Plato | Western Political Thinker UPSC PSIR Optional Batch Notes

Contents
Introduction to Political Thinkers ........................................................................................................... 3
Sophists ................................................................................................................................................... 3
Socrates (470-399 BCE) : ......................................................................................................................... 4
Plato (427 to 347 BCE) ............................................................................................................................ 5
Intro and Background ......................................................................................................................... 5
Major Concern: ................................................................................................................................... 6
Political Ideology: ................................................................................................................................ 6
Sources of Influence:........................................................................................................................... 7
Significance of Plato ............................................................................................................................ 8
❓ Previous Year Questions on Plato ❓ ............................................................................................. 8
Prominent works:.............................................................................................................................. 10
“The Republic” .............................................................................................................................. 10
“The Statesman” ........................................................................................................................... 10
“The laws” ..................................................................................................................................... 11
Main interests: .................................................................................................................................. 11
Theories ............................................................................................................................................ 12
Theory of Soul: .............................................................................................................................. 12
Theory of Idea: .............................................................................................................................. 13

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Plato | Western Political Thinker UPSC PSIR Optional Batch Notes

Theory of Justice: .......................................................................................................................... 16

Theory of education: ..................................................................................................................... 20
Theory of communism: ................................................................................................................. 23
Rule of the Philosopher King (PK) ................................................................................................. 27
Plato as 1st Fascist: ....................................................................................................................... 29
Plato as the first feminist .............................................................................................................. 34
“Plato as the enemy of the open society.” ................................................................................... 35
Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................... 37
Model question and answers on Plato ............................................................................................. 38

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Plato | Western Political Thinker UPSC PSIR Optional Batch Notes

Predecessors of Plato
Sophists

• were the 1st political educationist.

▪ Teachings:
• self-interests is over & above the interests of the society & the
state.
• were inspiring the youth to join politics
• were suggesting that politics is a means of good life because
it gives access to power and wealth.
• Athens: No public education
▪ The opportunity of education was dependent on the paying capacity of
a person.
• According to Socrates, whatever Sophists were teaching was not a true
knowledge thus they were burgling their students.
• Plato also called Sophist’s teachings as rhetoric, instead of giving right
guidance they were giving what people wanted to listen.

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Plato | Western Political Thinker UPSC PSIR Optional Batch Notes

Socrates (470-399 BCE) :

• Intro

• It was Socrates who, in Cicero’s words, “called down philosophy from the
skies.”

• Theory of knowledge: “Knowledge is Virtue”.

(This theory is in the context of Socrates criticism of Sophists)
▪ Since knowledge is the source of virtue. We can’t live and lead a good
life without the knowledge.
▪ And the good life is required for the enlightenment of soul.
• Dialectics is the way towards it
▪ “Since knowledge is a source of virtue. That state will be a virtuous state
which is ruled by knowledge.” Socrates
▪ two Types of knowledge :
• Opinion = not firm.
• True knowledge = firm.
▪ Social well-being is necessary for the well-being of an individual.
• “Man is a social animal” Socrates
• For Socrates, "it’s not enough to be a good shoemaker, it’s more
important to be a good human being. "

• Thesis → Anti-thesis → Synthesis

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Plato | Western Political Thinker UPSC PSIR Optional Batch Notes

Plato (427 to 347 BCE)

Intro and Background

• Born in Ancient Greece - Athens

• Family- Plato came from one of the wealthiest and most politically active
families in Athens.

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Plato | Western Political Thinker UPSC PSIR Optional Batch Notes

• Major Concern: To regain the glory of Athens & become the ideal
state→ a perfect state.
▪ Until his mid-twenties, Athens was involved in a long and disastrous
military conflict:
• Peloponnesian war: Sparta vs Athens: Athens was defeated

▪ Political Background of Plato:

• He could not identify himself with any of the contending political
parties or the succession of corrupt regimes, each of which
brought Athens to further decline

• Plato wanted to know the reasons of decline and defeat

Political Ideology:
• School of thought: Idealist
▪ Utopian
▪ "Ought to be" > "what is"
• Very radical (original or fierce) in his ideas, revolutionary and looks for
holistic changes.

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Plato | Western Political Thinker UPSC PSIR Optional Batch Notes

Sources of Influence:
Thinker Influence on Plato
Pythagoras • He suggested that universe can be known through mathematics.
• "The universe is not in the state of chaos (lawlessness), there is
an order & harmony, there is some purpose behind
everything."
• Hence, Plato’s love for geometry and mathematics is influenced by
the Pythagoras.
• Plato's Theory of Soul
• Pythagoras' belief about the immortality of the soul was an
influence on Plato.

Parmenides
• Idea of Permanence.
• Plato's Theory of Forms

Heraclitus
• “Change is the characteristic feature of this materialistic world.”

• More influence in Mature Plato

Socrates • He considered Socrates the most just man of his time

• Socrates view that knowledge is a source of virtue=> Plato believed
that if Athens has to become a virtuous state then there is no other
option than the rule of knowledge.
• followed the methods of Socrates’ dialectical methods
• “All that is Platonic, is Socratic”.
• Professor Maxey (Political Philosophies, 1961),

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Plato | Western Political Thinker UPSC PSIR Optional Batch Notes

writes: “In Plato, Socrates Lived again”.

• Socrates showed him that the philosophical life is superior to the

life of a politician.

• "I thank God," he used to say, "that I was born Greek and not
barbarian, freeman and not slave, man and not woman; but
above all, that I was born in the age of Socrates."

With Socrates' death, Plato came to recognize, that philosophy and

politics cannot be kept apart.
• It compelled Plato to think philosophically about politics in
deeper and radical sense than had his teacher.

Significance of Plato
• He is well known as the Father of Political Philosophy
• “Western political philosophy is nothing but the footnote of the idea of Plato &
Aristotle” – Alfred North Whitehead
• “One can be either platonic or anti-platonic but can never be non-platonic.” – Karl
Popper

❓ Previous Year Questions on Plato ❓

Year Question
2019 "Explain Aristotle's Critique of Plato's idealism". (20 Marks)
2018 ✘ No direct question
2017 ✘ No direct question

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Plato | Western Political Thinker UPSC PSIR Optional Batch Notes

2016 "Plato was enemy of open society." (Popper). Comment. (20 Marks)
2010-2015 ✘ No direct question
2009 Comment: "Western thought, one might say, has been either platonic or anti
platonic but hardly ever non platonic." (Popper). (20 Marks)
2008 ✘ No direct question
2007 Comment: " Plato's communism is a supplementary machinery to give effect to
and reinforce that spirit which education is to create." (Nettleship)
(20 Marks)
2006 Comment : “the state is individual writ large.” (Plato) (20 Marks)
2005 Comment : “the state is individual writ large.” (Plato) (20 Marks)
2004 Plato’s theory of education ‘is the logical result of his conception of justice’.
Discuss. (60 Marks)
2003 Explain Plato’s communism and compare it with modern communism.
(60 Marks)
2001, 2002 ✘ No direct question
2000 Comment : “Until philosophers are kings, or kings and princes of this world have
the spirit and power of philosophy, cities will never have rest from evil.” (Plato)
(20 Marks)
1994-1999 ✘ No direct question
1993 Comment : “For, no law or ordinance is mightier than knowledge” (Plato)
(20 Marks)
1992 Comment: “Reality is a shadow of ideas”. (Plato) (20 Marks)

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Plato | Western Political Thinker UPSC PSIR Optional Batch Notes

Prominent works:
“The Republic”
• Young Plato
• greatest of all his works.
• Plato of ‘the Republic’ is what is known to the world: the idealist, the
philosopher and the radical (Young Plato)
• not only a treatise on politics, but is also a treatise dealing with
every aspect of human life.
• It, in fact, deals with –
o metaphysics (the idea of the Good),
o moral philosophy (virtue of human soul),
o education (the scientific training the rulers ought to have),
o politics (the Ideal State),
o the philosophy of history (the process of historical change
from the Ideal State to the tyrannical regime),
o economy (communism of property and families)

“The Statesman”

• Written in transitional phase i.e. between the young and

the maturity
• He is bitter and satirical, and seems to be sadly conscious
of the realities of human life.
• Yet the ideal glory of the Platonic philosophy is not
extinguished. He is still looking for a city in which kings are
either philosophers or gods

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Plato | Western Political Thinker UPSC PSIR Optional Batch Notes

“The laws”
• work of the matured Plato; becomes more practical &
pragmatic.
• Plato’s last, longest work
• a mixture of democratic and authoritarian principles
• Laws is not simply about political thought, but involves
extensive discussions on psychology, ethics, theology,
epistemology, and metaphysics.
• Laws combines political philosophy with applied
legislation, going into great detail concerning what laws
and procedures should be
o Examples include conversations on whether
drunkenness should be allowed in the city, how
citizens should hunt, and how to punish suicide.
o emphasis on a mixed regime, a varied penal
system, its policy on women in the military, and its
attempt at rational theology.
• Many ideas in the Laws have stood the test of time
o such as
• the principle that absolute power corrupts
absolutely
• that no person is exempt from the rule of
law

Main interests:
▪ Virtue (righteousness),
▪ Epistemology (a branch of philosophy that concerns with the theory of
knowledge)
▪ Education.

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 Plato | Western Political Thinker UPSC PSIR Optional Batch Notes

Theories
Theory of Soul:
• Every person has soul
• Every soul => 3 elements
Reason
Courage
Appetite

There are 3 types of people based on this

Reason => Men of GOLD rational base=> Rulers Other 2 classes
working for him
Courage => Men of SILVER military base=> benefit of good laws
Soldier and producer class
working for him
Appetite => Men of COPPER material base=> Best of security and
Producer class laws
Each will stick to his duty and no interference into the tasks of each other

"proper provision, proper protection and proper leadership" - C.L. Wayper

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Plato | Western Political Thinker UPSC PSIR Optional Batch Notes

Theory of Idea:
• at the centre of Plato’s philosophy
• based on Socrates theory of knowledge.
• According to Plato, "the idea of virtue is the idea of action; the ultimate object of
virtue is to attain knowledge; the knowledge of virtue is the highest level of
knowledge; knowledge is attainable; and so is virtue attainable"

To understand the idea, we need an enlightened soul.

• Thus, only the Philosopher who is a man of reason can create the ideal state
on this planet earth.
• But,
• How the soul can know the idea?
The soul is a permanent part of our existence.
When our body dies, the soul goes in the kingdom of God where it
observes the kingdom of God and when it comes back, it
recollects.
• However, every soul does not have equal capacity to
recollect.

❓ UPSC CSE 1992 ❓

Comment: “Reality is a shadow of ideas”. (Plato) (20 Marks)
It explains Plato’s concept of reality.
Plato "when we look at the material world we think that this world is real. It happens
because of our ignorance. What we consider as real is an illusion of reality."
Consider this idea of "The Allegory of the Cave"

Allegory of caves
Like men in caves, ignorant men consider shadow as the reality
When pushed out of the cave, into the sunlight

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Plato | Western Political Thinker UPSC PSIR Optional Batch Notes

▪ Realise that what they considered reality was just a shadow

Parts of the Universe

▪ Physical - Visible through Eyesight
▪ Spiritual - Invisible - Hidden behind the physical Reality - Reason is required to
understand it

▪ According to Plato - Supreme Reality lies behind the observable reality

• Supreme reality - Ideas - Reason

• The essential characteristics of Plato’s theory of Forms would, thus, include:

• There is a difference b/w
• ‘form’ or ‘idea’;
• ‘knowledge’ and ‘appearance’;
• ‘actual’ or ‘opinion’

as there is difference b/w

• the ideal/invisible world
&
• the physical/visible world.

• The form is the ultimate object of appearance

• The actual world can attain the ideal world
• Knowledge can replace opinion and is attainable.
• The visible world is the shadow of the real world.
• What appears to be is not the ‘Form’, but is a form of the ‘Form’.

• Plato’s insistence that the journey from ‘appearances’ to ‘form’ is possible through
knowledge.
• There can’t be an ultimate knowledge about the material things because the world
of matter is the world of changes.

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Plato | Western Political Thinker UPSC PSIR Optional Batch Notes

▪ Plato's theory of forms is criticized as teleological by some of his critics.

• Nietzsche:

“Plato was a liar when he says that there is ultimate reality and that it
can be understood “

• The nature of reality remains a debatable issue. According to Post-

modernist, "Reality is too complex and vast that it is beyond the
capacity of the human mind to comprehend the ultimate reality."

• Michael Oakeshott

In the world of politics we move in borderless and bottomless sea.

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Plato | Western Political Thinker UPSC PSIR Optional Batch Notes

Theory of Justice:
Dialectic method
• Plato denounced
the Cephalus theory of justice is "Justice is giving every man his due"
Polemarchus’ theory of justice of traditional morality that "Doing
good to friends and harming enemies"
Thrasymachus: “Might is right”
• Was sophist
• Self interest
Glaucon’s theory a.k.a. “Pragmatic theory of Justice” which states,
“Justice is the interests of the weak.“

For Plato,
• the principle of ‘might is right‘ will result in 'anarchy & chaos.'
• How to identify 'friend' or 'foe'
• How can 'Harm' be justice ?
• held that ‘It’s wrong to consider that only weak needs states &
laws.
• Man is by nature a social animal.
• To live a collective life, state & govt. is necessary.’
• He said, “the strongest man is never strong enough to fulfil
all his requirements on his own.”

• His theory:
• does not consist in mere adherence to the laws.
• based on the inner nature of the human spirit.
• he did not approve justice being good for some and evil for others.
• A just state is achieved with an eye to the "good of the whole -the giver as
well as the receiver, for friends as well as foes”
• Harming someone makes him worse & purpose of Justice can never be to
make a person worse.
• Purpose of Justice: Peace, harmony and excellence
• Source of perfect idea of justice = Just SOUL
• What is a ‘Just soul’? The one which is at peace with itself & in harmony
with others.
• Characteristics of such soul: Reason dominates over courage & appetite.
• What does it imply? It implies that justice is proper-stationing in the life &
functional specialization.

• What is justice according to him:

• Justice is a Duty: the rulers, the military, the artisan all do what they ought to
do.

• the rulers, the military, the artisan all do what they ought to do. In such a
society, the rulers are wise, the soldiers are brave, and the producers exercise
self-control or temperance.
• Justice means specialization and excellence

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Plato | Western Political Thinker UPSC PSIR Optional Batch Notes

• Justice is righteousness
• Justice is required by all: Justice helps people to be in a society; a bond that
holds society; a harmonious union of individuals, of classes with the state.
• Justice is a Virtue: Justice is both a ‘public’ and ‘private’ virtue. It aims at the
highest good of the individual (private), and of the whole society (public).
• ‘Just’ man is better than ‘unjust’ man.

• In short,3 components of Justice

• Proper positioning of the elements
• Functional Specialization on the basis of quality of soul
• Non-interference in each other’s tasks

• For Plato, Justice is a moral concept.

• Barker

says, “Justice is, for Plato, at once a part of human virtue and the bond which
joins men together in the states. It makes man good and makes him social”.

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Plato | Western Political Thinker UPSC PSIR Optional Batch Notes

• Sabine

expresses it as “Justice, for Plato, is a bond which holds a society together”.

⚠ Criticism on Plato's theory of Justice:

• It does not give any liberty to the individual,
• It sacrifices individual for the sake of the state,
• No rights to the individual hence create the basis for state’s totalitarianism.
• His theory is not only a bad politics but also a bad psychology & Philosophy.

❓UPSC CSE 2005,2006: Comment : “the state is individual writ large.” (Plato) (20
Marks) ❓
Answer:
• Intro= theory of justice
• implies that state is just a bigger (magnified) version of an individual.
• individual= individual
• INDIVIDUAL= State
(above illustration only for understanding)
• implies that the principles of organisms at the level of state can’t differ from the
principles of human souls.
• Principles of justice of individual => principles of justice of state
• Plato writes that states do not come out of oak or rock but inherent in the minds of
people.
• Plato was deriving the principles of Justice.
• wanted to know the perfect idea of Justice, which further means the God’s idea
of Justice.
• ‘Just soul’= reason dominates over courage & appetite.
• The same principle can be applied at the level of the state. The state is divided into 3
classes, each class is performing its specific task, as per the natural qualities that they
pose.
• Athens was failing because of corruption
• Corruption by existing ruler class (Individuals within community)
• Individuals => state
• If people are corrupt, state cannot be great
• So if individuals (eppsecially those ruling) become virtuous, state will be
corruption free
Gandhi:

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Plato | Western Political Thinker UPSC PSIR Optional Batch Notes

"Be the change you want to see"

• Signifies how individual make up state
• If state dies, nothing remains
• E.g. Nehru:

"Who will survive if India dies ?"

• Hence, the only way Athens could be ideal state is Philosphers

becoming the rulers.

How to do justice ? = theory of education

• Plato’s theory of education is logical culmination of his theory of justice.

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 Plato | Western Political Thinker UPSC PSIR Optional Batch Notes

Theory of education:

• Why education? The education system is a process through which the qualities of the soul can
be deducted.

• For Plato, Education necessary for all the classes in society,

• especially for those who govern the people

• For Plato, social education is a means to social justice.

• education, for Plato, had been a solution to all the vexed questions.

• Background:
• observed the education system of Athens and that of Sparta and made following
analysis:
Athens Sparta
👍Teaching logic, maths, literature 👎More focus on physical education.
and philosophy.
👎The system was in private hands: 👍State-sponsored education
• upon paying capacity
👎Women were neglected 👍Equality to women
• lsory military education to both the sexes.

• Actual theory:
• combined the merits of two systems
• Features :

State-sponsored
State-controlled
Universalisation of primary education
Equal opportunity to women.
Centered around the guardian class, ignored the producing class completely.
Aims at attaining the physical, mental, intellectual, moral development of
human personality.
Three stages of procuring knowledge:
Type Age Details
Group
Pre-primary 0-6 Gymnastics, physical education, etc.
Elementary 6-18 All basic subjects
1st Screening Test Those failing-> producer class
Military training 18-20
2nd screening test Those failing => Soldier class (Special
training will be provided)
Higher 20-35
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 Plato | Western Political Thinker UPSC PSIR Optional Batch Notes

Practical 35-50
• At the age of 50, becomes qualified for becoming philosopher king or queen.
• Many philosophers will be eligible to become the rulers will be
produced.
• There is no conflict because the 1st love for the philosopher is the
love of knowledge and hence they have no appetite for the
power.
However, as a duty towards the state, they will accept the
responsibility reluctantly.
• Aimed at preparing the
Class Prepare for
rulers administrative statesmanship
soldiers military skill
producers material productivity

• It sought to bring a balance between

• the individual needs
&
• social requirement.

• Analysis of his theory of education:

Positive views:
• Plato’s theory of education is an attempt to touch the evil at its very source.
• It is an attempt to cure a mental malady by a mental medicine.
• Barker

rightly says that "Plato’s scheme of education brings the soul into that environment
which in each stage of its growth is best suited for its development"
• Rousseau

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 Plato | Western Political Thinker UPSC PSIR Optional Batch Notes

"Republic: Best book ever written on education"

Negative Views:
• Plato’s diagnosis is correct but his prescription is wrong.
• overlooks human psychology & remains too much involved in philosophy
• unexpectedly and unduly expensive
• Creation of obedient citizen rather than creative person
• 'Interest' of person isn't considered
• limited in nature and was restrictive in extent
• ignored the producing class
• laying more emphasis on mathematics than on literature.
• too abstract and too theoretical, so much so, it lost sight of administrative
intricacies
• Deductive Approach
• Aristotle:
• "Ruler has to be worldly wise rather than wise in the world of ideas"

2004: Plato’s theory of education ‘is the logical result of his conception of justice’.
Discuss. (60 Marks)

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 Plato | Western Political Thinker UPSC PSIR Optional Batch Notes

Theory of communism:
• Communism = common ownership.
• Plato's theory:
• For him, the main method to create an ideal state is through education while
communism is proposed as a supplementary mechanism or an additional safeguard.

• Communism of Property :

• The guardian class is not allowed to own private property.

• to check corruption
• Guardian= ruler + soldier (Auxiliary)
• Though Philosopher king has the true knowledge still Plato does not want to take
any chance. He proposed communism as a safeguard
• According to Sabine, so firmly was Plato convinced of the pernicious effects of
wealth upon government that he saw no way to abolish the evil except by abolishing
wealth itself.

• Plato had learnt from the Spartan successful experiment whose citizens were denied
the use of money and where they all had to consume everything common

• Communism of family:
• Which problem is bigger ? Family or Property ?
• Answer= The family > property.
• It’s for the family that people want to earn money and acquire property.
• Family leads to not only corruption but also nepotism.

• "Anxiety for one's children", Sabine concludes on behalf of Plato, "is a form of self-
seeking more insidious than the desire for property...".

• Plato has an additional purpose with Communism of the family; especially

marriage
• State will decide who will marry whom.
• According to him,
"the only purpose of marriage is procreation, only the ablest man
or women will be permitted to marry so that the best
race emerges."

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 Plato | Western Political Thinker UPSC PSIR Optional Batch Notes

• Once the child is born the state will take over the child, which means that
the child will be the responsibility of the state.
• As per this rule, no rulers or child will be ever able to recognize each
other and hence for the ruler all children will be like his own child.
• There is an indirect consequence of Plato’s communism of family that it results in
the liberation of women.
• As earlier, women were unable to participate in the affairs of city-state because
they’ve been completely involved in the family.

• Features of Theory of communism of Family:

• Eugenics
• Nationalization of the family
• Emancipation of women
• greater freedom for women and for men
• to develop their highest capacities, a more complete and living
solidarity of the state or at ally rate, of the rulers of the state.
• But, why not for the producer class?
• It was neither needed nor possible.
they were not in power and hence no scope for corruption and
nepotism => not needed
men of appetite => can’t control their appetite=> not possible

• Plato's argument for communism of property and families was that the unity of
the state demands their abolition. "The unity of the state is to secure; property
and family stand in the
way; therefore, property and marriage must go" (Sabine).

❓Model Practice question❓

Should Plato be called as the father of communism? Compare Platonic communism
with modern communism.
OR
2003: Explain Plato’s communism and compare it with modern communism.
(60 Marks)

Answer:
Communism in current parlance: 20th-century political philosophy associated with the
ideas of Karl Marx.
• Response to exploitation faced by working classes at the hands of capitalists.
• Purpose:
• The uplift of working class or poor.
Similarities:
• Some scholars like Maxey and others find some similarities
• Like abolition of private property
• On deeper analysis:
• similarities are superficial & the difference is fundamental.

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 Plato | Western Political Thinker UPSC PSIR Optional Batch Notes

•To find similarities between Plato's and Marx's communism, as Professor Jaszi
or Professor Maxey do, is to draw wrong parallels.
Why differences:
• For Plato – Idea is ultimate reality.
• For Karl Marx – Idea is false consciousness and matter is the reality
PLATO’s Communism MARX’s Communism
Only for the Guardian Class. For the entire society.
Political Objective – an economic solution Economic Objective – a political solution of an
of a political ailment economic ailment
Material temptation & its nature is Social Evils
individualistic
Criteria for the division is the spirituality. Criteria for division is the economic basis –
rich & poor
Divided into 3 class Divided into 2 class
Supports the continuation of class Abolition of class; Class struggle
Importance of state Importance of classless society, instrument of
exploitation
“State works in the interests of ruling class” “State will wither (fade; decay) away,
stateless, revolt against the state.
People should obey the state, even if it’s No need to obey, revolt against such states.
wrong.

⚠ Criticism on Plato's theory of communism:

Aristotle:
• “Everyone’s property is no one’s responsibility.”
• Aristotle stands corrected when we see tragedy of commons-> climate
change overgrazing etc
• Plato ignored the instinct of acquisition; there are benefits of Private
property too such as
• It gives the sense of achievement
• motivation to work hard
• the scope of charity
Family is the time-tested institution => gives emotional stability
• Note that: It is Partial : only for Guardians
Communism of wives not progressive — Going back to barbaric ages

Karl Popper

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Plato | Western Political Thinker UPSC PSIR Optional Batch Notes

2016: "Plato was enemy of open society." (Popper). Comment. (20 Marks)

Communism of wives and families was bound to create confusion if not disorder-
• one female would be the wife of all the guardians and one male, the
husband – of all the females.
• Aristotle: "a father would have a thousand sons, and a son,
thousand fathers."
Common children would tend to be neglected, for
everybody’s child would be nobody’s baby
doubtful if the state-controlled mating would ever be workable
• reduce men and women to the levels of mere animals by suggesting the
temporary marital relationship.
• pushing us towards the Barbaric ages.
too rigid, too strict, and too stringent
a system of marriage which is neither monogamy, nor bigamy, or
polygamy/polyandry.
too idealistic, utopian, imaginary, and accordingly, far away from the realities of
life.
• It is doubtful if communism of families would bring a greater degree of unity
by making the guardians a single family.

UPSC 2007: Comment: " Plato's communism is a supplementary machinery to give

effect to and reinforce that spirit which education is to create." (Nettleship)
(20 Marks)

Barker sums up Plato's argument about communism "Plato's scheme has many facets
and many purposes. It is a scheme of eugenics; it is a scheme for the emancipation of
women; it is a scheme for the nationalisation of the family. It is meant to secure a better
stock, greater freedom for women and for Men to develop their highest capacities, a
more complete and living solidarity of the state or at any rate, of the rulers of the state."

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 Plato | Western Political Thinker UPSC PSIR Optional Batch Notes

Rule of the Philosopher King (PK)

• Plato urged that the ruler should be the one who knows the art, science and knowledge of
administration.
• Socrates used to say: “The public is ill, we must cure our masters.”
• Plato “Until philosophers are the ruler or the rulers learn philosophy there is no end to the
predicament or problems of human life.”

• Power: The king enjoys absolute powers. There is no limitation on the philosopher king
except that he can’t make changes in the constitution of the ideal state.
• Why this absolute power:
• “For no law or ordinance is mightier than knowledge”- Plato
• not limited by book of law because, the law represents average wisdom whereas,
Philosopher king has ultimate knowledge.
• Similarly, the Public opinion can’t be the limit on the philosopher king. In the words
of Plato, “it is foolish to limit the expert practitioner of medicine with a book of
medicine”.

• only limitations are the constitution of the republic as given by Plato

"Those states are best governed where the rulers are reluctant to govern rather than
where they are eager to govern”
Key points
• Diagnosis - correct but prescription - wrong
• Person not interested in his job, who does his job just out of duty cannot do
justice to his job
• Overlooks psychology, too much philosophy
• May not be the best way to tackle corruption to achieve good governance

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❓ UPSC CSE 2000 ❓

Comment : “Until philosophers are kings, or kings and princes of this world have the spirit
and power of philosophy, cities will never have rest from evil.” (Plato)
(20 Marks)

• concept of Philosopher king which was ultimately the solution for all the predicaments of the
Athens.
• concludes that the Rulers at the time were ignorant and running after worldly pleasures. Later
on, this ignorance lead to the formation of ‘city state’. He held that when the country/state is
ruled by ignorant people then it substantially becomes vulnerable to the external threats
which he proved through the invasion of Athens by Sparta. So he provided the justification of
the institution of philosopher king.
• Plato was inspired by his teacher Socrates’ who held that “Knowledge is Virtue”. Hence Plato
held that ‘that state will be a virtuous state which is governed by the ‘knowledge’.
• Politics is not the precise science, it’s an art. What is required is not a specialized knowledge
but a common sense. Although, the philosopher king is under the rule of law and council of
citizens is to make laws. Still, as Aristotle states – “Rulers have to be worldly wise rather than
being wise in the world of ideas.”

❓Model Practice question❓

o “Those states are best states which are governed where the ruling class is reluctant to
rule rather than eager to govern”. Evaluate. 15 Marks
o Answer Points
• Plato diagnosed the fall of Athens –
▪ the ignorance of the ruling class.
• they were running after money & power which often lead to the abuse
of authority.
▪ Sophist’s were already had a very remarkable and well-known established
institution
• which teaches ‘how to get into power’ for a good life.
• Plato was heavily inspired by the Socrates who held that ‘knowledge is
virtue’.
• Hence, he proposed the rule of ‘Philosopher king’.
• According to Plato, the best state is that where the rulers are reluctant to rule.
▪ Therefore, Plato proposed a very deliberated education system
• both the sexes and all the classes were embodied with the opportunity
to be a philosopher king.
• he wanted to create Athens as an ideal state.
• Hence, until the philosophers rule the state or rulers learn philosophy, the
predicaments of the state will remain intact.

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 Plato | Western Political Thinker UPSC PSIR Optional Batch Notes

⚠ Criticism on Plato's PK:

o Aristotle

had criticized Plato for giving absolute powers to the philosopher king.
o It’s not practically possible to find out the philosopher king.
o Philosopher king who is enjoying unlimited powers will go tyrannical (a state under
cruel and oppressive government).
o Aristotle suggests that law is also a time-tested institution. Law represents the
collective wisdom of ages which is preferable over one man.
o In the words of Aristotle, “law is a reason free from passions”.
• Aristotle suggests that “A ruler has to be under the law.”
o Lord Acton:
"Power corrupts, absolute power corrupts absolutely."
o Karl Popper

Plato as 1st Fascist:

“Plato’s political program far from being morally superior to fascism is actually identical
to fascism”.
o Why he says so ?
• Basic features of Fascism:
▪ Absolute Powers to State.
▪ No rights to the individuals, only duties.
▪ Against democracy.
▪ Importance of leadership – Leader is a Super-man.
▪ Fascist societies = regimented societies. That is, all institutions are
under state control.
▪ Hitler believed in the concept of Racism.
o Is he right ?
• Levinson, in his book, titled, “In defence of Plato“,

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Plato | Western Political Thinker UPSC PSIR Optional Batch Notes

o has suggested that Plato & Fascism differs in time and space. It is like
comparing apples to oranges.
o There are some superficial similarities but fundamental differences.
Fascism is not a coherent ideology. It is better to call fascism as a
propaganda rather than ideology and philosophy.
o Fascism is opportunism, whatever suited to the fascist leaders they
incorporated in the philosophy of fascism that is why fascism is known
as “Hodgepodge” of ideas.
• Here “Hodgepodge” ↓

o Plato believes in the reason whereas Fascism is the critique of reason.

Plato never recommended the use of violence, the fascist state was
coercive in nature. Fascism is a reality whereas Plato’s Republic is a
Utopian.
o However, we can’t say, the objective of Plato was Exploitation of people
was to give the life of virtue to all persons living in the state.
o Fascism is Power politics whereas Plato was against power. Fascism
supports private property and traditional institutions of family &
marriages.
Thus, it will not be justified if we say Plato the first fascist.
o C.E.M. Joad

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Plato | Western Political Thinker UPSC PSIR Optional Batch Notes

conceded that despite these criticism of Platonic theory, there are fundamental
difference between Fascism and Plato’s ideal state as the latter was based on the
ideas of absolute good and justice.

o “Plato as the father of totalitarianism”. Comment.

• Here,
▪ Totalitarianism = Total control of the states
▪ In the western world totalitarianism is a phenomenon of a 20th century.
Examples: Fascism & Nazism, Stalin-ism.
• present times, China, Saudi Arabia, North-Korea, former USSR, Taliban
and Afghanistan can be the examples.
• Karl Popper

o called Plato as the father of Totalitarianism.

o state has complete control over the life of persons, not only the public sphere
of life but even in personal matters like family & marriages.
o However, it won’t be justified to call Plato a totalitarian thinker. Whatever
examples of Totalitarianism we have are the exploitative states, Plato’s
intentions were not to create a coercive state rather he wanted to create a
state which can give the opportunity for excellence to all.
o C. E. M. Joad

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 Plato | Western Political Thinker UPSC PSIR Optional Batch Notes

who notes striking similarities between Plato’s theory and totalitarian of

fascism.

o RHS Crossman:

Plato’s philosophy is the most savage and most profound attack upon liberal
ideas.

o Isaiah Berlin

pointed out that Plato did not grant the individual the freedom of choice
which is an alienable human right.

o Hannah Arendt, the 20th-century political philosopher

has analysed totalitarianism in her book, “On totalitarianism”.

o She defines totalitarianism as the rule of terror and violence.
o We can’t say, if, that ideal state was the rule of terror & violence.
Hence, we should resist the temptation of calling Plato as a
totalitarianism thinker.

o Some other criticisms:

• Winspear

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called Plato’s republic as a blueprint of authoritarianism & Plato as reactionary.

o Toynbee

called Plato as a cynical man & fascist.

John Jay Chapman

a devout anti-Platonist, called Plato 'the prince of conjurers'

(magician)

R.H.S. Crossman

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says that Plato was wrong, both for his times and for ours.

Some model questions on Plato:

Plato as the first feminist
o “Feminism” is an umbrella term for a range of views about injustices against women.
o Why it is said so:
• That Plato gives equality of opportunity to women to get educated & to join public
sphere.
▪ That too in the patriarchal society of Athens
• That Plato does not believe that women suffer from any natural disability w.r.t
becoming philosopher queen.
• Plato’s communism of family also has the liberating influence on women.
▪ state to take care of children - women to participate in politics

o Some do not agree:

• His main concern wasn't upliftment of women
• he talks about equal opportunity to women because he wanted that state should
not be deprived of services of the half of humans.

o However, we can say that Plato is much ahead of his times when he gives an opportunity
to women to get educated and join politics
o It was only JS Mill

in the 19th century after Plato among the Political philosophers who talked about the
necessities of liberation and right to vote for women.

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 Plato | Western Political Thinker UPSC PSIR Optional Batch Notes

“Plato as the enemy of the open society.” – Karl Popper.

o The volume 1 of his book on “Open society & its enemies”, subtitled, “The spell of
Plato” makes Plato a totalitarian thinker.
o Popper

"…. seduced by his ideas that we take Plato as the greatest Philosopher with very genuine
intentions. Plato was dangerous, his ideas lead us towards totalitarianism. He does not
express humanitarian and democratic tendencies of his teacher Socrates. Plato was a victim
of his own Vanity and had designed himself to become the philosopher king."
o Plato does not give any freedom of choice to the people.
o "In Plato’s ideal state, there is no motion of rights but only duties."
o He criticizes Plato’s holism. Karl Popper does not support holistic changes as suggested
by Plato and Karl Marx. He rather prefers piecemeal (reformation at basic level) social
engineering.
o Gilbert Ryle (British philospher)

was impressed by Popper’s understanding of Plato & held after Popper’s work, “it will
never be possible to look Plato in an old idealistic sense.”
o Popper’s understanding of Plato was questioned by admirers of Plato like Levinson.
Though even Levinson in his book “In defense of Plato” admits that Plato’s critics were
far from being completely wrong.

o Rajiv Bhargava

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o "Popper’s analysis is a misreading of Plato and Popper is ideologically biased."

o Emerson,

who held that “Plato was philosophy and philosophy was Plato.”

o Whitehead

held that “entire western political philosophy is nothing but a footnote of Plato and
Aristotle.”

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Critics
o Aristotle→ his own biggest disciple. → biggest critique
o Karl Popper→ a liberal scholar.

Conclusion
o Benjamin Jowett (translator of Plato)

called “Plato as a father of philosophy.”

o Plato not only believed that philosophy is superior to physics or politics, he even logically
established that the world of ideas is far superior to world of matter & the true knowledge
is the knowledge of ideas, that is philosophy.
o We see the gems of the majority of ideas in political philosophy of Plato.
o Plato has established that the purpose of philosophy is not just for the growth of
philosophy but philosophy should be utilized in the service of humanity.
o By understanding philosophy, we can improve the politics. It is for this reason that Plato is
termed as the father of political philosophy.
o Plato’s greatness is even admitted by Plato’s critics. In the words of Popper, “one can
either be Platonic or anti-Platonic but can never be non-Platonic.”
o Plato’s place, in western political thought, would always remain unparalleled. Numerous
idealists regard Plato as their teacher and they feel great in calling themselves his
disciples.
o Some admire Plato while others condemn him, but none dare ignore him. It is here where
Plato’s greatness lies. He was, indeed, the idealist among the idealists, the artist among
the artists, the philosopher among the philosophers, and the revolutionary among the
revolutionaries.

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Model question and answers on Plato
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Q.1
What arguments counter the accusation that Plato subordinates the individual to the state?
Analyse the basic features of his scheme of justice. (20 Marks)

Answer:
o Introduction: Briefly explain Theory of Justice in 1 paragraph
o Highlight arguments that say that individual is subordinated in Plato's theory of justice.
• the state as an end in itself
• producing class, enjoy no political privileges;
• subordinates the individual to the state is the fact that in his scheme the individual has
meaning and significance only in so far as he performs some functions in the state
▪ Every member of the state is thus called upon to live for the state and not for him.
• Liberalism promotes that the individual is an end in himself and society is mere means to
the development of his personality. Plato was certainly not a liberal like Mill and Kant.

o R.H.S. Crossman

also holds that Plato's philosophy is 'the most savage and most profound attack upon
liberal ideas which history can show'.
o Popper

Totalitarian state

o Counter Arguments:
• it cannot be meant that Plato is wholly oblivious to the interests of the individual

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• Plato does not regard the individual as an isolated unit whose good may be opposed to
and independent of the society.
• His individual is a part of a whole; his life acquires value and significance only in relation
to the whole.
• The rights which he can demand and which society should secure to him are those
conditions of life which enable him to discharge his function as a part of the whole and
contribute to its welfare.
▪ The only right in which Plato is interested is the right which enables one to perform
one's duties; it covers all other rights. This conception does not destroy the
individuality of the individual; on the contrary, it deepens it.
• For Plato justice and injustice are conditions of states of human psyche
▪ just life of the individual becomes an enquiry into order and disorder in society
• the rulers are not united together by the pursuit of any common interest-economic,
dynastic or personal. There are no class interests which they are expected to promote;
their only concern is the welfare of the polis. Far from enjoying any privileges, they are
denied what the common man cherishes the most-the pleasures of the family and
amassing wealth.

o In the last paragraph, we may point out that in as much as the fundamental purpose of
Plato was to delineate an ideal state in which the individual could fulfil himself in the
highest sense of the term, he could not think of subordinating the individual of the state
; this runs counter to his purpose.

Q2.
“The fundamental issue of the Republic is the discovery of Nature and habitation of Justice.”
Discuss this statement and examine Plato’s Conception of Justice. (15 Marks)

Answer:
o Republic as the implementation of idea of Justice
o Start by explaining the importance of Justice:
• Justice has been described as the first virtue of a society, by Rawls.
• It is the most fundamental basis on which is the edifice of the every state is built.
• A State can continue so long as people consider it just.
o Give the importance of theory of Justice in Plato’s work.
• The importance of theory of justice in Plato’s work can be seen as even the subtitle of the
masterpiece. ‘The Republic’ is ‘Concerning Justice’.
• Justice is the main ideal that Plato aspires for, because it signifies stability and has external
character, and goes about incorporating it in his Republic.
o Show how Plato gives his theory of justice and his concern behind it.:
• The main concern of Plato was to create Athens as an ideal State. For Plato, the State was
the ideal, of which justice was the reality. The methodology used by Plato to arrive at this
was dialectics. Through his book Republic written in the form of a dialogue. Plato arrived
at some observations.
▪ Here you may explain dialectic discussion between him and Cephalus, Polemarchus,
Thrasymachus, Glaucon, etc.

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• Justice was not simply doing your duty, but also a source of virtue. Moreover, it was better
to be just than to be unjust. Plato believed that it was important to understand. God’s idea
of justice to arrive at the perfect idea of justice. He explained through the myth of souls, in
which reason was the most important, as how to structure the society and generate a just
order. This would distribute functions in society so that each individual contributes his
own part to making a just society. Moreover, since state is individual writ large. The
principle of justice would also be embodied by the State. Thus, just a State, for Plato, was
based on division of labour and functional specialization. It exhibited non-interference and
regarded temperance as a virtue. Such a state would not only create excellence but also
lead to harmony.
o As question talks about Justice as the most important of Plato’s principle, we can conclude in
following:
• The republic is a book of encyclopedic nature with theory of education, Communism,
philosopher King, etc. However, the most important idea which remains the underlying
factor is Justice.

Q.3
“ The perfect Guardian must be a philosopher” (Plato). 10 Marks

Answer:
o Plato has been regarded as the founder of philosophical idealism by virtue of his attempt to
formulate and define political ideas within the large framework of Idea of “good” or “ideal”.
His main purpose was to make Athens an “Ideal State”.
(You may explain the times of Plato and state of Athens, its corrupt politicians, loss in
Peloponnesian war, etc.)
o The theory of the philosopher Guardian or ruler is the linchpin of Plato’s Ideal State. It was
derived from the conviction that the philosopher has the knowledge, intellect and training to
govern. He told that the best law and the best constitution come into being only when the
supreme power in the man coincides with the greatest wisdom and templates.
o Accepting the Socratic idea that “knowledge is virtue”, Plato argued that wrong deeds had
their origin in ignorance, whereas knowledge leads to right actions and happiness. A/Q to
Plato, a philosopher, by his grace of the idea of good was the best qualified to rule, implying
that a philosopher would be able to administer perfect justice and act for the good of the
community.
o He held that a philosopher King has all the qualities of a ruler such as truthfulness, disposition,
reason. He is devoid of emotional ties (Communism of family) and economic consideration
(Communism of property). A Philosopher would be public-spirited, honest and wise. The
Philosopher ruler is the right person to govern for he would be least enthused about acquiring
power for self-arrangements.
o Therefore, for Plato, an ideal state ruled by the philosopher ruler in a divine institution
perfectly worthy of emulation and imitation. it is in this context, there is no other way to Real
happiness, either for society or the individual.
If the word limit permits, you may explain few points of criticism.
o However, despite being described as the most original concept in all the Platonic concepts,
the theory of ‘Philosopher king’ has been criticized on several grounds. A/Q to Crosman, Plato

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remained an Aristocrat, convinced that the peasants, craftsman etc. were incapable of
political responsibility. In a broader sense, platonic idea of government by the elite by a few
highly trained qualified Experts, runs counter to the spirit of democracy. Karl Popper rejects
the conception of despotic rule by specially trained philosopher leading to totalitarianism and
unmitigated authoritarianism. In the same line, in the ideal state of Aristotle, there is no place
for the Philosopher King for he prefers ‘Rule of Law’ over ‘Rule of Person’.

Q.4
While many of Plato’s ideas were utopian and have no practical value today, others represent the
abiding truth. (Gettel). (15 Marks)

Answer:
• Plato has been regarded as the founder of classical idealism by virtue of his attempts
to conceptualize that disorders and crisis of the actual world and presented it to his
readers a vision of desirable political and social order. Thus, Plato has been credited
with laying the foundation of the philosophical perspectives and issues on which the
Western political tradition rests. In this context Whitehead has commented that ‘the
entire European philosophical tradition is nothing but a set of footnotes of Plato’.
• In his work ‘Republic’, Plato’s greatest work, he has attempted to established the
philosophical tradition of Justice. And in doing so, he set forth his conceptions of an
ideal state. His book explored the notion of justice and its realization within the
individual and the state. It sketched a detailed picture of the polity and social
institutions with a view of attaining human excellence and perfection. It had an
elaborate scheme of education which led Rousseau to comment that it was hardly a
political work but a finest treatise on education ever written. It contained a detailed
examination of the meaning of good life and outline the means to achieve it.
Accepting the Socratic Dicta ‘virtue is knowledge’ and ‘a life unexamined is not worth
living’, Plato argued that wrong deeds have their origin in ignorance, whereas
knowledge leads to right action, happiness and conversion of the soul.
• However, Plato’s ideas and theories have been criticized of being utopian because
the ideal state was considered to be unrealistic and unrealizable. Critics argue that
the philosopher ruler is not natural ruler and governing was pressed upon him in the
larger interest of the community. Leo Strauss considered Republic as the greatest
critic of political idealism ever written as it appears to be a satire written with the
purpose of demonstrating the limits of what was politically feasible.
• While most of Plato’s conception and ideas are considered to be utopian and
unrealistic, his other schemes and ideas were based on practical experiences of his
space and time. In an attempt to explore the essence of governance, Plato has
shown why it is more important for the ruling class to understand the idea of
governance. It is because of the ignorance of the ruling class that the problems of
corruption arise, which he himself experienced in the Athens of his time. In addition,
his work, ‘Republic’, was written in the form of a dialogue, a method of great
importance in clarifying questions and establishing truth.
• Plato insisted that temperate attitude towards property was necessary for security
and wellbeing of the state. Too much acquisitiveness and love for one’s
possessiveness ruined unity and moral goodness of the state. Thus, Plato clearly

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Plato | Western Political Thinker UPSC PSIR Optional Batch Notes

perceived the disastrous consequences of combining the economic and political

power. In this way, Plato was the first to understand the implication of the role that
economic factor can play in politics.
• Therefore, despite being the master of political philosophy and idealism, Plato’s
formulations are also based on truth and knowledge. According to Nettleship, the
book Republic may be regarded not only as a philosophical work but as a treatise on
social and political reforms.

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