SCIENCE

Respiratory Systemㅤㅤ ㅤ ㅤㅤㅤ

The respiratory system is a complex network of organs and tissues responsible for
the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the body and the environment.

Pharynx
● Common pathway for air and
food.
● Directs air into the larynx and
food into the esophagus.

Larynx
● Located below the pharynx.
● Contains vocal cords, which
Parts of Respiratory Systemㅤ produce sound for speech.
Nose ● Prevents food and liquids from
● Entrance for air into the body. entering the lower respiratory
● Filters, warms, and humidifies the system
air.
● Traps dust and particles. Trachea
● Contains two nostrils that lead to ● Connects the larynx to the
the nasal cavity. bronchi.
● Provides a rigid structure to keep
Nasal Cavity the airway open.
● Lined with cilia and mucous ● Lined with cilia and
membranes. mucus-producing cells that trap
● Contains blood vessels that help foreign particles.
in warming the air. ● Expels trapped particles through
● Produces mucus to trap dust, coughing or swallowing.
bacteria, and other particles.
● Cilia help move trapped particles
toward the throat for swallowing
or expulsion.
● Enhances the sense of smell by
housing olfactory receptors.
Bronchi and Bronchioles Ribs
● Bronchi branch off from the ● Form the rib cage, protecting the
trachea and lead to each lung. lungs and other organs.
● Bronchi further divide into
smaller tubes called bronchioles. Diaphragm
● Conduct air to different regions ● Dome-shaped muscle at the base
of the lungs. of the chest cavity.
● Regulate airflow through the ● Contracts during inhalation,
contraction and relaxation of allowing the lungs to expand and
smooth muscles in bronchioles. air to be drawn in.
● Relaxes during exhalation,
Alveoli helping to expel air from the
● Tiny air sacs located at the end lungs.
of the bronchioles within the
lungs. Inhale Exhale
● Site of gas exchange between
the respiratory system and Oxygen enters Carbon dioxide
bloodstream. our body exits our body
● Oxygen from inhaled air enters
the bloodstream, and carbon Ribs move out Ribs move in
dioxide, a waste product, is Chest space Chest space
expelled during exhalation. increases decreases

Lungs (Right Lung and Left Lung): Diaphragm Diaphragm

Right Lung muscle contracts muscle relaxes
● Located on the right side of the
chest.
● Divided into three lobes (upper,
middle, and lower).
● Receives air from the right
bronchus.

Left Lung
● Located on the left side of the
chest.
● Divided into two lobes (upper and
lower).
● Receives air from the left
bronchus.
Circulatory Systemㅤㅤ ㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤ ㅤ
The circulatory system, also known as the cardiovascular system, is a complex
network of organs, blood vessels, and the heart that work together to transport
oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and other essential substances throughout the body.
It plays a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis, distributing vital substances, and
removing waste products from cells.
Heart
● A muscular organ responsible for
pumping blood throughout the
body.
● Divided into four chambers: two
atria (left and right) and two
ventricles (left and right).
● Contracts and relaxes
rhythmically to maintain blood
flow.
● Atria: Receives Ventricles: Pumps
Parts of Circulatory System ㅤ ● Valve: Prevents blood from
Superior Vena Cava flowing backwards
● Large vein that carries
deoxygenated blood from the
Right Atrium
upper body and returns it to the
● Receives deoxygenated blood
heart.
from the superior and inferior
● Enters the right atrium of the
vena cava.
heart.
● Contracts to push blood into the
right ventricle.
Inferior Vena Cava
● Large vein that carries
deoxygenated blood from the
Right Ventricle
lower body and returns it to the ● Receives deoxygenated blood
heart. from the right atrium.
● Enters the right atrium of the ● Contracts to pump blood into the
heart. pulmonary artery.

Pulmonary Artery
● Carries deoxygenated blood from
the right ventricle to the lungs.
● Divides into two branches, one
for each lung.
● Conducts blood away from the
heart
● Rounded; high pressure and thick
Lungs Blood
● Oxygenates the blood and ● Blood is a specialized fluid that
removes carbon dioxide through circulates throughout the body.
the process of respiration. ● It consists of red blood cells
● (erythrocytes), white blood cells
Pulmonary Veins (leukocytes), platelets, and
● Conducts blood toward the plasma.
Heart ● Red blood cells carry oxygen and
● Irregular; low pressure and thin remove carbon dioxide waste.
● White blood cells play a crucial
Left Atrium role in the immune response,
● Receives oxygenated blood from defending the body against
the pulmonary veins. infections and diseases.
● Contracts to push blood into the ● Platelets aid in blood clotting,
left ventricle. preventing excessive bleeding.
● Plasma is a liquid component
Left Ventricle that carries nutrients, hormones,
● Receives oxygenated blood from waste products, and other
the left atrium. substances.
● Contracts to pump blood into the
aorta. Capillaries
● Smallest blood vessel in the body
Aorta
● Largest artery in the body.
● Carries oxygenated blood from
the left ventricle to all parts of
the body.
Pulmonary vs Systemic Circulationㅤㅤ ㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤ
Pulmonary Systemic
● Involves the flow of blood ● Involves the flow of blood
between the heart and the lungs. between the heart and the rest of
● Deoxygenated blood from the the body.
body enters the right atrium of ● Oxygenated blood from the left
the heart through the superior atrium enters the left ventricle,
and inferior vena cava. which pumps it into the aorta,
● The deoxygenated blood moves the largest artery in the body.
into the right ventricle and is ● From the aorta, oxygenated
then pumped to the lungs blood is distributed to arteries,
through the pulmonary artery. arterioles, and capillaries
● In the lungs, carbon dioxide is throughout the body.
released from the blood, and ● In the capillaries, oxygen and
oxygen is picked up through the nutrients are delivered to the
process of respiration. tissues, while waste products are
● Oxygenated blood returns to the removed.
heart via the pulmonary veins, ● Deoxygenated blood returns to
entering the left atrium. the heart through venules, which
● Pulmonary circulation is merge to form veins.
responsible for oxygenating the ● The veins carry deoxygenated
blood and removing carbon blood back to the right atrium of
dioxide. the heart, starting the cycle
again.
Healthy Lifestyleㅤㅤ ㅤ ㅤㅤㅤ
Lifestyle refers to the way in which individuals or groups of people live and make
choices in various aspects of their daily lives. It encompasses a wide range of
behaviors, habits, attitudes, and patterns of activities that shape a person's overall
way of life.

Different Lifestyles that Affect ㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤ ㅤ

Respiratory and Circulatory Systemㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤ
Cigarette Smokingㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤ Drinking Alcoholㅤ ㅤㅤ ㅤ
Cigarette smoking is the act of inhaling Drinking alcohol refers to the
and exhaling the smoke produced by consumption of beverages containing
burning tobacco leaves, which are ethyl alcohol, such as beer, wine, or
typically wrapped in a paper tube spirits. Alcohol is a psychoactive
known as a cigarette. substance that can have various
effects on the body.
Respiratory System
● Smoking reduces lung function Respiratory System
and can lead to chronic ● Alcohol can depress the central
bronchitis, causing coughing and nervous system, leading to
breathing difficulties. slowed breathing and a
● It damages the air sacs in the decreased cough reflex.
lungs, resulting in a condition ● Excessive alcohol consumption
called emphysema, which can irritate the respiratory tract,
impairs gas exchange. causing inflammation and
● Smoking weakens the immune increasing the risk of respiratory
system in the respiratory tract, infections.
making smokers more prone to Circulatory System
infections. ● Alcohol can dilate blood vessels,
Circulatory System leading to a temporary feeling of
● Smoking increases heart rate, warmth but also causing
raises blood pressure, and increased blood flow to the skin.
contributes to the development ● Prolonged alcohol use can lead
of atherosclerosis (narrowing and to high blood pressure,
hardening of arteries). weakening of the heart muscle,
● It promotes blood clot formation, and increased risk of
which can block blood vessels cardiovascular diseases.
and lead to heart attacks or ● Alcohol can also interfere with
strokes. the blood's ability to clot
● Smoking reduces the amount of properly, increasing the risk of
oxygen delivered to body tissues bleeding and related
and organs. complications.
Overeatingㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤ ㅤㅤ Sedentary Lifestyleㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ
Overeating, refers to a pattern of A sedentary or inactive lifestyle refers
consuming an excessive amount of to a pattern of minimal physical
food, often accompanied by a loss of activity or prolonged periods of sitting
control and feeling unable to stop or inactivity throughout the day. It is
eating. It is a characteristic feature of characterized by a lack of regular
certain eating disorders, such as binge exercise or movement that fails to
eating disorder. Overeating episodes meet the recommended levels of
are typically marked by a rapid intake physical activity for maintaining good
of large quantities of food, often health.
beyond the point of feeling
comfortably full. An inactive lifestyle can significantly
impact the respiratory and circulatory
Respiratory System systems, as well as overall health, in
● Overeating and subsequent the following ways:
weight gain can lead to increased
body mass, which may affect Respiratory System
lung function and lead to ● Lack of regular physical activity
reduced lung capacity. and exercise can lead to
● Excess weight around the chest decreased lung function and
and abdomen can place pressure reduced lung capacity over time.
on the diaphragm, making it ● Inactivity can contribute to
harder for the lungs to expand shallow breathing patterns,
fully and potentially impacting where the lungs are not fully
breathing patterns. expanded, potentially limiting
oxygen intake and compromising
Circulatory System respiratory efficiency.
● Overeating and the resulting
weight gain can contribute to the Circulatory System
development of conditions such ● A sedentary lifestyle is
as high blood pressure, high associated with an increased risk
cholesterol, and insulin of developing conditions such as
resistance, increasing the risk of high blood pressure, high
cardiovascular diseases. cholesterol, and obesity, which
● Excessive fat accumulation can can negatively affect the
lead to inflammation and circulatory system.
metabolic abnormalities that ● Lack of physical activity can
affect blood vessel health and contribute to poor blood
circulation. circulation, as reduced
movement hinders the body's
ability to pump blood effectively
and maintain healthy blood
vessel function.
Disorders or Diseases that Affect the ㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤ
Respiratory and Circulatory Systems ㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤ
Respiratory Disorders: Circulatory Disorders:
Pneumonia Thrombosis
An infection of the alveoli that leads to Formation of blood clots in unbroken
the accumulation of fluids, reducing blood vessels, increasing the risk of
the surface area available for air stroke or heart attack.
exchange in the lungs. Atherosclerosis
Asthma Thickening of arterial walls due to the
Periodic constriction and inflammation buildup of fatty materials, leading to
of the bronchi and bronchioles, the narrowing and hardening of
causing breathing difficulties, often arteries.
triggered by airborne allergens. Hypertension
Emphysema Consistently high blood pressure that
The breakdown of the walls of the can cause damage to the kidneys,
alveoli, reducing the gas exchange coronary arteries, and eyes.
area in the lungs and putting strain on Stroke
the heart. A disruption of blood flow to the brain
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary due to a clot or ruptured blood vessel,
Disease (COPD) leading to potentially severe
A progressive lung disease that consequences.
includes chronic bronchitis and Heart disease
emphysema. It is characterized by Blockage or reduced blood flow to a
airflow limitation, persistent cough, part of the heart, increasing the risk of
and difficulty breathing. chest pain, heart attacks, and other
Tuberculosis (TB) complications.
An infectious disease caused by the Rheumatic heart disease
bacterium.Mycobacterium Damage to the heart valves as a
tuberculosis. It primarily affects the complication of rheumatic fever.
lungs and can cause symptoms such Diabetes
as persistent cough, weight loss, A metabolic disorder characterized by
fatigue, and chest pain. high blood glucose levels, which can
lead to cardiovascular problems.
Preventive Measures on How to Avoid Diseases or Disorders of
Respiratory and Circulatory Systems ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤ ㅤ
1. Regular Physical Activity: whole grains, lean proteins, and
Engaging in regular exercise low-fat dairy products. This helps
helps strengthen the heart and maintain healthy blood pressure,
lungs, improves circulation, and cholesterol levels, and overall
enhances overall respiratory cardiovascular health.
function. Aim for at least 150
minutes of moderate-intensity 6. Manage Stress: Chronic stress
aerobic activity per week. can negatively impact both the
respiratory and circulatory
2. Maintain a Healthy Weight: systems. Practice stress
Excess weight puts strain on the management techniques such as
heart and lungs, increasing the regular exercise, meditation,
risk of cardiovascular diseases deep breathing, and engaging in
and respiratory disorders. By hobbies to reduce stress levels.
maintaining a healthy weight
through a balanced diet and 7. Proper Hygiene: Frequent
regular exercise, you can reduce handwashing and practicing
this risk. good respiratory hygiene, such
as covering your mouth and nose
3. Avoid Smoking and Secondhand when coughing or sneezing, can
Smoke: Smoking is a leading help prevent the spread of
cause of lung cancer, respiratory respiratory infections like flu.
infections, and cardiovascular
diseases. Avoiding smoking and 8. Regular Health Check-ups:
limiting exposure to secondhand Schedule regular check-ups with
smoke can significantly improve your healthcare provider to
respiratory and circulatory monitor your respiratory and
health. circulatory health. This allows
early detection of any potential
4. Limit Alcohol Consumption: issues and enables timely
Excessive alcohol intake can lead intervention and treatment.
to high blood pressure, weakened
heart muscles, and liver damage, 9. Adequate Sleep: Prioritize getting
which can contribute to both enough sleep to support overall
respiratory and circulatory health. Lack of sleep can lead to
problems. Practice moderation increased blood pressure,
and limit alcohol consumption. weakened immune system, and
higher risk of respiratory and
5. Healthy Diet: Follow a balanced circulatory disorders. Aim for 7-9
diet rich in fruits, vegetables, hours of quality sleep per night.
Non-Mendelian Inheritanceㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤ
Non-Mendelian inheritance refers to patterns of inheritance that do not follow the
classical principles described by Gregor Mendel.

Genetics is the branch of biology that studies how traits are inherited from one
generation to the next. It encompasses the study of genes, heredity, and variation
in living organisms. Gregor Mendel was an Austrian scientist who conducted
experiments with pea plants in the 19th century, discovering fundamental principles
of genetics and establishing the foundation for the field of modern genetics. His
work on inheritance laid the groundwork for our understanding of how traits are
passed down from parents to offspring.

Inheritance is the process by which Genes are segments of DNA that

genetic information is transferred from contain instructions for traits and
a parent to a child. characteristics in an organism.

Homozygous refers to a genetic Alleles are different versions of a gene

condition in which an individual has that determine variations in specific
two identical alleles for a particular traits or characteristics.
gene. Ex: YY
Punnett Square
Heterozygous refers to a genetic A Punnett square is a graphical tool
condition in which an individual has used in genetics to predict the possible
two different alleles for a specific gene. combinations of alleles and the
Ex: Yy probability of certain traits being
inherited in offspring. It consists of a
Genotype Genetic makeup of square grid, with each axis
organism representing the alleles contributed by
Example: BB the parents. Filling in the squares with
(homozygous) the different allele combinations, it
helps determine the potential
Phenotype Physical feature or trait genotypes and phenotypes of the
of an organism offspring based on the known
Example: Brown hair genotypes of the parents.
B b
B BB Bb
b Bb bb
3 Types of Non-Mendellian Inheritanceㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤ
Incomplete Dominance
In incomplete dominance, neither allele is completely dominant over the other,
resulting in an intermediate phenotype. For example, in a cross between a
𝑅 𝑊 𝑅 𝑊
red-flowered plant (𝐹 ) and a white-flowered plant (𝐹 ), the offspring (𝐹 𝐹 ) may
exhibit pink flowers, showing a blend of the two parental traits.

𝑅 𝑊
Genotypes: 𝐹 and 𝐹

𝐹
𝑅
𝐹
𝑅 Genotypes Phenotypes

𝑊 𝑅 𝑊 𝑅 𝑊 100% 100% Pink flower

𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝑅 𝑊
𝐹 𝐹
𝑊 𝑅 𝑊 𝑅 𝑊
𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹

Codominance
Codominance occurs when both alleles are fully expressed in the phenotype.
Instead of blending, both traits are visibly present. An example is on animals like
cows, horses and goats having intermixed white and colored hair, referred to as
𝑅 𝑊
roan. For example, in a cross between a red bull (𝐶 ) and a white cow (𝐶 ) may
𝑅 𝑊
produce a spotted or roan offspring (𝐶 𝐶 ).
𝑅 𝑊
Genotypes: 𝐶 and 𝐶

𝐶
𝑅
𝐶
𝑅 Genotypes Phenotypes

𝑊 𝑅 𝑊 𝑅 𝑊 100% 100% Roan

𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 𝑅 𝑊
𝐶 𝐶
𝑊 𝑅 𝑊 𝑅 𝑊
𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶
Multiple Alleles
Multiple alleles refer to a situation where more than two alleles exist for a particular
gene within a population. However, an individual can still only carry a maximum of
two alleles for a gene. An example is the ABO blood group system, which involves
three alleles (A, B, and O), determining the presence or absence of A and B antigens
on red blood cells.

ABO Blood System

Blood Genotypes Can receive blood from
Type

A 𝐴 𝐴
𝐼 𝐼 / 𝐼 𝑖
𝐴 A, O

B 𝐵 𝐵
𝐼 𝐼 / 𝐼 𝑖
𝐵 B, O

AB 𝐴 𝐵
𝐼 𝐼 A, B, AB, O

O 𝑖𝑖 O
● Blood Types A and B have two possible genotypes - homozygous and
heterozygous
● Blood Types AB and O only have one genotype each

Rules for Blood Types

A and B are codominant (Both show)
𝐴 𝐴
● AA or 𝐼 𝐼 = type A
𝐵 𝐵
● BB or 𝐼 𝐼 = type B
𝐴 𝐵
● AB or 𝐼 𝐼 = type AB
A and B are dominant over O
𝐴
● AO or 𝐼 𝑖 = type A
𝐵
● BO or 𝐼 𝑖 = type B
● OO or 𝑖𝑖 = type O

Example:
Type O x Type AB
𝐼
𝐴 𝐵
𝐼 Genotypes Phenotypes

𝑖 𝐴 𝐵 𝐴
50% 𝐼 𝑖 50% Type A
𝐼 𝑖 𝐼 𝑖
𝐵 50% Type B
50% 𝐼 𝑖
𝑖 𝐴 𝐵 Phenotypic Ratio: 1:1
𝐼 𝑖 𝐼 𝑖 Genotypic Ratio: 1:1
Rabbit Fur Color
Phenotype Genotypes Dominance

Full Color 𝐶𝐶 Dominant over all others

(Brown) 𝐶𝑐
𝑐ℎ
𝐶𝑐
ℎ
𝐶𝑐

Chinchilla 𝑐ℎ 𝑐ℎ
𝑐 𝑐 Dominant over
𝑐ℎ ℎ Himalayan and Albino
𝑐 𝑐
𝑐ℎ
𝑐 𝑐

Himalayan ℎ ℎ
𝑐𝑐 Dominant over Albino
ℎ
𝑐𝑐

Albino 𝑐𝑐 Recessive to all others

Example:
𝑐ℎ ℎ ℎ
Chinchilla (𝑐 𝑐 ) x Full color (𝐶𝑐 )

𝑐
𝑐ℎ
𝑐
ℎ Genotypes Phenotypes

𝐶 𝑐ℎ ℎ 25% 𝐶𝑐
𝑐ℎ 50% Full Color (Brown)
𝐶𝑐 𝐶𝑐
ℎ 25% Chinchilla
25% 𝐶𝑐
ℎ 𝑐ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ
𝑐ℎ ℎ 25% Himalayan
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐𝑐 25% 𝑐 𝑐 Phenotypic Ratio: 2:1:1
ℎ ℎ
25% 𝑐 𝑐
Genotypic Ratio: 1:1:1:1
Sex-Related Inheritanceㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤ
Sex-related inheritance, also known as sex-linked inheritance, refers to the
inheritance patterns of genes located on the sex chromosomes (X and Y).
Sex-related inheritance follows distinct patterns due to the differences in the
number and composition of sex chromosomes in males and females.

Sex Chromosomes and Sex Determinationㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ

In each cell, humans have 46 chromosomes or 23 pairs of chromosomes for both
males and females. 22 pairs are somatic chromosomes (any chromosomes that is
not a chromosome). The 23rd pair of chromosomes consists of sex chromosomes.

Male Chromosome - XY (non-identical)

Female Chromosome - XX (identical)

X Y Genotypes Phenotypes

X XX XY 50% XX 50% Female

50% XY 50% Male
X XX XY

3 Types of Sex-Related Inheritanceㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤ

Sex Linked Traits
These are traits determined by genes located on the sex chromosomes (allosomes),,
and show different inheritance patterns between males and females.
Example: Eye Vision (C)
Two alleles for Eye Vision
𝐶
● Dominant Normal Eye Vision (𝑋 )
𝑐
● Recessive Colorblind (𝑋 )
People with colorblind have a hard time recognizing difference of colors, most
affected are males than females
GENETIC TABLE FOR EYE GENETIC TABLE FOR EYE VISION (FEMALE)
VISION (MALE) Phenotype Genotypess
Phenotype Genotypes
Normal Eye Vision 𝑋𝐶𝑋𝐶
Normal Eye 𝐶
𝑋 𝑌
Vision Normal Eye Vision 𝑋𝐶𝑋𝑐
(Carrier)
Colorblind 𝑐
𝑋𝑌
Colorblind 𝑋𝑋
𝑐 𝑐
Sex-Influnced Traits
Traits where the expression is influenced by the presence of sex hormones and can
vary between males and females, but not strictly limited to one sex.

Example: Baldness (B)

Baldness is found in both the X and Y chromosomes and is dominant
GENETIC TABLE FOR BALDNESS GENETIC TABLE FOR BALDNESS
(MALE) (FEMALE)
Phenotype Genotypes Phenotype Genotypess

Bald 𝐵 𝐵
𝑋 𝑌 Bald 𝐵 𝐵
𝑋 𝑋

Bald 𝐵 𝑏
𝑋 𝑌 Not Bald 𝐵 𝑏
𝑋 𝑋

Not Bald 𝑋𝑌
𝑏 𝑏 Not Bald 𝑏 𝑏
𝑋𝑋

● Look at the heterozygous alleles (second row,) notice that males are affected
while females are not.
● Being male greatly influences the manifestation of being bvald compared to
females due to the hormones that influence the effectivity of the gene.

Sex-Limited Traits
Traits limited to a specific sex regardless of the dominance
Example: Beard Formation (B)
A dominant trait among males
GENETIC TABLE FOR BEARD GENETIC TABLE FOR BEARD
FORMATION (MALE) FORMATION (FEMALE)
Phenotype Genotypes Phenotype Genotypess

Bearded 𝐵 𝐵
𝑋 𝑌 Not Bearded 𝐵 𝐵
𝑋 𝑋

Bearded 𝐵 𝑏
𝑋 𝑌 Not Bald 𝐵 𝑏
𝑋 𝑋

Not Bearded 𝑋𝑌
𝑏 𝑏 Not Bearded 𝑏 𝑏
𝑋𝑋

● Males will be bearded regardless if they inherit hetero/homozygous

allele for it.
● However males will not be bearded if they receive the homozygous
recessive allele for the trait.
Species Extinction and Adaptationㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤ ㅤ
Biodiversity
Biodiversity refers to the variety and variability of life forms present in a particular
ecosystem, region, or the entire planet.
1. Species biodiversity: The variety of different species in an area or on the
planet.
2. Genetic biodiversity: The diversity of genes within a species.
3. Ecosystem biodiversity: The variety of different ecosystems or habitats.

Population
A population refers to a group of individuals of the same species that inhabit a
specific geographic area and interact with one another.
Communities
Multiple populations of different species that coexist and interact within a given
area or ecosystem. It emphasizes the relationships, interactions, and dependencies
between different species.

3 Types of Speciesㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤ

Threatened
When a species is "threatened," it means that it is in danger of becoming
endangered soon. The population of the species is decreasing, and if the threats
continue, it could be at risk of disappearing.
Mindoro Bleeding-heart This bird species is classified as "vulnerable." It is
(Gallicolumba platenae) endemic to the island of Mindoro and faces
threats from habitat loss and hunting.
Conservation efforts aim to protect its remaining
forest habitats and raise awareness about its
conservation status.

Philippine Forest Turtle This turtle species is classified as "endangered." It

(Siebenrockiella leytensis) is endemic to the Philippines and is threatened by
habitat destruction and collection for the pet
trade. Conservation measures include habitat
preservation, captive breeding, and addressing
illegal trade to ensure its survival.
Endangered
An "endangered" species is one that is at a very high risk of disappearing
completely. The number of individuals in the species has significantly decreased,
and they face severe threats that could lead to their extinction.
Philippine Eagle Also known as the "Monkey-eating Eagle," it is
(Pithecophaga jefferyi) one of the largest and most powerful eagles in the
world. The species is critically endangered due to
habitat loss, hunting, and low reproductive rates.
Conservation efforts focus on protecting its
remaining forest habitat and raising awareness
about the importance of preserving this iconic
national bird.

Tamaraw The Tamaraw is a dwarf buffalo species found

(Bubalus mindorensis) only on the island of Mindoro. It is critically
endangered due to habitat loss, illegal hunting,
and diseases transmitted by domestic livestock.
Conservation initiatives involve establishing
protected areas, implementing anti-poaching
measures, and promoting sustainable land use
practices to safeguard this unique and threatened
species
Extinct
When a species is "extinct," it means that it no longer exists. All individuals of the
species have died, and there are none left anywhere in the world. Extinction
happens when a species cannot survive anymore due to various reasons, and it
cannot be brought back.
Philippine Freshwater This crocodile species was endemic to the
Crocodile Philippines and is now classified as "extinct." It
(Crocodylus mindorensis) faced habitat loss, hunting, and collection for the
skin trade. Despite conservation efforts, no wild
populations have been found, and captive
breeding programs aim to reintroduce them in the
future.

Panay Monitor Lizard This monitor lizard species was endemic to Panay
(Varanus mabitang) Island and is now classified as "extinct." It faced
habitat loss, hunting, and collection for the pet
trade. Despite extensive surveys, no individuals
have been recorded, and it is presumed to be
extinct.

Natural Causes of Extinctionㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤ

Climatic Heating and Cooling
Natural changes in climate patterns over long periods can lead to the extinction of
certain species that are unable to adapt to the new environmental conditions.

Changes in sea levels or currents

Alterations in sea levels or ocean currents can result in the loss of habitats and
subsequently lead to the extinction of species adapted to specific marine
environments.

Asteroids/Cosmic Radiation
Catastrophic events such as asteroid impacts or intense cosmic radiation can cause
mass extinctions by triggering widespread destruction and ecological disruptions.
Acid Rain
Caused by natural phenomena like volcanic eruptions, can negatively impact
ecosystems and contribute to the extinction of sensitive species, especially in
aquatic environments.

Disease/Epidemic
Natural diseases or epidemics can have severe consequences on populations,
leading to species decline or extinction.

Human Causes of Extinctionㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤ

Increased human population
The expanding human population puts pressure on natural resources and habitats,
leading to habitat loss and fragmentation, which can result in the extinction of
many species.

Destruction of Habitat
Human activities such as deforestation, urbanization, and conversion of land for
agriculture disrupt and destroy habitats, leaving species with limited or no suitable
areas to survive.

Pollution
Various forms of pollution, including air pollution, water pollution, and soil
contamination, can have detrimental effects on ecosystems and contribute to the
decline and extinction of species.

Climate Change/Global Warming

Human-induced climate change, primarily driven by greenhouse gas emissions, can
lead to shifts in ecosystems, altered habitats, and disrupted ecological interactions,
ultimately causing species extinction.

Deforestation
Large-scale clearing of forests for timber, agriculture, or development destroys
crucial habitats and disrupts ecological balance, leading to the extinction of
numerous plant and animal species.

Destruction of Coastal Resources

Overexploitation, usage of dynamite, and habitat destruction in coastal areas,
including coral reefs and mangroves, can result in the loss of critical marine
ecosystems and the extinction of associated species.
Photosynthesis and Cellular Respirationㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤ
Photosynthesis ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤ ㅤ
The process by which plants and some other organisms convert sunlight, carbon
dioxide, and water into food (glucose) and oxygen.
● Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts of plant cells. Chloroplasts contain a
pigment called chlorophyll, which captures sunlight.
● We cannot make our own food
● Our food comes from plants
● Light energy - Chemical energy occurs
● Autotrophs (auto means self anything that makes its own food) do
photosynthesis

During photosynthesis, plants use carbon dioxide from the air, water from the soil,
and sunlight as inputs. Through a series of chemical reactions, they convert these
raw materials into glucose and release oxygen as a byproduct. The glucose
produced through photosynthesis serves as a source of energy for the plant, and
excess glucose is stored as starch.

Importance of Photosynthesis
● Photosynthesis produces oxygen, vital for the survival of living organisms.
● It is the primary source of food, supporting the entire food chain.
● Photosynthesis helps regulate carbon dioxide levels, mitigating climate
change.
● It sustains the health and balance of ecosystems, supporting biodiversity and
environmental stability.
Internal Structure of a Leaf

Parts Function

Cuticle The leaf's waxy layer

that prevents excessive
water loss and protects
against pathogens. Parts Functions
Epidermis The outer layer of the Guard cells Specialized cells that
leaf that provides surround and control the
protection and covers opening and closing of the
the leaf's surface. stomata.
Mesophyll The tissue inside the Xylem The tissue responsible for
leaf where transporting water and
photosynthesis takes nutrients from the roots to
place, containing the rest of the plant.
chloroplasts and
specialized cells for Phloem The tissue responsible for
capturing sunlight. transporting sugars,
nutrients, and other
Stoma Small openings on the organic molecules from
leaf's surface, the leaves to other parts of
surrounded by guard the plant.
cells, which regulate
the exchange of gases
like carbon dioxide and
oxygen.
Chloroplast

Parts Function

Outer The outermost layer of

membrane the chloroplast, like the
skin, providing
protection and acting as Parts Functions
a barrier.
Thylakoid Individual pancake-like
Inter The small space structures within the
membrane between the outer and granum, like the layers of
space inner membranes, like a a book, containing the
tiny gap, where some chlorophyll that absorbs
chemical reactions take light for photosynthesis.
place.
Lamella The connective material
Inner The second layer of the that holds the grana
Membrane chloroplast, like an inner stacks together, like the
wall, controlling the glue, facilitating
passage of substances communication and
in and out. transfer of molecules
between the grana.
Stroma The gel-like fluid inside
the chloroplast, like the Lumen The inner space within the
gooey center, where thylakoid, like a hollow
important reactions tunnel, where protons
happen, similar to the accumulate during
cytoplasm of a cell. photosynthesis, creating a
source of energy for ATP
Granum Stacks of pancakes production.
made of small, flat
structures called
thylakoids, like a stack
of coins, where light is
captured and converted
into energy.
Stages of Photosynthesisㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤ
1. Light-dependent reactions:
● Occurs in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast.
● Captures sunlight and converts it into chemical energy.
● Produces ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and NADPH (nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide phosphate).
ATP (adenosine triphosphate):
○ ATP is a molecule that carries and stores energy in cells.
○ It releases energy when a phosphate group is removed, becoming ADP
(adenosine diphosphate).
○ This energy is utilized for various cellular processes like growth,
metabolism, and active transport.

NADPH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate):

○ NADPH is a molecule that acts as a carrier of high-energy electrons.
○ It plays a crucial role in the Calvin cycle by providing reducing power to
convert carbon dioxide into glucose.
○ NADPH is formed during the light-dependent reactions of
photosynthesis and is used in the light-independent reactions to fuel the
synthesis of sugars.

2. Calvin cycle (Light-independent reactions):

● Occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast.
● Uses ATP and NADPH from the light-dependent reactions to convert carbon
dioxide into glucose.
● Produces glucose (sugar), which serves as a source of energy and building
blocks for the plant.
Cellular Respirationㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤ
Cellular respiration is the process by which cells convert nutrients, such as glucose,
into usable energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate), releasing carbon
dioxide and water as byproducts.
● Takes place in the mitochrondia: the powerhouse of the cell

Stages of Cellular Respirationㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤ

1. Glycolysis
● Occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell.
● Glucose, a six-carbon sugar, is broken down into two molecules of pyruvate.
● ATP and NADH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) are produced as energy
carriers.

2. Pyruvate oxidation:
● Takes place in the mitochondria.
● Each pyruvate molecule is converted into Acetyl-CoA, releasing carbon
dioxide.
● NADH is produced in the process.

3. Citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle):

● Occurs in the mitochondria.
● Acetyl-CoA enters the cycle and undergoes a series of chemical reactions,
releasing carbon dioxide.
● ATP, NADH, and FADH2 (flavin adenine dinucleotide) are generated as
energy-rich molecules.

4. Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation:

● Happens in the inner mitochondrial membrane.
● NADH and FADH2 transfer high-energy electrons to the electron transport
chain.
● As electrons move through the chain, energy is used to pump protons (H+)
across the membrane, creating an electrochemical gradient.
● The flow of protons back across the membrane drives ATP synthesis through a
process called oxidative phosphorylation.