hematopoiesis- blood cell formation in red bone marrow
Developmental Aspects of Blood
- all blood cells are derived from hemocytoblast (common stem cell)
- sites of formation:
- Hemocytoblast differentiation: Lymphoid stem cell produce lymphocytes
fetal liver & spleen (early sites of formation)
Myeloid stem cell produce formed elements
bone marrow takes over hematopoiesis by 7th month
Hemostasis- blood flow stoppage; result of break in a blood vessel - fetal hemoglobin differs from hemoglobin produced
3 phases after birth
Platelet Plug Formation- collagen fibers exposed by break in blood vessel
- platelets become “sticky” & cling to fibers
- anchored platelets release chemicals to attract more platelets
- platelets pile up to form platelet plug
Vascular Spasm- anchored platelet release serotonin (cause BV muscles to spasm)
- spasms narrow blood vessel, decreasing blood loss
Coagulation- injured tissues release thromboplastin LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
- PF3 (phospholipid) interacts w/ thromboplastin, blood protein 2 semi-independent parts: Lymphatic vessels & Lymphoid tissues/organs
clotting factors, & calcium ions to trigger a clotting cascade
Functions: transport fluids back to blood; body defense & resistance to disease
- Prothrombin activator converts prothrombin to thrombin (enzyme)
 Characteristics: - trap & remove bacteria/ foreign materials
Lymph- excess tissue fluid (H2O, blood cells, protein) carried by lymphatic vessels & - Tonsillitis: caused by congestion w/bacteria
returned to blood PEYER’S PATCHES- small intestine wall; shaped like tonsils; capture/destroy bacteria
properties: 1-way system toward heart No pump
Mucosa-Associated Lymphatic Tissue (MALT)
Lymph moves toward the heart: Milking action of skeletal muscle
Smooth m rhythmic contraction vessel Peyer’s
walls patches, tonsils, small accumulations of lymphoid tissue
- sentinal to protect respiratory & digestive tracts
harmful materials entering lymph vessel: bacteria, virus, cancer cells, cell debris

A. LYMPHATIC VESSELS Body Defenses

NONSPECIFIC DEFENSE SYSTEM- protect against invaders

- responds immediately to protect body from foreign materials
- surface coverings (intact skin, mucous membrane), specialized cell, chemicals
SPECIFIC DS- aka immune system; for each type of invader

LYMPH CAPILLARIES SURFACE MEMBRANE BARRIERS (1st line of defense)

- walls overlap to form flap-like minivalves; fluid leaks into lymph c. Skin: physical barrier; acidic pH to inhibit bacterial growth: sebum is toxic to bacteria
- capillaries anchored to connective tissue by filaments Vaginal secretions
- higher pressure on inside closes minivalves Stomach mucosa: secretes hydrochloric acid; w/protein-digesting enzymes
LYMPHATIC COLLECTING VESSEL saliva & lacrimal fluid contain lysozyme
- collects lymph from lymph capillaries mucus traps microogranisms in digestive & respiratory pathways
- carries lymph to & away from lymph nodes Defensive cells:
- returns fluid to circulatory veins near heart: Right lymphatic duct & Thoracic duct Phagocyte- neutrophils & macrophage; engulfs foreign material into vacuole
- enzymes from lysosomes digest material
LYMPH NODES- filter lymph before returned to blood; defense cells in lymph nodes
Macrophages – engulf & destroy foreign substances (big eaters/scavengers) Nature Killer Cells- lyse & kill cancer cells; destroy virus- infected cells
Lymphocytes – provide immune response to antigens (T-/B-cells) Killer C.: T-cell that kills foreign cells
Structure: kidney shaped; < 1 inch long Memory C: B-cells responding to same antigen at later meeting
Cortex- outer; w/ follicles (collections of lymphocytes) Attenuated C: living, but weakened cells in a vaccine
Medulla- inner; w/phagocytic macrophages
INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE (2nd Line of Defense)
Flow of Lymph through Nodes
- triggered when body tissues are injured
- lymph enters convex side through afferent lymphatic vessels
- produces 4 (5) cardinal signs:
- flows through sinuses inside the node; exits through
efferent lymphatic vessels Redness, Heat, Swelling, Pain, Loss of Function
- leading to protection & healing
Functions: prevent spread of damaging agents
sets stage for repair
dispose cell debris & pathogens

Antimicrobial Chemicals/Proteins
Complement- group of atleast 20 plasma proteins
- activated when they encounter & attach to cells (complement fixation)
- damage foreign cell surfaces; w/vasodilators, chemotaxis, opsonization
- rupture/lyse foreign cell membrane (BACTERIA)
Action against bacterium:

B. LYMPHOID ORGANS
SPLEEN- abdomen’s left side; filters blood; destroys damaged blood cells (graveyard)
- forms blood cells in fetus; blood reservoir
THYMUS- low in throat, overlying heart; peak levels only during childhood
- produces hormones (thymosin) to program lymphocytes Interferon- secreted protein of virus-infected cells (VIRUS & TUMOR)
TONSILS- small masses of lymphoid tissue around pharynx - bind to healthy cell surfaces to inhibit viruses binding
 - immunoregulate immune system: amplifies (T-cells); suppress (B-cells) - immune system may recognize & respond to protein-hapten combination
- immune response is harmful than protective because it attacks our own cells
Transferin- iron-binding, inhibits bacteria from using iron (BACTERIA)
- excess amount: anemia (decrease ability of RBC to take up O2 & CO2)of Immune System
Cells
- low “ : bacterial infection Lymphocytes- originate from hemocytoblasts in red bone marrow
B lymphocytes- produced in bone marrow (HUMORAL IMMUNITY)
Fever- abnormally high body temp; increases speed of tissue repair T lymphocytes - “ in thymus (CELLULAR IMMUNITY)
- Hypothalmus heat regulation reset by pyrogens (secreted by WBC)
Macrophages- arise from monocytes; become widely distributed in lymphoid organs
- high temp inhibit iron & zinc release from liver & spleen needed by bacteria
rd
- naturally/artificially acquired
IMMUNE SYSTEM (3 Line of defense) ACTIVE IMMUNITY- B cells encounter antigens & produce antibodies
Antigen specific- recognizes & acts against foreign substances
PASSIVE IMMUNITY- antibodies obtained from someone else
Systemic – not restricted to initial infection site
- naturally (mother to fetus); artificially (from immune serum/gamma globulin)
Has memory- recognize & mount stronger attack on previously encountered pathogens
- immunological memory doesn’t occur; protection by “borrowed antibodies”
Types of immunity
HUMORAL- antibody-mediated; cells produce chemicals for defense (B-cells)
Immune Response
- B lymphocytes w/ specific receptors bind to specific antigen
- binding event activates lymphocyte to undergo clonal selection
- large number of clones are produced (primary humoral response)
- most B cells become plasma cells: produce antibodies to destroy antigens (4-5 days)
- some B cells become long-lived memory cells (secondary humoral response)

ANTIBODIES (IMMUNOGLOBULINS) (Igs)

- soluble proteins secreted by B cells (plasma cells); carried in blood plasma
- capable of binding specifically to antigen
5 classes: IgM- fix complement IgD –activation of B cells IgE –allergies
IgA – found mainly in mucus IgG- cross placental barrier

T Cell Clones
Cytotoxic- kill infected cells; insert a toxic chemical (perforin)
Helper- recruit other cells to fight invaders; interact directly w/ B cells
Suppressor- release chemicals to suppress T & B cells activity
- stop immune response to prevent uncontrolled activity
 few members of each clone are memory cells

CELLULAR- cell-mediated; cells target virus infected cells (T-cells)

Immune Response
- antigens presented by macrophages to immunocompetent T cell (antigen presentation)
- T cells must recognize nonself & self (double recognition)
- after antigen binding, clones form as w/ B cells, but different classes of cells are produced

ANTIGENS
Nonself
- any substance exciting immune system & provoking an immune response
Ex: Foreign proteins, Nucleic acids, large carbs, lipids, pollen grains, microorganisms
Self
- human cells have many surface proteins; immune cells don’t attack our own proteins
- cells in another person’s body can trigger immune response since they’re foreign
(restricts donors for transplants)

ALLERGY- small molecules (haptens/incomplete antigens) aren’t antigenic, but link up w/

our own proteins
 Anatomy: Regions: Cardiac– near heart Fundus
Phylorus- funnel-shaped terminal end Body
 food empties into small intestine at pyloric sphincter
Rugae- mucosa’s internal folds
External regions: Lesser & Greater curvatures
Layers of Peritoneum: Lesser omentum- attach liver to lesser curvature
Greater “ – attach greater curvature to posterior body wall
 contains fat to insulate, cushion, protect abdominal organs

Function: food storage tank Site of food breakdown

Chem breakdown of protein Delivers chyme (processed food) to small intestine
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Specialized mucosa: Mucous neck cells- produce sticky alkaline mucus
Digestion- breakdown of ingested food; nutrient absorption to blood
Gastric gland- secrete gastric juice
Metabolism- ATP production; constructive & degradative cellular activities
Chief cells- produce protein-digesting enzymes (pepsinogens)
2 main groups: Parietal “– produce hydrochloric acid
1. ALIMENTARY CANAL- continuous coiled hollow tube Endocrine “– produce gastrin
Organs: Mouth, Pharynx, Esophagus, Stomach, Small, Large intestine, Anus Structure of Stomach Mucosa: Gastric pits formed by folded mucosa
Layers: Mucosa- innermost layer Glands & specialized cells are in gastric gland region
- moist membrane (surface epithelium, lamina propria, smooth muscle)
Submucosa- under mucosa
- soft connective tissue w/ blood vessels, nerve endings, & lymphatics
Muscularis externa- inner circular layer; outer longitudinal layer
Serosa- outermost (visceral peritoneum); serous fluid-producing cells

SMALL INTESTINE
- major digestive organ; nutrient absorption into blood
- muscular tube from pyloric sphincter to ileocecal valve
- suspended from posterior abdominal wall by mesentery
Subdivisions: Duodenum- attached to stomach; curves around head of pancreas
Jejunum- attaches anteriorly to duodenum
Ileum- extends from jejunum to large intestine
Chem Digestion: Intestinal cells & Pancreas: source of enzymes mixed w/chyme
Nerve Plexuses: all are part of autonomic NS
Bile enters from gallbladder
Submucosal nerve plexus, Myenteric nerve plexus, Subserous plexus
Villi: fingerlike structures formed by mucosa; give more surface area
MOUTH (ORAL CAVITY) Microvilli: small projections of plasma membrane; found on absorptive cells
Anatomy:
Lips (labia) – protect anterior opening
Hard palate – forms anterior roof
Cheeks- form lateral walls
Soft palate – forms posterior roof
Oral cavity- contained by teeth
Uvula- fleshy soft palate protection
Vestibule- space between lips externally & teeth-gums internally
Tongue – attached at hyoid and styloid processes of skull & by lingual frenulum
Tonsils- Palatine & Lingual
Processes: Mastication (chewing) Initiation of swallowing by tongue
Mix masticated food w/ saliva Allowing for sense of taste
Structures in Nutrient Absorption: Absorptive cells Blood capillaries
PHARYNX Lacteals (specialized lymphatic capillaries)
Anatomy: Nasopharynx- not part of digestive sys Oropharynx- posterior to oral cavity Circular folds/Plicae circulares: deep folds of mucosa & submucosa
Laryngopharynx – below oropharynx & connected to esophagus - don’t disappear when filled w/ food; submucosa has Peyer’s patches
Function: air & food passageway
Food propelled to esophagus by: Longitudinal inner layer & Circular outer layer
Food movement by peristalsis (alternating contractions of muscle layers)

ESOPHAGUS
- from pharynx to stomach through diaphragm; peristalsis (slow rhythmic squeezing)
- food passageway only (respiratory system branches off after pharynx)

STOMACH
- left of abdominal cavity; food enters at cardioesophageal sphincter
 largest gland; right of body under diaphragm
LARGE INTESTINE - 4 lobes suspended from diaphragm & abdominal wall by falciform ligament
- larger diameter & shorter than small int; frames internal abdomen - connected to gall bladder via common hepatic duct

Function: water absorption eliminates indigestible food as feces - by liver cells

doesn’t participate in food goblet cells produce mucus as lubricant Bile salts, Bile pigment (bilirubin from hemoglobin breakdown), Cholesterol,
Phospholipids, Electrolytes
Structures: Cecum – saclike 1st part
Appendix- accumulation of lymphatic tissue; hangs from cecum GALL BLADDER
Colon- Ascending, Transverse, Descending; S-shaped sigmoidal - sac in liver’s hollow fossa; stores bile from liver by cystic duct
Rectum - bile is introduced into duodenum in presence of fatty food; gallstones cause blockages
Anus – external body opening
Muscularis externa Modifications: Digestive System Process
- smooth muscle is reduced to 3 bands (teniae coli); muscle bands have degree of tone Ingestion- food into mouth Peristalsis- alternating waves of contraction
- walls are formed into pocketlike sacs (haustra) Propulsion- from 1 region to another Segmentation- move back & forth to help mix
Mechanical Digestion- mix food in mouth by tongue; churn in stomach, segment in S.I.
Chemical “ - enzyme break food into monomers; s. amylase break starch to maltose
Absorption- end products absorbed in blood/ lymph
- food enter mucosal cells & into blood/lymph capillaries
Defecation- eliminate indigestible substance as feces

Control of Digestive Activity

- controlled by reflexes via parasympathetic division
- chemical & mechanical receptors are located in organ walls that trigger reflexes
Stimuli: stretch of organ, pH of contents, presence of breakdown products
Reflexes: activation/inhibition of glandular secretions, smooth muscle activity
Pharynx & Esophagus: no digestive function; passageways to stomach

Deglutition (Swallowing)
Buccal Phase- voluntary, in mouth, food bolus into pharynx by tongue
Pharyngeal/Esophageal “- involuntary; passageways except to stomach are blocked
- tongue blocks off mouth, soft palate (uvula) blocks nasopharynx,
2. ACCESSORY DIGESTIVE ORGANS epiglottis blocks larynx
SALIVARY GLANDS - peristalsis moves bolus toward stomach
- cardioesophageal sphincter is opened when food presses against it
Glands: Parotid (anterior to ears), Submandibular, Sublingual
Saliva- mucus + serous fluid; form food bolus; salivary amylase (starch digestion) Digestion & Absorption in Stomach
- dissolves chemicals so they can be tasted - gastric juice regulated by neural & hormonal factors
- food/falling pH causes release of gastrin (cause stomach glands produce protein-
TEETH
digesting enzymes)
- mastication; 2 sets: Deciduous (baby/milk teeth)- 20 teeth fully formed by age 2
- Hydrochloric acid (activates pepsinogen to pepsin for protein digestion)
Permanent- replace deciduous age 6 -12; full set of 32 teeth
- pepsin (active protein-digesting enzyme)
Classification: Incisors, Canines, Premolars, Molars rennin (digest milk protein)
Tooth Region: Crown – exposed part; outer enamel; Dentin; Pulp cavity - only absorption in stomach is of alcohol & aspirin
Neck- in contact w/ gum; connects crown to root
Root- periodontal membrane attached to bone; root canal carry BV/nerves Propulsion in Stomach
- food must first be well mixed; rippling
peristalsis occurs in lower stomach
- pylorus meters out chyme into S.I. (30 ml at a time)
- stomach empties in 4-6 hours

Digestion in Small Intestine

- enzymes from brush border: break double sugars
into simple, complete protein digestion
- pancreatic enzymes digest:
complete starch digestion (pancreatic amylase),
half of all protein (trypsin), fat (lipase),
nucleic acids (nucleases), alkaline content neutralizes acidic chyme

Release Stimulation of Pancreatic Juice

- vagus nerve & local hormones (secretin, cholecystokinin)

Absorption in Small Intestine

- water absorbed along intestine’s length
- end products: most absorbed by active transport through cell membranes
PANCREAS Lipids absorbed by diffusion
- digestive enzymes secreted into duodenum; alkaline fluid w/ enzyme neutralize chyme - substances are transported to liver by hepatic portal vein/ lymph

LIVER Propulsion in Small Intestine

 - Peristalsis; segmental movement: mix chyme w/ digestive juices & aid to propel food

Food Breakdown & Absorption in Large Intestine

- no digestive enzymes; water & vitamins K & B are absorbed
- resident bacteria digest remaining nutrients: produce vit K & B & release gases
- remaining materials are eliminated via feces

Propulsion in Large Intestine

- slow peristalsis; mass movements: slow, powerful movements 3-4x per day
- feces in rectum cause defecation reflex: Internal anal sphincter is relaxed & Defecation
by relaxation of voluntary (external) anal sphincter
Nutrition
Types: Cortical- in cortex; includes most nephrons
Nutrient- for growth, maintenance, repair
Juxtamedullary- at boundary of cortex & medulla
categories: Carbo- from plants; except lactose & small amounts of glycogens from meats)
Peritubular Capillaries- arise from glomerulus’ efferent arteriole; normal, low pressure
Lipids- saturated fats from animal; unsaturated from nuts, seeds, veg oils - attached to a venule; close to renal tubule
- Cholesterol from egg yolk, meats, milk - reabsorb (reclaim) some substances from collecting tubes
Protein- complete (all AA, animals); incomplete (legumes/beans)
Vitamins- as cofactors w/enzyme; found in all major food groups Urine Formation Process
Minerals- veggies, legumes, milk, some meats FILTRATION- nonselective passive process
Water - water & solutes smaller than proteins flow through capillary walls & pores of
glomerular capsule into renal tubule; blood cells can’t pass
Metabolism: Catabolism & Anabolism REABSORPTION- materials go out of filtrate into tubule cells into capillary blood
Carbo- preferred source to produce ATP, glucose is major breakdown product/fuel for ATP - peritubular capillaries reabsorb: some water, glucose, AA, ions
Cellular Respiration- aerobic is in cell to make ATP from ADP; carbon leaves cell as CO2 - some is passive, most is active; most occurs in proximal convoluted tubule
- energy produced from phosphorylation; ATP broken down to release energy - not reabsorbed: nitrogenous waste (urea, uric acid, creatinine); excess water
SECRETION- H+, K+, creatinine, drugs removed from peritubular blood & secreted by
tubule cell into filtrate
URINARY/RENAL SYSTEM
- eliminate waste products (nitrogenous waste, toxins, drugs)
- regulate homeostasis (water/electrolyte/acid-base balance, BP, RBC production, Vit D)
organs: Kidneys, Ureters, Urinary bladder, Urethra

KIDNEYS
- against dorsal body wall, at level of T12 to L3; right kidney lower than left
- attached to ureters, renal blood vessels, nerves at renal hilus; top is adrenal gland
Coverings: Renal Capsule- surround kidney
Adipose “ - surrounds kidney, protection, keep kidney in its correct location
Regions: Renal cortex (outer); R. medulla (inside cortex); R. pelvis (inner collecting tube)
Structures: Medullary Pyramids- triangular tissues in medulla
Renal Columns- extensions of cortex-like material inward
Calyces- cup-shaped that funnel urine to renal pelvis

Secretion-Reabsorption in Reverse
- some materials move from peritubular capillaries into renal tubules (H, K, Creatinine)
- materials left in renal tubule move to ureter

Urine Characteristics for Medical Diagnosis

- yellow due to urochrome (from hemoglobin destruction) & solutes
- Sterile; slightly aromatic; Normal pH 6; Specific gravity: 1.001 - 1.035

Abnormal Urinary Constituents

must not be found in urine in large amounts:
Nephrons- structural & functional units; forms urine Glucose, Proteins, Pus (WBCs), RBCs, Hemoglobin, Bile Pigment
main structures:
Glomerulus- specialized capillary bed; attached to arterioles (maintains high pressure):
- Large afferent arteriole; Narrow efferent arteriole REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
- within glomerular capsule (Bowman’s Capsule) (1st part of renal tubule) GONAD- primary sex organs (Testes, Ovarys); produce gametes (sperm, ova) & hormone
Renal tubule- Glomerular/Bowman’s Capsule (proximal convoluted tubule)
1. MALE RS
- Loop of Henle (distal convoluted tubule)
a. TESTES
- oval-shaped (abdominal cavity in fetus, descent in scrotum after 28 wks gestation)
- cryptorchidism (undescended testes)
- each lobule has 1-4 seminiferous tubules; sperm travel through rete testis to epididymis
Parts: seminiferous tubule- tightly coiled, forms sperm, empty sperm into rete testis
Leydig/Interstitial cell- testosterone
Sertoli cells- support sperm transport
Coverings: Tunica albuginea- capsule that surrounds each testis
Septa- capsule extensions extending into testis & divide it into lobules
 LABIA MAJORA- 2 thick adipose tissue folds from mons pubis to perineum
b. DUCT SYSTEM - unites to form commissure; outer surface is thick & covered w/hair
- inner is smooth & moist; cover & protect external organs under it
EPIDIDYMIS- comma-shaped, tightly coiled; superior testis part & along posterior lateral
- mature & store sperm; expels sperm w/muscle wall contraction to vasLABIA MINORA- 2 thin connective tissue folds
deferens
DUCTUS/VAS DEFERENS- carries sperm from epididymis to ejaculatory duct - joins anteriorly to form prepuce, posteriorly to form fourchette
- passes through inguinal canal & over bladder; moves sperm by peristalsis - most vascular, sensitive, w/sebaceous glands
- ends in ejaculatory duct which unites w/urethra CLITORIS- highly sensitive, erectile tissue under prepuce
- sexual arousal & orgasm; covered by prepuce, sensitive to touch & temp
Spermatic cord – ductus deferens, blood vessels, nerves in connective tissue sheath
Vasectomy- cutting at level of testes to prevent sperm transportation VESTIBULE- triangular space between l. manora w/6 openings:
Urethral, Vaginal, of Bartholin’s gland (2), of Skene’s glands (2)
URETHRA- base of urinary bladder to tip of penis; carries urine & sperm VAGINAL OPENING- below urethral meatus; Grafenberg/G spot is sensitive at inner
- sperm enters from ejaculatory duct anterior vagina surface
Regions: Prostatic–surrounded by prostate Membranous –prostatic urethra to penis URETHRAL “ – midline of vestibule below clitoris
Spongy/Penile– runs the length of penis HYMEN- thin, tough, elastic semicircular membrane covering vaginal opening
Imperforate hymen- completely covers opening; prevent coitus & mense passage
c. ACCESSORY ORGANS Hymenotomy/Hymenectomy- surgical incision of imperforate hymen
SEMINAL VESICLE- base of bladder; produces thick, yellowish secretion (60% of semen) SKENE’S GLANDS- paraurethral & minor vestibular glands
(Fructose, Vitamin C, Prostaglandins, others that nourish/ activate sperm) - each side of urethral meatus; secretion helps lubricate during coitus
PROSTATE GLAND- encircles upper part of urethra; secretes milky fluid; activate sperm
BARTHOLIN’S G- vulvovaginal, major vestibular, paravaginal glands
- enters urethra through several small ducts
- inner side of vagina; lubricates external vulva on coitus w/alkaline secretions
BULBOURETHRAL GLAND- pea-sized; inferior to prostate; produce thick, clear mucus that enhance sperm survival
(cleanse urethra of acidic urine, lubricant during sex, secreted into penile urethra)
FOURCHETTE- tissue ridge formed by posterior joining of 2 labia minora & majora
Semen- sperm + accessory gland secretions; measured by ability to fertilize - Episiotomy- perineotomy, surgically planned-incision on perineum
- normal: 2-5 ml/ejaculation; 100M sperm cells/ml; < 20 M (infertile/sterile)
Advantages of AG secretions: Fructose provides energy for sperm cells b. INTERNAL
Alkalinity of semen helps neutralize acidic vagina VAGINA- tubular musculomembranous structure; 8-12 cm from vulva to uterus
Semen inhibits bacterial multiplication function: uterus’ excretory canal where uterine secretions & mense escape
Elements of semen enhance sperm motility organ of copulation; forms part of birth canal
d. EXTERNAL GENITALIA (internally there’s 3 areas of spongy erectile tissue around urethra) Rugae- transverse folds in wall; appear in puberty, disappear at menopause
- allow vaginal canal to stretch & enlarge during deliver
SCROTUM- divided sac of skin outside abdomen; maintains testes at 3°C lower than normal
body temp to protect sperm viability; darker coloration, sparse hair, wrinkly UTERUS- hollow muscular canal in true pelvis
- env conditions affect spermatogenesis but not testosterone prod. Function: reproduction (reception, implantation, retention, nutrition)
- too hot: dartos muscle relax, testes hangs/descend away from body Menstruation; contraction for fetus expulsion & seal torn BV after placenta
Too cold: testes contracts & pull closer to body Intrinsic Motility- can contract even if nerves are cut
PENIS- delivers sperm into female reproductive tract Parts: Fundus- uppermost convex triangle between insertion points of fallopian tube
Regions: Shaft Glans penis (enlarged tip, most sensitive) - most muscular; zygote implantation
Prepuce/Foreskin- retractable skin covering glans (Phimosis- not retracted) - obstetrical landmark: palpation of fundic height to assess fetal growth
Urethral Meatus- slit-like opening at tip of penis; urine & semen passageway Assess uterine contractions & labor progress
Cornua- where fallopian tubes are attached
Emission- semen discharge from urethra
Corpus- body; houses fetus
Ejaculation- forceful semen expulsion from urethra due to penis muscle contract (orgasm)
Isthmus- prominent near end of pregnancy & during labor to form lower uterine
SPERMATOGENESIS- sperm-making; begins at puberty, in seminiferous tubules segment w/cervix
Spermatogonia (stem cell)- undergo rapid mitosis to make more stem cells before puberty Cervix- neck; w/elastic & collagenous tissues & 10% muscle tissue
FSH- modify spermatogonia division; 1 cell is stem cell, other cell is primary spermatocyte Internal cervical os- opens into corpus
Process: cervical canal- continuation of uterine cavity
external cervical os- opens to vagina
- Primary spermatocytes undergo meiosis; haploid spermatids are produced
Spermiogenesis- 64-72 days; late spermatids produced w/distinct regions: Layers: Perimetrium=- outermost serosal layer attached to broad ligament
Head (contains DNA covered by acrosome); Midpiece, Tail Myometrium- middle muscular; uterine contractions & thickest at fundal area
- spermatids mature to sperm cells Endometrium- inner ciliated mucosal; glands secrete alkaline fluid for moistness
- undergo changes in response to hormones during menstruation
Anatomy of Mature Sperm
FALLOPIAN TUBES- from cornua w/distal ends near ovaries
- only human flagellated cell;
DNA is found in head Parts: Interstitial/Intramural Ampulla- middle, widest, fertilization
Isthmus- narrowest; tubal ligation Infundibulum- fimbrae (funnel opening at end)
OVARY- glandular organs movable on palpation
Testosterone- most important hormone of testes; by interstitial cells Function: Oogenesis- egg cell growth, dev’t, maturation
Function: stimulates reproductive organ dev’t; underlies sex drive Ovulation- release of mature egg cell
secondary sex char (voice deepening, bone thickening, skeletal muscle growth) Hormone Production- steroid synthesis & secretion
Layers: Tunica Albuginea- outermost protective layer
2. FEMALE RS Medulla- w/BV, neves, lymphatics
VULVA- form entire external genitalia; Latin “covering” Cortex- functional; for ovum formation & maturation; becomes thinner w/age
a. EXTERNAL Follicle stages: Primary follicle- w/immature oocyte
MONS PUBIS- adipose tissue over symphysis pubis; protect pubic bone junction Graafian/Vesicular “- growing follicle w/maturing oocyte
- w/sebaceous glands; covered w/triangular curly hair (escutcheon) Ovulation- when egg is mature, follicle ruptures (every 28 days)
- hair growth stimulated by testosterone, pattern by estrogen - ruptured follicle turns to corpus luteum
 functional property: Irritability- respond to stimuli Conductivity- transmit impulse
Plasma membrane at rest is polarized (fewer cations inside cell than outside)

Axon & Nerve Impulse

- axons end in axonal terminals (w/ vesicles w/ neurotransmitters, separated from next
neuron by gap)
Synaptic cleft – gap between adjacent neurons Synapse – junction between nerves

Nerve Fiber Coverings: Schwann Cell- produce myelin sheaths in jelly-roll like fashion
Nodes of Ranvier- gaps in myelin sheath along axon

Starting a Nerve Impulse

NERVOUS SYSTEM Depolarization- stimulus depolarizes neuron’s membrane
Function: Sensory input- gather info; monitor stimuli inside & outside body - depolarized membrane allows Na+ to flow inside membrane
Integration- process & interpret sensory input & decide if action is needed - exchange of ions initiates an action potential in neuron
Motor Output- response to stimuli activating muscles/glands Action Potential/Nerve Impulse- as it starts, it propagates over entire exon
Structural Classification - K rush out of neuron after Na rush in, repolarizing membrane
- sodium-potassium pump restores original configuration (needs ATP)
CENTRAL- brain, spinal cord
PERIPHERAL- nerve outside brain & spinal cord Propagation- impulse continues to move to cell body
- impulses travel faster when fibers have a myelin sheath
Functional classification
SENSORY/EFFERENT Division- carry info to CNS
Continuation of Nerve Impulse between Neurons
Cutaneous sense organs; Proprioceptors (detect stretch/tension) - impulses can cross synapse to another nerve
 Neurotransmitter is released from nerve’s axon terminal
MOTOR/EFFERENT Division- carry impulse away from CNS
 dendrite of next neuron has receptors stimulated by neurotransmitter
Somatic NS- voluntary; Autonomic NS- involuntary
 action potential is started in dendrite
Nervous Tissue:
Reflex Arc
a. SUPPORT CELLS/NEUROGLIA
Reflex- rapid, predictable, involuntary response
Astrocyte- star-shaped; brace neurons; barrier between capillaries & neurons
Reflex arc- direct route from sensory, to interneuron, to effector
- control chem env of brain
Microglia- spider-like phagocytes; dispose debris Simple RA:
Ependymal Cell- line cavities of brain & spinal cord; circulate cerebrospinal fluid
Oligodendrocyte- produce myelin sheath around nerve fibers in CNS
Satellite Cell- protect neuron cell bodies
Schwann Cell- form myelin sheath in PNS

Types of Reflex & Regulation

AUTONOMIC- smooth muscle, heart & BP, glands, digestive system regulation
SOMATIC- skeletal muscle activation

CENTRAL NS
- develops from embryonic neural tube:
neural tube becomes brain & spinal cord
opening becomes ventricles (4 chambers within brain, filled w/cerebrospinal fluid)
a. BRAIN
b. NERVE CELLS/ NEURONS- transmit message Regions:
Anatomy: CEREBRUM- left & right; superior parts; includes more than half of brain mass
Cell Body- nucleus & metabolic center - surface is made of gyri (ridges) & sulci (grooves)
Nissl substance- specialized rER Lobes: results from fissures division (Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, Temporal)
Neurofibril- intermediate cytoskeleton for shape Specialized area: Somatic sensory area- receive impulse from body’s sensory receptor
Nucleus Nucleolus Primary motor area- send impulse to skeletal muscle
location: Gray matter- cell bodies & unmylenated fibers Broca’s area- for speaking
Nuclei- cell body cluster within white matter of CNS Special senses area (Gustatory, Visual, Auditory, Olfactory)
Ganglia- cell bodies outside CNS Interpretation area (Speech/language, language comprehension,
Processes- fibers that extend from cell body general interpretation)
Dendrite- conduct impulse to cell body; Axon- away from cell body Layers: Gray Matter- outer; made of neuron cell bodies
functional classification: Sensory/Afferent- carry impulse from sensory receptors White “ - fiber tracts inside gray m (corpus callosum connect hemisphere)
- Cutaneous sense organ, Proprioceptor (detect tension) Basal Nuclei- internal islands of gray matter
Motor/Efferent- carry impulse from CNS
Interneuron/Association- in CNS neural pathways
- connect sensory & motor neurons
structural classific: Multipolar- many extensions from cell body
Bipolar- 1 axon & 1 dendrite
` Unipolar- short single process from cell body
 Dorsal root: dorsal root ganglia (cell bodies outside CNS)
Ventral Root

DIENCEPHALON- top of brain stem; enclosed by cerebral hemispheres

PERIPHERAL NS
3 parts: Thalamus- surrounds 3rd ventricle; relay station for sensory impulse - Nerve (bundle of neuron fibers); Neuron fibers are bundled by connective tissue
- transfer impulse to cortex for localization & interpretation Nerve structure: Endoneurium- surrounds each nerve fiber
Hypothalamus- under thalamus; autonomic NS center; limbic system Perineurium- binds fiber groups into fascicles
- regulate body temp, water balance, metabolism; pituitary gland Epineurium- binds fascicles together
Epithalamus- roof of 3rd ventricle; contains pineal body Nerve classific: Mixed- sensory & motor fibers` Efferent/Motor- away from CNS
- choroid plexus (forms cerebrospinal fluid) Afferent/Sensory- carry impulse to CNS
Cranial- 12 pairs in head & neck; numbered in order, front & back; mixed
BRAIN STEM- attach to spinal cord
nerves (3 are sensory only)
Parts: Midbrain- tracts of nerve fibers; 2 bulging fiber tracts (cerebral peduncles)
I Olfactory VI Abducens- motor to eye muscles
- 4 rounded protrusions (corpora quadrigemina)
II Optic VII Facial- sensory for taste; motor to face
- reflex centers for vision & hearing
III Oculomotor & IV Trochlear- motor to eye muscles
Pons- bulging center; fiber tracts; w/ nuclei for breathing
V Trigeminal (sensory for face; motor to chewing muscles)
Medulla Oblongata- lowest part; merges into spinal cord
VIII Vestibulocochlear- sensory for balance & hearing
- w/fiber tracts; control centers: heart rate, BP, breathing, swallow)
IX Glossopharyngeal- sensory for tase; motor to pharynx
Reticular Formation- diffuse gray matter along brain stem
X Vagus- sensory & motor for larynx, larynx, viscera
- motor control of visceral organs; awake/sleep cycle, consciousness
XI Accessory- motor to neck & upper back
CEREBELLUM- 2 hemispheres w/convoluted surface; involuntary coordination XII Hypoglossal- motor to tongue

Protection: Scalp, Skull & Vertebrae, Meninge, Cerebrospinal Fluid, blood-brain barrier
MENINGE: Dura mater- double-layered external (Periosteum – attached to skull surface
- folds inward in several areas Meningeal layer – outer brain covering)
Arachnoid Layer- middle; web-like
Pia mater- internal; clings to brain surface
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID- blood plasma-like, watery cushion; formed by choroid plexus
- circulated in arachnoid space, ventricles, & central canal of spinal cord
BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER- w/least permeable capillaries; excludes harmful substances
- useless against: Fats, respiratory gas, Alcohol, Nicotine, Anesthesia

Traumatic Brain Injury

CONCUSSION- slight injury; no permanent damage
CONTUSION- nervous tissue destruction occurs & does not regenerate
CEREBRAL EDEMA- swelling from inflammatory response; compress & kill brain tissue
CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT/STROKE
- result of ruptured blood vessel supplying a region of brain
- brain tissue supplied w/oxygen from blood source dies; loss of functions/death
ALZHEIMER’S- progressive degenerative; abnormal protein deposit & twisted fibers
within neurons; memory loss, irritability, confusion, hallucinations, death

b. SPINAL CORD- medulla oblongata to T12; cauda equina (spinal nerves, below T12)
- enlargements in cervical & lumbar regions
Anatomy:
Exterior white matter- conduction tracts
Internal gray matter- cell bodies (Posterior & Anterior horns)
Central Canal- filled w/cerebrospinal fluid
Meninge- cover spinal cord
Nerves- leave at level of each vertebrae