CUET-PG EAM GUIDE-2022

POLITICAL SCIENCE

POL SC HELP
 SPARE FEW MIN TO READ HOW BEST TO USE THIS GUIDE

DEAR STUDENTS…WELCOME BACK!

This is a complete guide for CUET-PF Political science. You need not read any other book for CUET-
PG preparation. Hope it would help all my students crack the CUET-PG.
What it contains?

Arranged in four parts:

Part I:
More than 50 theme wise fact sheets, in tabular form, containing key facts &
information covering the entire CUET-PG syllabus in Political Science.
Part II:
Collection of questions, arranged theme wise asked in Past Year’s PG ETs.
Questions of DUET, JNUEE, HCU, CPET Odhisa, Puducherry, BHU, AMU, and many
other PG ETs
Part III:
5 sets of sample question papers, of 75 MCQs, with Ans Keys and Addl. Info
Most relevant MCQs for CUET-PG.
Part IV:
Tips and tricks to prepare for and tackle MCQs.

How to use the Guide for the best results?

Read carefully all the key points given in tabular form at least 4-5 times
Watch the related Pol Sc Help videos for more information related to key points given in the
fact sheets.
Highlight the most important information, in your view, and revise them on daily basis; at least
10-12 times before the exam.
Make a mental map of information; for example: thinkers who gave theory of Justice –Plato,
Aristotle, Rawls, Nozick, Amratya Sen - how these theries related; similarities and differences,
etc
Read the questions and answers asked in different PG ETs; relate them to the contents in the
guide. Make note of the Important questions/answers. Revise them 6-7 times.
Try the MCQ sample paper in exam mode- in one go, within 2 hours, without seeing Answer or
visiting google. Mark your score- + 4 marks for correct ones and -1 for wrong ones. If you score
low, go back to the contents and revise one more time.
Make multiple MCQs from one MCQ. Note: I have purposely included many MCQs on
matching types, from each of them make 3-4 MCQs. From the Answer hints also additional
MCQs can be made.

GOOD WISHES!
 Contents
VITAL INFORMATION ABOUT THE CUET PG
Syllabus- CUET-PG
CUET(PG)- 2022: EXAM STRUCTURE
THEME WISE FACT SHEETS
FACT SHEET: CONSTITUTION OF INDIA- IN 6 TABLES
FACT SHEET- INDIAN POLITY
FACT SHEET: COMPARATIVE POLITICS
FACT SHEET: PUBLIC POLICY
FACT SHEET: GENERAL ISSUES OF CONTEMPORARY RELEVANCE
FACT SHEETS- INTERNATIONAL RELATION
FACT SHEETS: INDIA’S FOREIGN POLICY
FACT SHEETS- WESTERN POLITICAL THOUGHTS
FACT SHEETS- INDIAN POLITICAL THOUGHTS
FACT SHEETS PYQA : THEME WISE ANALYSIS OF PAST YEAR’S PG ET PAPERS
SAMPLE PAPERS: 5 SETS
ANSWER KEYS WITH ADDL. INFO
TIPS & TRICKS TO PREPARE FOR MCQ TESTS
 CUET PG POLITICAL SCIENCE PYQ ANYLYSIS
1) Western Political Philosophy:

a. Plato - [2021: 36, 63]

b. Aristotle - [2022: 63]; [2021: 30, 31]
c. Machiavelli - - [2022: 82]; [2021: 29, 57]
d. Hobbes - [2022: 67]; [2021: 28]
e. Locke - [2022: 49]; [2021: 32, 55, 59]
f. Rousseau - [2021: 60]
g. J.S. Mill - [2022: 69, 74]; [2021: 53, 58]
h. Karl Marx - [2021: 37, 39, 40, 54]
i. John Rawls - - [2022: 61, 66]; [2021: 54, 96]

2) Modern Indian Political Thought:

a) Ram Mohan Roy-
b) Gandhi - [2022: 64]; [2021: 41, 42, 43]
c) Ambedkar - [2022: 65]; [2021: 44, 64]
d) Savarkar - [2022: 71]
e) Kautilya - [2022: 70]
3) Political theory:
a) Concepts of liberty - [2022: 73]; [2021: 66, 70]
b) Equality - [2022: 47, 50, 72]
c) Justice - [2022: 60, 61, 66]; [2021: 68, 98]
d) Sovereignty
e) Citizenship and Gender - [2022: 59]
f) (1) Democracy - [2022: 51, 57]
(2) human Rights - [2022: 55, 56]; [2021: 71]
(3) State - [2021: 33, 34, 35, 38, 94]
g) Contemporary Issues - [2021: 75, 76]
h) Feminism Ideology - [2022: 53, 54]; [2021: 79, 97]

4) International Relations:
a) Realism - [2022: 77, 94]; [2021: 78] & Liberalism - [2021: 80, 95]
b) Cold War politics - [2022: 79, 81, 83, 87, 88]; [2021: 81, 100]
c) Topics:
a. NAM - [2022: 84]; [2021: 76]
b. SAARC - [2022: 78]; [2021: 77]
c. UNO - [2022: 75, 89]; [2021: 82]
 d. ASEAN
e. EU - [2021: 73]
d) India’s foreign policy - [2022: 80] particularly with China - [2021: 84]
e) Pakistan - [2022: 76]; [2021: 90] and USA - [2022: 86]; [2021: 72, 91]
5) Indian Government and Politics:
a) Preamble - [2022: 35]
b) Making of the Constituent Assembly - [2022: 30]; [2021: 26, 61, 85, 86]
c) Constitutional Provisions - [2022: 28]; [2021: 27, 46, 88]
d) Parliament - [2022: 31, 33, 44]; [2021: 87]
e) Cabinet - [2022: 43]
f) Prime Minister- [2021: 88]
g) President - [2022: 32]
h) Fundamental Rights - [2022: 27, 39]; [2021: 47]
i) Fundamental Duties
j) Directive Principles of State Policy
k) Amendments - [2022: 29, 34, 35, 40, 41]; [2021: 45, 56]
l) Governor
m) State Government - [2022: 27]
n) Federalism - [2022: 26, 95]; [2021: 93]
o) Political Parties (National and Regional)
p) Elections
q) Local Government - [2022: 42]
r) Judiciary - [2022: 32, 33, 36, 37, 38]; [2021: 92]
s) Governance - [2021: 52]

6) Comparative Government and Politics

a) Political Culture - [2022: 52, 68, 99]; [2021: 49, 50, 51, 67]
b) Political Parties - [2022: 45, 96, 100]; [2021: 62]
c) Electoral Systems
d) Approaches/ Models - [2022: 97]
e) Types of Regimes
7) Public Policies in India
a) Models - [2022: 58]
b) Process
c) Types - [2022: 90]

General issues of contemporary relevance.

 A) Global Justice - [2021: 69]
B) Nationalism - [2022: 46]
C) Climate Change - [2022: 48]

*BOOKS and AUTHORS: [2022: 49, 50, 53, 63, 65, 67, 73, 82, 85, 92]; [2021: 54, 57]
*Ronald Dworkin ideas
* Miscellaneous: [2022: 62, 81, 93(bounded rationality by herbert simon), 94, 98 (classical
elitist thinker), 99]; [2021: 46(schedules), 48, 56(schedules), 65, 74, 83, 89(schedules), 99]
* Important International treaties - [2022: 81, 91]
* Management: - [2022: 91, 92]
 CUET(PG)- 2022: EXAM STRUCTURE
• Duration: 2 hours- 120 Minutes
• 100 MCQs in two parts
• Part1 : 25 MCQ- Aptitude test
• English- Synonym & Antonym, spelling, phrases, Fill blanks in sentence
with appropriate preposition, phrases,
• General Awareness(GK and current Events)
• Mathematical Aptitude (Arithmetic- BODMAS, LCM/HCF, number system,
series)
• Analytical Skills- Verbal reasoning- pattern, series, odd one out, analogy,
etc
• Part 2: 75 MCQ- Subject/Domain based ( Pol Sc)
• Marking Scheme- For both Parts
• Correct Answer- 4 Marks
• Incorrect Answer- 1 Marks
 THEME WISE FACT SHEETS
FACT SHEET: POLITICS AND POWER
Concept/Term Different definitions

Politics is the art of the possible- Otto Von Bismarck

Politics is about who gets what, when and how- Harold Lasswell
Politics as capacity of acting in concert- Hannah Arendt
Politics as authoritative allocation of value - David Easton
politics is an ethical activity concerned with creating a ‘just society’ and
ensuring ‘good Life’ of the community- Aristotle
Politics is power-structured relationships, arrangements whereby one
group of persons is controlled by another- Kate Millet
Politics is about ‘attending to the general arrangements of a set of
people whom chance or choice have brought together’- Oakeshott
How Heywood gave different dimensions of Politics
Politics Politics as that which concerns the state
Politics is conduct of public Life
Politics is conflict resolution in public domain
Politics as conflict (among differing interests) in public domain

Harold Lasswell’s politics as who

gets what, when and how?
Oft-repeated
Who said politics is the study of
questions from this
influence and influential? Harold Lasswell
theme
David Easton: Politics as authoritative
allocation of value

Power
Most popular definition of power: A has power over B to the extent
that A can get B to do something which B would not have done otherwise-
Robert Dahl
Power as currency/money: Power is to politics as money is to
economy; Like money, power also circulates in society- Talcott Parsons
Power as creating action in group by communication to realize the
public realm - Hanah Arendt
‘Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely’- Lord
Acton
Power as normalization and subjection through governable identities-
Foucault
Power as Cultural Hegemony- Antonio Gramsci
Power as structural arrangement in which perceptions of people are
shaped to perpetuate domination without any observable conflict- Steven
Lukes
Extractive vs Developmental Power; Extractive power- Power over,
power to get other do something; Developmental Power- ability to fulfils
one’s own self-appointed goals- C.B. MacPherson
 Oft-repeated questions from this theme PG ETs:
Power as Currency- Talcott Parson
Radical view of power, 3rd dimension of power- Steven Lukes
Knowledge-power relation- Foucault
Lord Action’s quote : Power tends to corrupt; absolute power corrupts
absolutely
Who defined national interest in terms of power? Hans Morgenthau
“the power of man over the minds and actions of other men”- Hans
Morgenthau”
Power is central to Realism in IR
Offensive Neo-realism- maximisation of power
 FACT SHEET: LIBERTY
Sub-
Facts/info
theme/topic
Freedom is obeying laws reflecting general will of the political community-
Rousseau
It is a positive power of doing or enjoying something worth doing or enjoying –
Moral Freedom ( T.H.Green)
A free man, is he, that in those things, which by his strength and wit he is able to,
is not hindered to do what he has a will to- Hobbes
Definitions freedom is state in which man is not subject to coercion by arbitrary will of
others- Fredrich Hayek
Man is free to act without subject to arbitrary will of another within allowance of
moral law- John Locke
Freedom is the ability to govern one's actions on the basis of reason, and not
desire. Free capacity to choose between good and evil- Immanuel Kant

Isaiah Berlin’s two conception of liberty differentiated between

negative and positive Liberty
Negative Liberty:
‘What is the area within which the subject—a person or group
of persons—is or should be left to do or be what he is able to do
or be, without interference by other persons?’
Thus, negative liberty denotes absence of external man-made
interference, constraints on one’s thoughts and actions.
Negative Vs Positive Liberty:
Positive Liberty “What, or who, is the source of control that can determine
someone to do, or be, this rather than that?”
‘By whom am I ruled?’ Am I master of my will or desire?
Thus, Positive Liberty denotes Self-mastery, self-control, self-
direction, self-realization, free capacity of the self to choose
between good and bad.
Berlin supported negative liberty
To him, positive liberty is like a slippery slope which may lead to
totalitraianism

Other
Concepts on Benjamin Constant diffrentiated between ancient (republican) and
Liberty modern ( negative) liberty

• In Ancient times, Liberty was understood as participation in self-

governance, exercising popular sovereignty, and performing public duties; it was
political liberty
• In modern times, liberty is understood as absence of constrain by the
arbitrary will of one or more individuals- Individual Liberty

Phillip Petit and Quinton Skinner gave republican concept of liberty as

absence of domination, freedom from subjection
Gerald McCallum gave triadic conception of Liberty:
Liberty as triadic relation between agent, constraints, and purpose, that
is, X( agent) is constrained by Y to do or be Z(purpose)
 Bosanquet & Green: freedom of human agents consists in their having
succeeded in realizing an ideal of themselves- a condition in which
someone has succeeded in becoming something
Charles Taylor
Negative Liberty- Opportunity concept concept of Freedom-
Positive Liberty- Exercise concept concept of Freedom

Thinkers
Hobbes, Locke, Berlin, J.S.Mills, Rawls,Nozick, Hayek and majority of liberal
supporting
thinkers
negative Liberty
Thinkers
Rousseau, Hegel, Marx, T.H. Green, Bosanquet, Berkar, and majority of Marxist
supporting
or socialist thinkers
Positive Liberty
Isaiah Berlin:

Differentiated negative and positive liberty

Supported negative liberty
Compared positive liberty to slippery slope towards totalitarianism
Positive liberty- concept of the divided self

Ancient vs Modern Liberty: Benjamin Constant

J.S.Mill
Important Wrote ‘Ón Liberty’
facts/info asked ‘Over himself, over his own body and mind, the individual is sovereign’
in PG ETs Supported negative liberty
Harm Principle
Self and other regarding actions

Montesquieu’s theory of separation of powers emphasises primarily on

Liberty
Negative Liberty: Night-watchman or minimalist state
Positive Liberty : Welfare state, Interventionist State
Rousseau, Green, Hegel- supported positive liberty
 FACT SHEET: EQUALITY
Sub-
Facts/info
theme/topic

Equality is the most porous (not solid, spongy), non-intuitive (not

naturally understood), and controversial of normative political values. It is
also hardest to realize in any socio-political arrangement.
Meaning Equality as normative value denotes equal moral worth and equality of
each individual on the basis of being equal member of the humanity.
Inequality everywhere, in nature, society, family, international
relations. Hence it is not natural and non-intuitive.

Doctrine/ideology believing in equality as cornerstone of political

arrangements and public policy.

Luck Egalitarianism: Just socio-political arrangement should not

allow inequality due to luck. Good or bad luck may be natural, social,
Brute luck (fortune, misfortune, accidents, disease, etc).
Ideal egalitarian political system should even take care of optional luck,
Egalitarianism
that is, individual choices and preferences. This is called hard
Egalitarianism.
Ronald Dworkin, who gave the theory of ‘equality of resources’ was
one of most prominent Luck Egalitarian thinker.
Richard Arneson, Gerald Cohen, John Roemer, Eric Rakowski, etc.
are other Luck Egalitarians.

Multiple • Formal vs substantive equality

Dimensions of • Political equality- one person- one vote: formal equality
equality • Socio-economic equality- equality in social status and material
resources- substantive equality

Equality of opportunity vs equality of Outcome

Equality of opportunity
Equal chance/access to compete for rewards of life
Can be formal or substantive
Closely linked to Liberalism
Generally, does not support distribution of resources,
more acceptable in liberal societies

• Equality of outcome

Attempt to equalize results and rewards,

Substantive equality
Linked to socialist/communist ideologies.
Very hard to realize, controversial as it may lead to authoritarian and
totalitarian state

• Equality of resources:

Propounded (put forward) by Ronald Dworkin in his book ‘Sovereign

Virtue: the theory and practice of Equality’ in 2000
 It is a luck egalitarian account of idea of equality
It envisions (imagine) socio-economic arrangements to mimic results
of an imaginary market procedure for acquisition and transfer of
resources. It includes fair market of Insurance to share luck and
compensate for bad luck.
Despite inequalities in outcome because of different choices/ambitions
(option luck), no one is left behind. The society/state takes care of those
suffered due to bad luck.

• Complex Equality:

Propounded by Michael Walzer in his book ‘Sphere of Justice-

Spheres of Justice: A Defense of Pluralism and Equality’ in 1983
It is communitarian account of distributive justice.
It envisions (imagines) society/community having multiple spheres of
justice, having its own rank ordering.
Each sphere may act like separate domain for distributive justice.
Distribution of each social good is decided by rules and reasons
specific to the sphere and interpretation of its social meaning. Conversion
and exchange of goods across boundary of sphere blocked.
Hence, possession of one good in one sphere does not affect
possession of other goods in other spheres.
Thus, despite inequalities in a particular sphere, overall equality of
status of each individual is maintained.
 FACT SHEET: JUSTICE
Sub-
Facts/info
theme/topic

Out of 4 foundational normative values, Justice is most intuitive, that is,

we as human being have nature or God given sense of what is right or wrong,
good or bad, just or unjust.
Justice implies something which it is not only right to do and wrong not to
Meaning do, but also which someone can claim from us as one’s moral right.
Justice denotes fair, virtuous and moral act or arrangement.
In matter of distribution, it implies giving each person his due- fair share to
all

Justice as harmony of soul and each individual and class performing its
duty to best of their abilities and aptitudes- Plato
Justice as 'fairness’ in distribution of income, wealth, rewards, honours,
political offices, punishments etc, based on the principle of equity-
proportional and arithmetic equality- Aristotle
Justice as Fairness in distribution of resources, awards, honours, and
Definitions political offices- John Rawl
Entitlement Theory of Justice: distribution of holdings in a society is just if
everyone in that society is entitled to what he has- Robert Nozick
Justice by practical reasoning; justice as fair procedure (Niti) vs justice
realized (Nyaya)- Amartya Sen
Justice as perfect obligation- J.S.Mill
Justice as mutual advantage- David Gauthier

• Procedural Justice -
• Justice based on just, fair, and transparent rules/procedure and
institutional arrangements
• Formal justice.
• Consistent with liberalism
• Distributive Justice
• Just and fair distribution of goods and services, benefits and rewards.
• May also imply social justice if equality of status, dignity of individuals, and
minimum needs of people are ensured by society/community/state.
Types of • Substantive justice. Also called ‘end-state’ justice.
Justice • Supported by communitarian, socialist, and communist ideologies.
• Retributive Justice
• Justice is reasonable and proportionate punishment to crime.
• Restorative Justice
• Repairing the harm caused to the victim and mend the offender to bring
back to mainstream.
• Global Justice
• Pursuing Justice beyond the borders of nation-states at international/global
level.

Rawl vs • John Rawl, an American liberal thinker, gave his theory in his seminal (very
Nozick’s influential) book ‘Theory of Justice’ (1971)
theory of • His theory is based on Justice as fairness in distribution of social primary
Justice goods.
• It is based on the idea of distributive justice and the difference principles (
social eqality)
• Difference principle -‘socio-economic inequalities should be arranged so
that they are to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged persons’
• Rawl’s theory is also called end-state theory of justice, as it proposes a
specific end pattern of distribution brought by socio-political arrangements.
• Nozick’s theory of Justice was counter to Rawl's theory of Justice.
• Nozick, an American Libertarian thinker, gave his theory in his equally
influential book ‘Anarchy, State, and Utopia (1974).
• Basic argument of Nozick is that any attempt to bring a fixed pattern of
distribution by state/Government is futile (meaningless), utopic, and infringement
to personal liberty.
• He asserted that if acquisition of property in the initial position was just ( by
fair means), and subsequent transfer/transactions were fair & just then the
resultant distribution pattern is also just and fair.
• His theory is called entitlement theory of justice.
• It is also a type of procedural justice.
• Aristotle was first to give idea of distributive justice
• Justice as 1st virtue of any social order- John Rawls
• Rawl’s theory of justice: end-state theory, patterned distribution, welfare
state, based on difference principle, distributive justice, positive or modern
Important liberalism, normative theory, revived the social contract tradition
facts/info for • Plato’s Justice: one man- one work; one class- one duty
PG ETs • Nozick’s theory of Justice: Entitlement theory of justice, procedural theory,
libertarian account of justice, included ‘rectificatory justice’
• Justice as mutual advantage- David Gauthier
• First Virtue of society- Justice- John Rawls
• First virtue of Justice- Fairness- John Rawls
• Justice is doing one’s own duty as per one’s station of life- Plato
 FACT SHEET: RIGHT
Sub-
Facts/info
theme/topic

Rights are claims of individual or group allowed by matching obligation by

others.
Such claims are generally very crucial for flourished and fulfilled life. It
enables and empower one to live a meaningful life.
Meaning
Obligations (which allow those claims) may be moral, customary, based
on natural law, or legally enforced.
Like other normative value, Right is a highly contested concept. It has
multiple conceptions and connotations. It may mean Claim, Entitlements,
Opportunities, Needs, Empowerments, etc.

A person has a right to X when if and only if others have moral obligation
to provide or allow him/her X- Immanuel Kant
Rights are entitlements to act or be treated in a particular way- Andrew
Heywood
One man’s capacity of influencing the act of others, not by his own
strength but by the strength of the society – Holland
A right is a claim recognized by society and enforced by the state-
Bosanquet
Rights are those conditions of social life without which no man can seek,
Definitions in general, to be himself at his best- Harold Laski
Every state is known by the rights it maintains- Laski
Rights are what we may expect from others and others from us, and all
genuine rights are conditions of social welfare- Hobhouse
Rights are ‘trump’ (of individuals against society/state)- Ronald Dworkin
rights are the conditions in which individuals are able to conceive and
realize ‘the good’ for themselves and others- T.H.Green
A person has a right to X when his or her interest in X is sufficiently
important for others to have duty to provide or allow him/her X- Interest
based theory of Rights

Types of • On the basis of content

Rights • Civil rights: Right to life, liberty of thought, expression, belief, property,
associations, etc.
• Political rights: Right to vote, hold political offices, etc.
• Socio-economic rights: Right to status, work, livelihood, etc.
• On the basis of Intent
• Negative rights: No action required by others
• Positive Rights: actions required by state/society
• On the basis of obligation
• Moral rights
• Rights allowed by moral obligation which are universally accepted
• Legal Rights
• Rights are claim backed by law and enforced by state
• Rights only exists in state/society not pre-given
• Natural Rights
 • Inherent and intrinsic Rights to each one us as per law of nature
• Rights are prior to Society/state
• Historical or Customary Rights
• Rights are claim recognised in society from historical past and based on
historical customs of society/community
• Human rights
• Equal and inalienable (absolute) individual entitlements/claims against
state/society only because one is human being of equal worth.
• Cultural and group Rights
• Right to protect cultures, language, traditions and customs of cultural
minorities

• 1st Generation:
• Civil liberties and political Rights
• Emanate from normative value of Liberty
• Consistent with liberalism
Three • 2nd Generation:
Generations • Socio-economic and cultural Rights
of right • Emanate from normative value of Equality
• Supported by Socialism/communism
• 3rd Generation:
• Group and Environmental Rights
• Emante from new Social and Green movements

• Who called natural rights as nonsense upon stilts? Bentham

• “Rights properly so-called are creations of law properly so called”-
Bentham
• Legal Rights- Bentham
• Natural Rights: Propounded by John Locke
• 3 generations of Rights- 2nd Gen rights- socio-economic rights- right to
Important health, education, housing, etc
facts/info for • Right to Development- Soft Law
PG ETs • Universal Declaration of Human Rights(UDHR) adopted on 10 Dec, 1948
• “Every state is known by the rights that it maintains”- Laski
• Rights as Trump – Ronald Dworkin
• Strong rights: which cannot be taken away for common welfare
• Weak Rights: The rights that can be curtailed to achieve the common
welfare
• Functional theory of Rights- Laski
• Liberal Theory of Minority Rights: Will Kymlicka
 FACT SHEET: STATE
Sub-theme/topic Facts/info

State is the highest form of political association aiming at the

highest of goods- Aristotle
State is March of God on earth- Hegel
State represent complete and highest Good- Plato
Political association set up as a result of social contract to preserve
life and maintain peace & order- Hobbes
Political association or commonwealth set up as a result of social
contract to protect and further natural rights- Locke
State represented General will of the body politic set up as a result
of the Social Contract- Rousseau
the state was an artificial means of producing a unity of interest and
a device for maintaining stability; it is a means for attaining the greatest
happiness of the greatest number-Jeremy Bentham
state as 'the people' affairs, who are united by a common
agreement about law and rights and by the desire to participate in
How
mutual advantage'- Cicero
Prominent
state as an end in itself existing for its own preservation
thinkers viewed
and for its own advantage- Machiavelli
State:
a 'lawful' government of several household s, and of their common
possessions, with sovereign powers- Jaen Bodin
'a partnership in all science, a partnership in all arts, a partnership
in and in all perfection... a partnership not only between those who are
living, but those who are dead, and those who are to be born’- Edmund
Burke
'a body of persons, recognized by each other as having rights, and
possessing certain institutions for the maintenance of those rights’-
T.H.Green
‘positive instrument which helps the individual achieve progress and
enjoy liberty’- J.S.Mill
State is the instrument to protect and further the interest of the
whole Bourgeoisie class- Karl Marx

Human community that claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical
force/violence within a given territory- Max Weber
Theories of State Divine Origin theory of State:

the state was established and governed by God, the King is the
representative of God. King has the divine right to rule and he is
accountable only to God, none other.
Proponents: Manu, St. Thomas, Bousset, Robert Filmer

Historical/Evolutionary Theory:

State evolved naturally due to political nature of humans as long

and gradual socio-natural evolutionary process.
Proponents: Garner, Gettel, J.W.Burgess, Maclver
Aristotle and Hegel also gave historical, natural, organic, and
integrative theory of state

Social Contract Theory of Origin of State

 State is the result of a social contract among individuals who
surrendered their individual rights and power into a commonwealth to
form a political community and came out of the state of nature
Proponents: Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau

Marxist Theory of State

Instrumentalist view: State as the instrument to protect and further

the interest of the whole Bourgeoisie class
Proponents: Karl Marx, Engels, Ralph Miliband
Structuralist view: State is a social mechanism through which
capitalist social structure and relation of productions are continuously
re-produced.
Proponents: Louis Althusser, Nicos Poulantzas

Pluralist Theory of State

State is associations of associations

State is one among many associations
State like a neutral referee managing interests of many
associations/groups

Proponents: Robert Dahl, R.M. MacIver, David Truman, Harold Laski,

Seymour Martin Lipset

State is necessary Evil- Classical Liberalism

State is unnecessary Evil- Anarchism
State is one among many associations- Pluralism (R.M. MacIver)
Important
State is instrument of class domination- Marxism
perspective/phrases
Everything in the State, nothing outside the State, nothing against
about state
the State- Fascism (Benito Mussolini)
State is March of God on earth- organicism (Hegel)

State is individual writ large- Plato

 FACT SHEET: SOVERIGNTY
Sub-Theme/Topics Facts/Info
Meaning/definitions:
The principle of absolute and unlimited power; the
absence of a higher authority in either domestic or external
affairs for a population of fixed territory.
‘the absolute and perpetual power of a commonwealth’.
Jean Bodin (1530–96). law reflects the ‘will’ of the sovereign.
”the supreme political power vested in him whose acts are
not subject to any other and whose will cannot be overridden” –
Grotius
“the supreme irresistible absolute, uncontrolled authority in
which the supreme legal power reside”. – Blackstone
“the concept which maintains no more-if no less-than that
there must be an ultimate authority within the political society if
the society is to exist at all”. – Hinsley
“the political authority within a community which has the
undisputed right to determine the framework of rules,
regulations and policies within a given territory and to
govern accordingly”. – David Held
Monopoly of coercive power in hands of single ruler to
protect individuals from lawlessness : Thomas Hobbes
Sovereignty vested in Monarch vs notion of popular
sovereignty by Rousseau and John Locke
Note: Locke allowed delegation of sovereignty to
people’s representatives, whereas for Rousseau,
popular sovereignty remains with the people, cannot
be delegated.
John Austin’s Monistic theory of Sovereignty:
“If a determinate human superior, not in the habit of
obedience to a like superior, receives habitual obedience from
the bulk of a given society, that determinate superior is
sovereign in that society; and the society (including the
superior) is a society, political and independent”
sovereignty is the supreme power of the state that is
absolute, permanent, universal, inalienable, exclusive and
indivisible( hence monistic, that is only one sovereign)
Sovereignty of state
“the commanding power of the state: it is the will of the
nation organised in the state: it is the right to give unconditional
orders to all individuals in the territory of the state”.– Duguit
“the supreme will of the state.”– Willoughly
“the exercise of final legal coercive power by the state”. –
Soltaire
Sovereign statehood is an institution- set of persistent
and connected rules, prescribing behavioural roles,
constraining activities, and shaping expectations in
international society of state (Robert Keohane)
“the supreme legal authority of the nation to give and
enforce the law within a certain territory and in consequence
independence from authority of other nations and equality with
them under international law” (Morgenthau)
 Billiard Ball analogy: In the billiard ball model of world politics
adopted by realist theorists states are the billiard balls that collide with
one another while sovereignty is the hard and impenetrable outer shell
of the ball which enables it to withstand the impact of the collision

Absoluteness: there is no legal power within the state

superior to the sovereign, and there can be no legal limit to the
supreme law making power of the sovereign.
Indivisibility: there can only be one sovereign in a state; it
cannot be divided
Note: Pluralist thinkers, such as Dahl, Laski, Maclver, etc,
Nature and Features of
reject this feature; for them, sovereignty is divided into many
Sovereignty
groups/associations.
Universality: sovereign power extends over every person
and every association of persons in the state. It is also
accepted worldwide

Permanence: The sovereignty continues as long as the state itself

exists

Real and Titular (Nominal) Sovereignty

For example: in UK, monarch- titular sovereign; Parliament-
real sovereign
Legal and Political Sovereignty
For example: Legal sovereign- The Constitution; Political
Types of Sovereignty Sovereign- the people
Behind the legal sovereign lies the political sovereign to
which the legal sovereign has to bow
Dejure (as per law) and Defacto ( in reality) Sovereignty

For example: Govt in exile has de-jure sovreignty; whereas those

who actually run govt enjoy defacto sovereignty

Globalization affected the notion of territoriality: increasingly

‘permeable’ state boarders; notion of ‘supra-territoriality’; de-
territorialized’ transnational corporations(TNCs)
Regionalization: EU, ASEAN, RCEP, African Union, NATO;
gave rise to Pooled sovereignty
Multi-lateral Economic organisations: WTO, G-20, BRICS,
How Globalization
IMF- undermined the capacity of states to operate as
Affected Sovereignty?
autonomous self governing units
Globalized economic and financial system- borderless
global economy
Collective action Dilemma and emergence of Risk Society:
Climate change, Pandemic, Terrorism, Migration, Disruptive
technologies, Food and Energy Security, etc
 FACT SHEET: DEMOCRACY
Sub-
Facts/Info
theme/Topics

Literal meaning- power to people or rule of the people

Idea originated in ancient Greek city states- Athens; also found mention in
early Buddhist texts- Vaishali in Bihar
For next 2500 years both the idea and meaning underwent change
Today what we mean by democracy, the liberal Democracy, is different in
many ways from the original idea
Liberal Democracy is representative Democracy, in which people don’t
Meaning rule. They Choose their ruler through periodic elections in which they have
equal voting rights.
Many critics, such as Rousseau, term liberal Democracy as false
Democracy. They support direct Democracy, in which people rule themselves.
Liberal response to this criticism has been to make representative
Democracy more substantive by having participative and deliberative
Democracy

Government of the people, by the people, for the people’- Abraham

Lincoln
‘Democracy means a form of government in which, instead of monarchies
and aristocracies, the people rule’- David Held
‘Democracy is best viewed as a competition for power by means of regular
elections. Citizens should not be expected to play a significant role in making
Definitions complex public policy regarding, say, taxes or missile defence’- Posner
of Democracy ‘Political method by which people elect representatives in competitive
elections to carry out their will’- Schumpeter
Note: because of such elitist definition of Democracy, Schumpeter is
considered as critic of classical democracy; he wrote ‘Capitalism, Socialism
and Democracy(1942)’
‘Democracy is not majority rule; democracy is diffusion of power,
representation of interests, recognition of minorities’- John Calhoun

Democracy as rule of mob or multitude; a perverted form of Government –

Aristotle
Note: all three great Greek Classical Thinkers, Socreates, Plato,
Critical and Aristotle, considered democracy a bad and perverted form of
views about Government.
Democracy "Democracy is the worst form of government except all those other forms
that have been tried from time to time."-Winston Churchill
Democracy is "the substitution of election by the incompetent many for
appointment by the corrupt few." (G.B. Shaw),

Types of Liberal or Representative Democracy:

Democracy This form of democracy is one in which the people through, periodic elections,
vote to choose their representatives.
Thereafter, the representatives, and not the people themselves, govern. In fact,
not even the representatives but only small minority of the representatives are
 participating in government. Remaining representatives debate, deliberate, and
ask questions to check the govt’s actions/decisions.
Hence, J.S. Mill called representative democracy as two step shifted
democracy.
Rousseau was a big critic of Representative Democracy. He ridiculed
Representative Democracy in England by stating that English people are free only
on the day of voting. He was supporter of direct democracy.
Direct Democracy:
People as a whole directly govern themselves. In ancient times, Athenian
democracy came close to direct democracy. Some of Buddhist city states in
ancient India, such as Lichhavi, had direct democracy.
In modern times, Switzerland has retained many features of direct democracy,
such as, refrendum, recall, initiation, etc.
Gram Sabha under the Indian Panchayati Raj system is an example of direct
democracy.
Participatory Democracy:

People actively take part in decision making and their implementation

Substantive Democracy, closer to direct democracy.
Modes of participation: deliberation before decision, public debate, local
self govt., civil societies, interest group, initiatives, referendum, Gram Sabha,
Mohalla Sabha, recall, protest, demonstration, town hall meetings, etc.
Thinkers supporting Participatory Democracy: C.B.Mcpherson, Carole
Patman, Rousseau, Hanah Arendt, Benjamin Barber, Mansbridge, etc.

Deliberative Democracy:
• Social decisions/public policy by active participation of citizens

Formation of popular will (consensus in common interest) by deliberations-

exchange of reasoned arguments among ‘equal’ citizens to persuade each
other and to attain a rational consensus or a shared solution.
Instead of decisions by aggregation of pre-existing individual preferences,
society’s common good or preference formed by process of deliberations.
Against the “aggregative” model of democracy it is “transformative” and
“discursive” model of Democracy.
Deliberations, and not mere voting, is the source of legitimacy to public
decisions.
Rousseau’s idea of General Will was arrived at after deliberations among
equal citizen driven by their true or real will and higher self.

Thinkers supporting Deliberative Democracy: Aristotle, Rousseau, Jürgen

Habermas, David Miller, J.Drysek, Joshua Cohen. Walzer, Bernard Manin,
James Fishkin, ,Amy Gutmann & Dennis F. Thompson, etc.

Democracy in America(1835)- Alexis de Tocqueville

Democracy and Its Critics(1989)- Robert A. Dahl
Models of Democracy(1987)- David Held
Famous
The real world of democracy(1965)- C. B. Macpherson
books on
Democracy, Freedom and Special Rights(1995)- Carole Pateman
Democracy-
The Spirit of Democracy(2008)- Larry Diamond
asked often
How Democracies Die(2018)- Daniel Ziblatt and Steven Levitsky
Democracy and Discontent(1990)- Atul Kohli
Political Order and Political Decay: From the Industrial Revolution to the
Globalization of Democracy(2014)- Francis Fukuyama
 FACT SHEET: CITIZENSHIP
Sub-
Facts/Info
Theme/Topic

Citizenship denotes membership of a political community which confer

equal rights and privilages to all members.
Citizenship define the relation between individual/group and the State
In in international law Citizenship denote all persons whom a state is
entitled to protect
Citizenship always has been a privilaged status.
During the Greek city states, only a very small part of people was
granted citizenship status
To Aristotle, citizens are those who are being ruled and also capable to
rule. He denied Citizenship to slave, aliens (foreigners), manual and menial
workers, and women.
In the medieval period, ruled people were treated as subjects. Concept
of citizenship and equal rights were not in vogue.
Modern concepts of citizenship firmed up in the 18th century during the
American and French Revolutions, when the term citizen came to suggest
the possession of certain rights and liberties in the face of the coercive
Meaning powers of absolutist monarchs.
With the advent of modernity and liberalism, concept of universal and
and features
equal citizenship came up. Now all members of a political community are
given equal citizenship rights.
The concept of citizenship is closely linked to the concept of democracy.
In non-democratic societies we have subjects but no citizens. Citizenship
means active participation of the people in the decision-making, and the
process of governance.
But even today, issue of inclusion and exclusion and eqaul citizenship
rights exist.
Under the ambit of multiculturalism, concept of group differentiated
citizenship against a conception of citizenship based on individual rights
came up.
In the globalised era, concept of global citizenship, cosmopolitianism,
and universal conception of
human rights have been gaining ground.
Principal grounds for acquiring -birth within a certain territory, descent
from a citizen parent, marriage to a citizen, and naturalization.

‘full and equal membership in a political community’- T.H. Marshall

Citizenship is a relationship between an individual and a state to which
the individual owes allegiance and in turn is entitled to its protection-
Wikpedia
Definitions It is the recognition of an official position by a government and the ability
to enjoy the rights and privileges following from that position by an
individual- Science Direct
A legal status and relation between an individual and a state that entails
specific legal rights and duties.

T.H.
Marshall’s citizenship as a status, which is enjoyed by a person who is a full
theory of member of a community.
citizenship Citizenship has three components: civil, political, and social.
Civil rights -necessary for individual freedoms and are institutionalised in
the law courts.
Political citizenship guarantees the right to participate in the exercise of
political power in the community, either by voting, or by holding political
office.
Social citizenship is the right to participate in an appropriate standard of
living; this right is embodied in the welfare and educational systems of
modern societies.
permanent tension between the principles of citizenship and the
capitalist system.
Capitalism inevitably involvesinequalities between social classes, while
citizenship involves some redistribution of resources, because of rights,
which are shared equally by all.

Jus Soli- citizenship is acquired by birth within the territory of the state,
regardless of parental citizenship;
Jus Sanguinis- a person, wherever born, is a citizen of the state if, at the
time of his or her birth, his or her parent is one.
Few Note: USA and the countries of the British Commonwealth adopt the Jus
Important Soli as their basic principle.
terms Dual Citizenship:
related to Denotes holding citizenship of more than one country at the
Citizenship same time. Mnay countries, including India, do not allow dual
citizenship
In a federal state, it also denotes people holding citizenship of
pronives/federal units and the federal or central entity. USA and
Switzerland allow such dual citizenship, but India does not.
 FACT SHEET: HUMAN RIGHTS
Sub-topic/theme Facts/Info
• Equal and inalienable individual entitlements against
state/society only because one is human being of equal worth
Meaning • Rights listed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
and the International Human Rights Covenants

Human rights are based on human nature, human nature

is universal, hence human rights are universal across all
cultures
Basis of justification

1. Natural law and supreme moral principle

2. Rationality- logical, reasoned, rational
Basis/Justification of
3. Positivism-justified on the basis of experience
universality of human rights
Consistent with idea of democracy, and normative
conception of justice
Directly linked to natural right theory contained in the
Social Contract Theories
Hence, human rights are linked to individualism, liberalism,
and democracy

1948: UN declaration of universal human rights (UDHR)

Adopted on 10 Dec, 1948

Has 30 Articles

1966: International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights

(ICCPR)
1st Generation Rights
1966: International Covenant on Economic, Social and
Cultural Rights (ICESCR)
2nd Generation Rights
International treaties on
1979: Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Human Rights
Discrimination against Women (CEDAW)
1984: Convention against Torture and Other Cruel,
Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CAT)
1989: Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC)
2003: International Convention on the Protection of the
Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families
(ICRMW)
2006: International Convention for the Protection of All
Persons from Enforced Disappearance (CED)
2007: Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
(CRPD)

International Organisations UN System

for monitoring Human Rights
UN Human Rights Council
 47 UN members makes the council
United Nations High Commissioner for Human
Rights(OHCHR) acts as CEO and Secretariat to UN Human
Rights Council
OHCHR was set up in 1993

National System

National human rights commission in member states

NHRC in India set up in 1993 under Protection of Human
Rights Act (PHRA), 1993
NHRC has a Chairperson, five full-time Members and
seven deemed Members.

International NGOs(INGOs):

Amnesty International- Headquarter in London

Human rights watch- Headquarter in New York

Previous name of UN Human Rights Council- United

Nations Commission on Human Rights till 2006
NHRC is a statutory organisation
When NHRC set up? 1993
When UDHR adopted? 10 Dec, 1948
Which article is common between ICCPR and ICESCR?
Article 1 which is right of self-determination
Which USA president based his foreign policy on human
Important facts/info asked
rights? Jimi Carter
in PG ETs
Universality of Human Rights is related to? Liberalism
Which concept contest the Universality of Human Rights?
Cultural Relativism
Which Asian leader gave the concept of ‘Asian Value’
contesting Universality of Human Rights? Mahathir bin
Mohamad
Which year Convention on the Rights of Persons with
Disabilities was adopted? 2007
 FACT SHEET : MAJOR POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES
Ideologies Core Theme and Features Main Thinkers

Classical vs
modern
liberalism
Classical-
minimal state (
state as
Classica
necessary evil),
Individual freedom (of Locke,
Inviolable
choice) and autonomy, Hobbes,
property rights,
Individualism Aadam Smit
Prefer ‘Rights’ over universalism
Thomas Pain
‘Common Good’: Moral Modern:
Modern:
primacy of claim of Welfare state,
John Rawl,
distributive
individual against claims of T.H.Green,
justice,
society/state Laski, Dwork
multiculturalism
Inviolable natural rights Hobhouse,
Modern
Liberalism of Life, Liberty, Property R.H.Tawany,
Melioristic: social Liberalism also
G.D.H Cole,
institutions and political called Positive
J.S.Mill,
arrangements can be liberalism.
Bentham
Libertarianis
improved Libertari
m- revival of
Tolerance - Robert
classical
Universalism: universal Nozick,
liberalism- neo-
nature of human, equal Fredrich
human worth, universal liberalism : Free
Hayek, Milto
human rights market Economy,
Friedman
Low taxation,
Nightwatchman
state, Market
over
state,Individual
freedom is prime

Marxism
Analyse political Multiple Classica
phenomenon from class strands Lenin, Mao
lens Classical Zedong, Ros
Historical Materialism: Marxism Luxemburg,
Changes in economic base Neo-Marxism Alexandra
(mode of production) of Neo-classical Kollontai,
society brings about Gramscianis M.N.Roy
changes in its socio- m Neo-
political-cultural Marxist: Lou
(superstructure); civilization Althusser,
progresses through this Justin
dialectical process Rosenberg,
Perpetual class Immanuel
struggle- exploited vs Wallerstein,
exploiter; change in mode Andre Gunde
Frank
 of production changes the Neo-
class characteristics classical
master/slave, lord/serf, Marxism-
capitalist/labour Gerald A.
Capitalist system is Cohen, Ada
exploitive, keep surplus Przeworski,
labour as profit, alienate John E.
workers, and faces regular Roemer and
crisis Erik Olin
Vision of state less, Wright
class less, property less Gramsci
communist society ism ( Post-
‘From each according to Marxism):
his ability, to each Ernesto Lacl
according to his needs’- in , Robert W.
final stage of Communism Cox , Chanta
Mouffe
Critical
Theory-
Frankfurt
school
thinkers-
though they
are against
both Marxism
and Liberalis
but Neo-
Marxism may
be included
under the
umbrella of
critical theory

Conservatism
Preserving ideas, Branch of David
institutions and socio- classical Hume
cultural traditions. liberalism Edmund
Belief in Hierarchy, In economy- Burke
order, and authority, social conservatives Hobbes
traditions, customs, norms are quite liberal Locke
Organicism: Society as But Michael
organic entity- has evolved conservative in Oakeshott
over centuries of social socio-cultural Joseph d
customs/practices/traditions domain Maistre
State required for social More popular Metternic
order and electorally Benjamin
Only gradual and successful than Disraeli
calibrated change in social liberal parties Karl
practices/traditions Called right Popper-
Pragmatism- Truth lies wing ideology piecemeal
in concrete experience than social
moral preposition engineering
…prefer the familiar to Contemp
the unknown, to prefer the ary times-
tried to the untried, fact to Quintin Hog
mystery, the actual to the Margret
 possible, the limited to the Thatcher,
unbounded, the near to the Angela Merk
distant…( about Marine Le Pe
conservativism by Ronald
Oakeshott) Reagon

Richard
No objective truth, Asley
against the Binary ( good Jenny
vs bad) Adkins
Post-
Knowledge is not simply Foucault
structuralism
a cognitive factor, it is also (Post-
De-
normative and political structuralism
constructivism
Power & knowledge Derrida
Critical theory
linked and (De-
Subjectivity
support/constitute each constructivis
Post- Truth is
other Lyotard-
modernism subjective,
Reality socially against meta
depends on the
constructed narratives
perspective of
Rejects meta narratives Baudrillar
the
(grand narratives or Richard
subject(observer)
narratives of narratives) Rorty
Timeline-
Critical of classical Slavoj Žiž
beginning 1970s
liberalism, and positivism, Gilles
superiority of science, Deleuze
modernity discourse Nietzsche
(Nihilism)

Anarchism
Against any form of Utopic William
formal, external, and ideologies Godwin-
hierarchical authority in Stateless, Philosophica
managing socio-political authority less Anarchism
arrangements blissful social life Peter
Organisation of society Gandhiji- Kropotkin-
on a voluntary cooperative enlightened communal
basis without force/coercion Anarchism anarchism
Belief in virtuous(good) Pierre-
human nature, which can Joseph
manage both individual & Proudhon -
social life without any Mutualism
external formal authority Mikhail
State is unnecessary Bakunin
evil revolutionary
Accept authority of Anarchist
experts and moral authority Leo
of collective decision Tolstoy-
Mutualism : socialist, Pacificist
federated, and non- Anarchist
hierarchical authority-less Gandhiji
society holding property for enlightened
common use and earnings; Anarchism
individuals enjoy rights and
oblige to allow others the
same- reciprocity
Feminism Given in separate fact sheet.
 FACT SHEET : APPROACHES TO POLITICAL THEORY
Main thinkers/activists- their
Approaches Important facts/meaning
contributions

Also called philosophical approach Plato- Ideal State

Raises normative question- ‘Why Saint Augustine- ‘City
should I obey the state?’, ‘How should of God’
rewards be distributed?’ and ‘What Thomas Aquinas: 5
should the limits of individual freedom proofs of God
be’? ‘How good life of community be John Rwal- Normative
ensured?’ theory of Justice
Focus: moral, ethical, just political Robert Nozick-
arrangements Entitlement theory of
Normative What ‘should be’ rather than what Justice
Approach ‘is’ Leo Strauss: brought
Value loaded, prescriptive, political value back in Political
philosophy theory
Rationalism: sources of knowledge Hanah Arendt
transcendental (other worldly), based Macheal Sandel-
on logic and abstract reasoning Communitarian
Deductive or top down approach of T.H.Green- moral
investigation/theorising freedom
Vision of an ideal society and Charles Taylor-
political arrangements Communitarian

Empirical
Approach Analyse and describe political Aristotle- 1st empirical
phenomenon ‘as it is’, factual analysis of Constitutions
Uses methods of scientific David Hume:
observation, quantitative analysis, philosophy as the
testing hypothesis inductive, experimental
2 pillars: Behaviouralism and science of human nature
Logical Positivism Francis Bacon: father
Objective, factual, value-free, of empiricism
scientific Auguste Comte- father
Attempt to build scientific political of Positivism and inventor
theory (science of politics) of the term sociology
Empiricism: Sensory experiences John Locke: Tabula
the only source of knowledge Rasa- human brain at birth
Inductive or bottom up approach of like white slate
investigation/theorising David Easton- father of
empirical approach- gave
system theory
Karl Popper- scientific
theory are falsifiable
Robert Dahl- Pluralist
thinker
Seymour Lipset
Gabrieal Almond-
structural-functional
approach
Jean Blondel
 Peter Laslett
Herbert Simon

Karl Marx- Historical

Materialism
Genealogy: Uses history as genetic
Hegel: historical
process of evolution of political
phenomena. evolution of idea
History used as vast repository of Machiavelli- used this
test cases to be used to theorizing for approach in ‘the Prince’
Skocpol- ‘States and
present and future.
Social Revolutions: a
Historical Studying past to understand the
Comparative Analysis of
Approach: causes of political phenomenon in
France, Russia and China’
present.
More weightage to individual human Ram Manohar Lohia
agency than societal structure and –‘Wheels of History’
institutions Vivekanand- ‘Cycle of
Adopts normative philosophical Caste rule’
Oakeshott- ‘What Is
approach
History?’

All post-modernist
thinkers- Foucault,
Derrida, Lyotard,
Baudrillard, Nietzsche
Critical of the mainstream thinking All thinkers of Frankfurt
and theories School (Neo-Marxism):
Want to overturn existing socio- Ernst Bloch, Walter
political arrangements/structures. Benjamin, Max
Aim for societal transformation, Horkheimer, Erich Fromm,
human emancipation, decreasing Herbert Marcuse,
domination and increasing freedom Habermas
Emerged in connection with the All radical feminists-
many social movements- feminist, Kate Millet, Rebecca
environmentalist, anti-domination, Walker, Eve Ensler,
Subaltern, etc. Shulamith Firestone,
Critical
Include radical feminism, green Sandra L Whitworth etc.
Approach
politics, eco-feminism, constructivism, Post-colonial thinkers-
post-structuralism, deconstructivism Samir Amin, Edward said,
and postcolonialism, etc. Andre Gunder Frank,
Adopt post-positivist approaches, Franz Fanon, Chandra
discourse analysis, and deconstruction Mohanty
Align itself with sub-altern, Subaltern thinkers:
marginalized and oppressed groups Ranajit Guha, David
Reveal inequalities, injustice, and Arnold, Dipesh
asymmetries that mainstream Chakrabarty.Partha
approaches intend to ignore Chatterjee, Sudipta
Kaviraj, Gayatri Spivak
Ecofeminism: Vandana
Shiva, Maria Mies, Ariel
Salleh, Mary Mellor, Ana
Isla
 FACT SHEET : FEMINISM- IN MULTIPLE WAVES
Feminist Main thinkers/activists-
Important facts
wave their contributions

Marry
Wollstonecraft:
‘Vindication of the rights
of women- 1792’
Also called Liberal Feminism Fanny (Frances)
Wright
Timeline: 19th & early 20th century
J.S.Mills:
It demanded Equal rights for women in
‘Subjugation of women-
1st wave public sphere/political
1869’
Focus- education, job, equal pay, voting
Harriet Taylor
rights, property rights, legal rights, equality in
Raja Ram Mohan
marriage, family, society
Roy
Pandita Ramabai-
‘the high caste Hindu
women’- 1887

Simone de Beauvoir:
Also called radical feminism ‘the second sex’ –
Timeline: 1960s-70s women are not born but
Questioned socially constructed gender made-1949
notions of masculinity and femininity, Shulamith Firestone:
patriarchy, and reproductive role ‘The Dialectic of sex-
2nd Wave Reshape society and restructure its 1970’
institutions Kate Millet: ‘Sexual
Slogan- ‘Personal is political’; ‘women politics-1971’
are made, not born’ Germaine
Universal sisterhood, included Greer- ‘The Female
black/coloured women Eunuch’-1972

3rd Wave
May be called post-modern feminism, Rebecca Walker-
eco-feminism, transfeminism, etc. ‘Becoming the Third
Timeline: 1990s-2010 Wave’
Demanded freedom to control their Eve Ensler- ‘Vagina
bodies and their lives Monologues’
Intersectionality- women experience Amy Richards-
"layers of oppression" – caste, class, colour, ‘Opting In’
gender, race Naomi Wolf- ‘The
Fighting classism, racism, sexism by Beauty Myth’.
overturning the notions of gender, race, Susan Faludi-
class, and structure & symbols supporting ‘Backlash’
them. Germaine
Raised issues of violence against Greer-‘The Whole
women, women's reproductive rights, sexual Woman’
 liberation, derogatory terms for women, Carol Ann Duffy-
transgender rights, etc. ‘The World's Wife’

Rebecca Solnit- ‘Men

Explain Things to Me
Timeline- since 2012
(2014)’
Focus: focus on empowerment of
Jessica Valenti- ‘Sex
women, against sexual harassment, body
4th Wave Object: A Memoir
shaming, and rape culture, etc.
(2016)’
Use of social media
Laura Bates-
Me Too movement
‘Everyday
Sexism (2016)’

Friedrich Engles: ‘the

origin of family, private
property, and state-
1884’
Alexandra Kollontai-
Class and private property, and not gender ‘Sexual relation and the
Marxist or
discrimination, are the main issues class struggle’
Socialist
Consider mainstream feminism as capitalist or Sheila Rawbatham:
Feminism
Bourgeoise feminism- limited to white women ‘Women, resistance,
revolution and hidden
form of history-1943’
Martha
Nussbaum-‘Sex and
Social Justice’

Susan Griffin-‘
Examine socio-political arrangements from the Woman and Nature’
perspective of connections between women and Maria Mies-‘
nature Ecofeminism’ ( with
Gendering Nature Vandana Shiva
Eco-
Eco-Feminism was coined by French feminist Mary Mellor:
Feminism
Françoise d’Eaubonne in 1974 ‘Feminism & ecology’
Feminist perspective of Green politics that calls for Sallie McFague
an egalitarian, non-patriarchal, non-exploitative, Vandana Shiva
collaborative social order. Greta Gaard
Judi Bari- Earth First!

Post Colonialist feminist – Chandra Mohanty

Susan Miller Okin- Feminist conception of Justice
Feminism J. Ann Tickner- Re-formulation of 6 Principles of Morgenthau
in PG ET Feminists argue that women’s values are based primarily on prescribed
Past year social role
Papers Vandana Shiva- Ecofeminist
Feminist Authors & Books
 TABLE 1: BASIC FACTS: PARTS & SCHEDULES
Aspect Facts
Content 25 Parts, 448 Articles, 12 Schedules, 5 Appendices, and 105 Amendments.
Part Subject matter Articles
I The Union and its territory 1 to 4
II Citizenship 5 to 11
III Fundamental Rights(FR) 12 to 35
IV DPSP 36 to 51
IV A Fundamental duties 51 A (inserted 42nd Amendments- 1976)
Union or Central
52-151
Government
President 52-72
Council of Minister and PM 74-75
V
The Union Judiciary 124- 147
Comptroller and Auditor-
148-151
General of India(CAG)
Union Parliament 79-122
State Government 152-237
Governor 153-162
VI Council of Minister and CM 163-164
The State Legislature 168-212
High Courts 214-232
Parts & No Part VII, yes; it was
Articles- related to States in the B part
VII
subjects of the First schedule, was
repealed by 7th Amendment
VIII The Union Territories 239-242
Panchayati Raj
IX 243 to 243-O
System(PRI)
IX A The Municipalities 243-P to 243-ZG
The Scheduled and Tribal
X 244 to 244-A
Areas
Relations between the
XI 245 to 263
Union and the States
Services Under the Union
XIV 308 – 323
and the States
Election- Election
XV 324 to 329-A
Commission
XVII Official Language (Hindi) 343 to 351
Emergency Provisions 352 to 360
National Emergency 352
XVIII
State Emergency 356
Financial Emergency 360
Amendment of the
XX 368
Constitution
Schedules First States and UTs
Schedule
Second
Salaries of Presidents and other high offices of Union of India
Schedule
Forms of Oaths or Affirmations for union/state ministers,
Legislature(MP/MLA), candidate for election, Judges of SC/HC, CAG
Third
etc.
Schedule
Note: Forms of Oaths or Affirmations for President, Vice president,
Governor are in specific articles- 60, 69, 159 respectively.
Fourth
Allocation of seats in the Rajya Sabha to the states and UTs.
Schedule
Fifth
Administration of scheduled areas and scheduled tribes- 10 states
Schedule
Sixth Administration of tribal areas in the states of Assam, Meghalaya,
Schedule Tripura, and Mizoram.
Division of powers between the Union and the States
List I (Union List), List II (State List) and List III (Concurrent List).
Seventh
Presently, the Union List contains 100 subjects (originally 97), the
Schedule
state list contains 61 subjects (originally 66) and the concurrent list
contains 52 subjects (originally 47).
Languages recognized by the Constitution
Eighth
Originally, 14 languages but presently there are 22 recognized
Schedule
languages
Acts and Regulations (originally 13 but presently 282) related to
Land reforms and other matters which cannot be challenged in court
Ninth Inserted by 1st Amendment, 1951
Schedule For implementation of Land Reforms after abolition of Zamindari
System
Now, it has also come under Judicial Review
Anti-Defection Laws- disqualification of the MPs/MLAs on the
Tenth
ground of defection
Schedule
added by the 52nd Amendment Act of 1985
Eleventh Panchayati Raj System
Schedule added by the 73rd Amendment Act of 1992
Twelfth Municipalities
Schedule added by the 74th Amendment Act of 1992
 TABLE 2: CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENTS
Amendments Important Amendments Main changes/facts/related to
Reasonable restrictions on freedom of speech
(Public order, Friendly relations with foreign
states, Incitement to an offence)
1st- 1951
Ninth Schedule added- Land Reforms Acts
Inserted Article 31A: acquisition of Pvt.
property by Govt
Amended 31 A and 9th schedule
17th Amendment-1964 Golaknath case was against these
amendments
Parliament got right to amend any part of
Constitution including Fundamental Rights
24th Amendment- 1971 (article 368)
To counter SC ruling in the Golaknath case-
1967
25th Amendment-1971 Inserted 31 C: exempted any law giving effect
Both 24th & 25th amendment to the article 39(b) and 39(c) of DPSP from
was attempt by Indira Gandhi Govt judicial review, even if it violated the
to make India a socialist state. Fundamental Rights
They, however, culminated into SC struck down a part of the amendment in
‘Basic Structure’ Doctrine ‘Kesavananda Bharati’-1973- case.
Abolition of privy purse paid to former rulers
26th Amendment-1971
of princely states
Increase size of Parliament from 525 to 545
31st Amendment-1973
seats
35th and 36th Amendment- Sikkim incorporated into India and became a
1975 State
Placed restrictions on judicial scrutiny of post
of Prime Minister.
39th Amendment- 1975
In 1976, SC struck it on violation of basic
structure.
Passed during Emergency
42nd Amendment-1976 Called mini-Constitution- so many changes
SC, in Minerva Mills case, Curtailment of fundamental rights
quashed the amendments to Inserted 51 A: fundamental duties Inserted
Articles 31C and 368 on basic "Socialist, Secular, Integrity" in Preamble.
structure doctrine. Most of changes were reverted by 44th
amendment-1978
After emergency by the Janata Govt
Reverted most of changes of 42nd
44th Amendment-1978 amendments
Tighter conditions for emergency, protection
of Fundamental Rights and human rights
Anti-defection laws- disqualification on ground
52nd Amendment-1985 of change of party (defection)
Added 10th Schedule
56th Amendment-1987 Formation of Goa State
61st Amendment-1989 Reduced voting age to 18 years
69th Amendment-1991 legislative assembly and council of ministers
for National Capital Territory of Delhi.
Inserted articles 239AA- Governance of NCT
of Delhi
Panchayati Raj System
73rd Amendment-1992
Inserted 243 to 243-O
Constitutional status to Municipalities
74th Amendment-1992
Inserted 243-P to 243-ZG
Right to Education- 6-14 year children
86th Amendment-2002
Inserted article 21-A
Restrict the size of council of ministers to 15%
91st Amendment-2004
of legislative members
provision of reservation (27%) for Other
93rd Amendment-2006 Backward Class (OBCs) in govt and educational
institutions
National Judicial Appointments Commission
(NJAC)for Judge’s appointments
99th Amendment-2015
Was struck down by SC on violation of basic
structure of Constitution.
101st Amendment-2017 GST (Goods and Services Tax) introduced
10% reservation to Economically Weaker
103rd Amendment-2019
Sections (EWSs)
Abolished nomination of 2 Lok Sabha seats to
104th Amendment-2020 Anglo-Indians
Extended reservation for 10 years
Latest Amendment
Restores the power of the State Governments
and Union Territories to identify and specify
Socially and Economically Backward Classes
(SEBCs)
105th Amendment- 2021 Note:
1. G. Rohini Committee is related to this
matter (issue of sub-categorisation of OBCs)
2.by using this power, many states, such as
Bihar, are intending to do caste survey to know
numbers of different caste
 TABLE 3: THE CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY
The Aspect Fact/features
Constituent Constituted
Assembly under The Cabinet Mission Plan 1946

How its
by indirect election by the members of the Provincial Legislative
members were
Assemblies under the Government of India Act, 1935
elected?
How many 389 (292- British Provinces; 93 - princely states; 4 from the chief
members? commissioner provinces)
After
partition, how
299
many
members?
When first
9 December 1946
meeting?
Last
24 January, 1950; the signing day
Meeting?
Adopted on 26 November 1949
Implemented
26 January 1950
on
How many
to total sittings 11 sessions; two years, eleven months and seventeen days
and time?
Drafting Committee – B. R. Ambedkar.
Union Power Committee – Jawaharlal Nehru.
Union Constitution Committee – Jawaharlal Nehru.
Provincial Constitution Committee – Vallabhbhai Patel.
Important Advisory Committee on Fundamental Rights, Minorities and Tribal
Committee and Excluded Areas – Vallabhbhai Patel.
Steering Committee: Rajendra Prasad
Order of Business Committee - K M Munshi
The Oligarchy (by Granvile Austin): Nehru, Azad, Rajendra Prasad,
Patel
Provisional: Dr. Sachchidanand Sinha
President
Permanent: Dr. Rajendra Prasad
Objective Was presented by Nehru on 13 December 1946; was adopted on 22
Resolution January 1947
Famous Article 356 is like ‘safety valve’ and would reamin a dead letter-
quotes Ambedkar
Article 32 is the heart and soul of the Constitution – Ambedkar
“If things go wrong in the new Constitution, the reason will not be
that we had a bad Constitution, what we will have to say that Man was
vile”- Ambedkar
“Constitutional morality must be held higher than public morality”-
Ambedkar
Indian constitution as a ‘seamless web’- Granville Austin
Indian Constitution as a social Document- Granville Austin
‘India’s Constitution was born more in fear and trepidation than in
hope and inspiration’- Paul Brass
 “ But in the long run, it would be in interest of all to forget that there
is anything like majority or minority in this country and that in India there
is only one community…”- Patel
Directive Principles of State Policy are like “pious aspirations”- Ivor
Jennings
 TABLE 4: IMPORTANT ARTICLES
Very Article
India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of State
Important 1
Articles 14 Right to equality
19 Right to Freedom
21 Right to Life & Personal Liberty
Protection against arrest and preventive detention in certain cases
22
Called ‘the necessary evil’
25 Right to freedom of religion
shields legislation from being declared unconstitutional and void by putting
31 B
them into ninth schedule
32 Right to constitutional remedy, filing writ petition in SC if FR are violated
51A Fundamental Duties
President to act in accordance with of advice Council of Ministers with the
74
Prime Minister at the head.
78 PM: role, function, duties
76 Attorney General( AG) of India
Money Bills
109,
110-Definition of “Money Bills”.
110
109-Special procedure in respect of Money Bills
112 Budget-Annual financial statement
Establishment and constitution of Supreme Court- judges appointment,
124
removal
143 Power of the President to consult and take advise from the Supreme court
148 Comptroller and Auditor-General ( CAG)
153 Governor (in each State)
243 A-Gram Sabha
243- 243K. Elections to the Panchayats.
PRI Note : Panchayats- 234A to 243 O
Municipilaties-243P to 243 ZG
226 Writ petition in HC for violation of FR and legal rights
280 Finance Commission
312 All India Services
315 Public Service Commission (UPSC)
324 Election Commission of India
352 National Emergency
356 State Emergency
360 Financial Emergency
359 Suspension of Fundamental Rights, except 20 & 21, during emergencies
257: centre can give directions to State
257,
365: failure to comply with the direction mean constitutional breakdown,
365
article 356 may be invoked
368 Amendment: Power of Parliament to amend the Constitution
370, Special provisions for many states
371, 371 Article 370: J&K ; now repealed
(A-J) Article 371 – Maharashtra and Gujarat
371 A: Nagaland; 371 B : Assam ; 371 C: Manipur; 371D & E – Andhra
Pradesh; 371 F-Sikkim; 371G – Mizoram; 371H – Arunachal Pradesh; 371 I –
Goa ; 371J- districts of Hyderabad-Karnataka region
 TABLE 5: SOME LESS KNOWN ARTICLES WHICH MAY
BE ASKED
Odd Articles which were asked- better to remember them
Odd 50 Separation of judiciary from executive
Articles 60 Oath or affirmation by the President
which
61 Impeachment of the President
were
asked 69 Oath or affirmation by the Vice-President
Power of President to grant pardons, etc., and to suspend, remit or commute
72 sentences
Note Art.161: Pardoning power of Governor
86 Right of President to address and send messages to Houses.
Disqualifications for membership of the Parliament/house
102
Note: Article 103: President is the final authority to decide on this matter
Joint sitting of both Houses in certain cases
108
Note: No joint sitting for amendment Bills
122 Bar the courts to inquire into proceedings of Parliament
Ordinance: Power of President to promulgate Ordinances during recess of
123 Parliament.
Note: Art. 213: Ordinance by Governor
141 Law declared by Supreme Court to be binding on all courts.
provides discretionary power to the Supreme Court as it states that the
Supreme Court in the exercise of its jurisdiction may pass such decree or make
such order as is necessary for doing complete justice in any cause or matter
142
pending before it.
Recently, the SCI used this power to release A G Perarivalan, who had
served over 30 years of life term in the Rajiv Gandhi killing case.
144 Civil and judicial authorities to act in aid of the Supreme Court
159 Oath or affirmation by the Governor
165 Advocate-General for the State.
Bills passed by State Legislature is reserved by a Governor for the
201
consideration of the President,
214 High Courts in states
231 Establishment of a common High Court for two or more States
233 Appointment of district judges
Administration of Union territories
239
Note Art. 239AA: Special provisions with respect to Delhi
243
ZH to Co-Operative Societies
243 ZT
244 Administration of Scheduled Areas and Tribal Areas.
Power of Parliament to legislate with respect to a matter in the State List in
249
the national interest
Power of Parliament to legislate with respect to any matter in the State List if
250
a Proclamation of Emergency is in operation
253 Legislation for giving effect to international agreements
263 Inter-State Council.
300A Right to Property: Persons not to be deprived of property save by authority of
law.
312 All-India services
323A Administrative tribunals.
329 Bar to interference by courts in electoral matters.
Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the
330
House of the People.
Representation of the Anglo-Indian community in the House of the People.
331
Now repealed by 104th amendment
338 National Commission for Scheduled Castes
338A National Commission for Scheduled Tribes.
338B National Commission for Backward Classes
Appointment of a Commission to investigate the conditions of backward
340
classes.
343 Official language of the Union.
 TABLE 6 : CONSTITUTIONAL GK AND TRIVIA
Constitutional Majority of 2/3rd members present and voting supported by
GK and Trivia Special more than 50% of the total strength of the house.
Majority This type of majority is used for most of the Constitutional
amendment and impeachment of Judges.
Very special Two thirds of the total membership of the House
majority required for impeachment of President
Grounds of President: violation of the Constitution
Impeachment Judges: ground of proved misbehaviour or incapacity.
President
hands over Vice President and vice-versa
resignation to?
Speaker
hands over Dy. Speaker and vice-versa
resignation to?
SC/HC
Judges hands
President
over resignation
to?
FR vs DPSP;
In general FR but DPSP 39(b) and 39(c) is superior to FR 14,
which is
and 19.
superior?
Which case
Keshavnanda Bharti case- 1973
gave ‘Basic
Parliament cannot change the Basic Structure or basic
Structure’
feature of the constitution.
doctrine?
In Which case
first mention of Sajjan Singh v. State of Rajasthan -1964
‘Basic Structure’?
Berubari case (1960)
Which case But SC, in Keshavnanda Bharti case- 1973, overturned
decided earlier decision and stated that preamble is part of Constitution.
‘preamble Not In the 1995 case of Union Government Vs LIC of India also,
part of the Supreme Court has once again held that Preamble is the
Constitution’? integral part of the Constitution but is not directly enforceable in a
court of justice in India
Which article
Article 13(2) – “The State shall not make any law which takes
is used by the
away Fundamental Rights and any law made in contravention of
courts for Judicial
this clause shall, to the extent of the contravention, be void”
Review?
Which article
Article 31(c) inserted by 25th Amendments-1971- this gave
became battle
primacy to DPSP over FR
between FR and
This article led to long battle between SC and Government.
DPSP?
Which article Article 21- Right to Life ( Right to education, Right to privacy,
saw most Judicial right to shelter, right to pollution free environment, etc. all were
Activism declared FR under article 21)
Lok Sabha Vs Both have equal powers Except in:
Rajya Sabha
 1. Money Bill- can only be introduced in LS, RS very
limited power of amendments
2. No confidence motion can only be presented in LS

2 powers- not available to LS

Special
1. It can allow legislation by parliament on State list
powers of Rajya
subjects
Sabha
2. It can pass resolution to create All India Service

Who
declares/certify a
The Speaker of Lok Sabha
bill as Money
Bill?
Who is the
chairperson of The Vice President
Rajya Sabha?
Distributive Justice, social control of production: article 39(b),
39(c)
Organisation of village panchayats- 40
Right to work- article 41
Provision for just and humane conditions of work and
maternity relief- 42
Living wages for workers, Worker’s participation in
management: article 43
Important
Participation of workers in management of industries- 43A
DPSP
Promotion of co-operative societies- 43B
Uniform civil code: 44
Organisation of agriculture and animal husbandry-48
Environmental protection: 48A
Protection of monuments and places and objects of national
importance-49
Separation of judiciary from executive- 50
Promotion of international peace and security: 51
Right to equality : article 14 to 18
Right to Freedom : article 19 to 22
Right against exploitation : article 23 to 24
6 FR
Right to freedom of Religion: article 25 to 28
Cultural & Educational Rights: article 29 to 30
Rights to constitutional remedies : article 32
32: writ petition in SC against violation of FR
Article 32 vs 226: writ petition in HC against violation of FR as well as any
226 other constitutional/legal rights
Hence, scope of 226 is wider than 32
GOI Act 1909: Morley-Minto reform- separate electorate for
Muslims
Government of India Act 1919-
Constitutional
called Montague-Chelmsford reform- Dyarchy in provinces ;
reforms before
Sikhs got special electorates
1947
GOI Act 1935: Mini Indian Constitution- Provincial Autonomy ;
created the Federal Court
Cabinet Mission Plan 1946- Constituent assembly
Which article Article 31B
protect 9th
 Schedule from
Judicial Scrutiny?
Many of the emergency provisions taken from the Weimer
Constitution, Germany
National Emergency-352- 3 times- 1962, 1971, 1975

Can be extended by 6 months at a time by

Parliament
Emergency Maximum duration- unlimited

Financial Emergency-360- never invoked

Maximum duration- unlimited

State Emergency-356- more than 100 times!

•Maximum duration- 3 years
Which
landmark case SR Bommai case (1994)- after that invoking 356 came under
restricted use of strict judicial scrutiny
article 356?
What name
constitution give India and Bharat ( Article 1)
to India?
When
1976-42nd amendments- ‘Secular, Socialist, Integrity’ were
preamble was
added.
amended?
When
Fundamental
In 2002, through 86th amendments, 11th duty was added.
duty was
expanded?
FR available
Right to equality before law (14), right to life (20, 21), right to
to both citizens
freedom of religion (25,26,27,28)
and foreigners
On which On grounds of sovereignty and integrity of India, the security
grounds right to of the State, friendly relations with foreign States, public order,
freedom is
decency or morality or in relation to contempt of court,
restricted? defamation or incitement to an offence
Article 29, 30: Rights to Minorities to protect their language,
Which FR are
Script, culture and establish and administer educational
group rights?
institutions.
Not well defined; includes:

The supremacy of the constitution.

What are A republican and democratic system.
‘Basic Structure The secular character of the Constitution.
/feature’ Separation of powers among 3 organs of the state
Independence of Judiciary
The federal character of the Constitution.
 FACT SHEET CONST 2: CATCHY AND IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES IN CONSTITUTIONAL
DEMOCRACY

Term Meaning Addl. Info

A filibuster is a tactic employed in the
United States Senate to prevent or delay
voting on any bill/proposal. Though originated in Senate in
Filibuster
Most common form of filibuster is USA, used in all democracies.
unnecessary lengthy debates by the
Senators.
Gerrymandering is a practice intended While demarcating (called
to gain an unfair electoral advantage for a delimitation) constituencies, some
Gerrymandering particular party by manipulating the areas may be included/excluded
geographical boundaries of electoral intentionally to suit caste/religion
constituencies. arithmetic of the constituency.
1. It is a French word faster way of
execution.
Guillotine refers to the exercise of 2. Generally used by the Speaker
Guillotine passage of bills/proposals en- masse (in of the House, to pass Demands for
a block) due to time limit. Grants, as part of Budget, at the last
allotted day, in block, without any
discussion.

It is the time gap between

the end of Question Hour (which
1. It is entirely Indian Parliamentary
is of 1 hour from 11 am to 12)
Innovation.
and the beginning of the regular
Zero Hour 2. It may last for about one hour,
business of the House.
from 12 to 1 PM, before the House
MPs can ask any question of
breaks for lunch.
public importance during the
zero hour at short notice.

Official directions issued to

Members voting against party line
Whip members of Legislature to vote
may lose their membership
on party line

To remain in power the

Cabinet/Government must If passed, the Government loses
No Confidence
obtain the confidence of the Lok confidence of the house and has to
Motion
Sabha resign
May be moved by opposition

It is the proposal in the Lok Sabha to

If the motion is adopted(passed), it
cut (reduce) the Demands for grants by
Cut Motion amounts to a no-confidence vote, and
Government ministries during the Budget
Government will fall.
session.
Normal business of the House is
Adjournment
suspended to discuss urgent matter of
Motion
public interest
Popular in US Senate where the
Stopping one’s speech to allowe other
Yield the floor members may speak for indefinte
speakers to speak
time.
 Laid on the Denote submission of important CAG, CEC, Finance Commission,
floor of house reports, and subordinate legislation in the etc. submit its annual report to te
Parliament by the executive. President, who get them laid on te
floor of the house
 FACT SHEET- INDIAN POLITY
FACT SHEET IND POL.1: POLITICAL PARTIES: 7 NATIONAL PARTIES

Founded Prominent
Name Founder Interesting Facts
in leaders- current
Congress dominance-
1951-1967
Divided 1969- Congress
Sonia Gandhi,
Congress 1885 A.O.Hume (O) and Congress(R)
Rahul Gandhi
NCP, TMC, YSR
congress, etc split from
Congress
Atal Bihari Narendra Modi, New Avtar of Bhartiya
BJP 1980 Bajpai and Lal Amit Sah, Rajnath Jan Sangh, founded in 1951
Krishna Advani Singh, Nitin Gadkari by Syama Prasad Mukherjee
Symbol: Ears of Corn
SA Dange, and Sickle
Communist D.Raja, Binoy
M.N.Roy, SV Largest opposition party
Party of 1925 Viswam, K.
Ghate, and to Congress in 1st Lok Sabha
India(CPI) Subbarayan
others. M.N.Roy formed CPI in
Tashkent in 1920
Symbol: Hammer, Sickle
Sitaram Yechury, and Star
A. K. Gopalan
Prakash Karat, Manik Split from CPI on issue of
CPI-M 1964 Jyoti Basu, E. M.
Sarkar, Pinarayi Indo- China war
S. Namboodiripad
Vijayan CPI- pro Soviet, pro-
congress
Bahujan
Samaj Party( 1984 Kanshi Ram Mayawati Symbol- Elephant
BSP)
Symbol- Flower and
Grass
Trinamool Mamta Mamta Banerjee,
1998 Split from Congress
Congress(TMC) Banerjee Derek O’Brien
Ruling West Bengal since
2011
Symbol: Clock
National Sharad Pawar, Sharad Pawar,
Split from Congress on
Congress 1999 P.A. Sangma, Supriya Sule, Praful
issue of foreign origin person
Party(NCP) Tariq Anwar Patel
as PM
Note: National People’s Party(NPP) was recogbised by the ECI as 8th national Party in 2019, but still
on ECI website only 7 national parties are shown. You may decide if MCQs asked about NPP or nos. of
recognised national parties.
 FACT SHEET IND POL. 2: REGIONAL AND STATE PARTIES

Founded Prominent leaders- Interesting

Name Founder
in current Facts
Symbol: hut,
wheel and plough
Telugu Colour: Yellow
N. T. Rama Rao
Desam Party 1982 Chandrababu Naidu Was largest
(NTR)
(TDP) opposition party in
8th Lok Sabha( 1984
to 1989)
Symbol: rising
Dravida
C. N. Annadurai sun
Munnetra
1949 Karunanidhi- long M.K.Stalin, T. R. Baalu Split from DK,
Kazhagam
serving leader founded by Periyar
(DMK)
E. V. Ramasamy
M. G.
All India O. Panneerselvam Symbol: two-
Ramachandran(MGR)
Anna DMK 1972 (OPS), E. Palaniswami leaves
J. Jayalalithaa-
(AIADMK) ( EPS) Split from DMK
long serving leader
Samajwadi Mulayam Singh Mulayam Singh Yadav,
1992 Symbol: cycle
Party (SP) Yadav Akhilesh Yadav
Rashtriya
Lalu Prasad Lalu Prasad Yadav,
Janata Dal( 1997 Symbol- Lantern
Yadav Tejaswi Yadav
RJD)
SGPC, Master Symbol- Flower
Shiromani Prakash Singh Badal,
Tara Singh, Sardar and Grass
Akali Dal 1920 Sukhbir Singh Badal,
Sarmukh Singh Second-oldest
(SAD) Harsimrat Kaur Badal
Chubbal, etc. party in India
Ajit Singh, son of
Rashtriya Symbol: hand
1996 legendary farm leader Jayant Chaudhary
Lok Dal (RLD) pump
Charan Singh
Symbol:
Indian
Om Prakash Chautala, Spectacles
National Lok 1996 Devi Lal
Abhay Chautala Currently ruling
Dal (INLD)
Haryana with BJP
Symbol: Bow &
Jharkhand
Binod Bihari Sibu Soren, Hemant Arrow
Mukti Morcha 1972
Mahato Soren Currently ruling
(JMM)
Jharkhand state
Symbol: Lady
Janata Dal H. D. Deve Gowda, H. D.
1999 H. D. Deve Gowda Farmer Carrying
(Secular) Kumaraswamy
Paddy on her Head
Symbol: Motor
car
Telangana Led the
K. Chandrashekar K. Chandrashekar Rao ,
Rashtra 2001 Telangana state
Rao K. T. Rama Rao
Samith(TRS) formation movement
Ruling Telangana
since its formation
Justice 1916 Dr C. Natesa E. V. Ramasamy; T. M. Oldest of the
Party Mudaliar Nair, P. Theagaraya Chetty regional parties
and Alamelu Mangai E. V. Ramasamy
Thayarammal ,in 1944, converted
Justice Party into DK
 FACT SHEET IND POL.3: PRESIDENTS AND VICE PRESIDENTS OF INDIA
Name Tenure Vice President Unique facts
Differed on many issues with Nehru Govt,
Dr especially on Hindu code bill and suggested that
1950- Dr.
Rajendra president is not entirely bound by advice of council of
62 Radhakrishnan
Prasad minister

Dr. 1962- Teachers' Day is celebrated on his birth

Dr. Zakir Hussain
Radhakrishnan 67 anniversary ( 5th Sept)
Dr. Zakir 1967- 1st President to die in office
V.V. Giri
Hussain 69 Was VC of Jamia Millia University
He won president election by defeating official
Congress candidate as Indira Gandhi called for
1969- Gopal Swarup
V.V. Giri ‘Conscience Vote’.
74 Pathak
Congress split into Congress(R) and Congress
(O) on this issue in 1969
Fakhruddin 1974- 2nd President to die in office
B.D.Jatti
Ali Ahmed 1977 He signed Emergency in 1975
President during Janata Government
1. B.D.Jatti He was the official Congress president defeated
Neelam 1977- 2. Moham by V.V.Giri in 1969
Sanjiva Reddy 82 mad In 1979, accepted Charan Singh, PM’s advice on
Hidayatullah dissolution of Lok Sabha even when the PM had no
majority in the Lok Sabha
Giani Zail 1982- In 1986- refused assent to postal bill, which
R. Venkataraman
Singh 87 allowed Government to read private letters/mails.
Worked with four PM( Rajeev Gandhi, V.P. Singh,
R. 1987- Shankar Dayal Chandra Shekhar and P V Narasimha Rao) and
Venkataraman 92 Sharma appointed three of them.
Start of Coalition Governments
Shankar 1992- Returned two executive orders to the cabinet
K. R. Narayanan
Dayal Sharma 97 13 days Bajpai Government in 1996
Most assertive President
Returned proposals of cabinet for imposition of
K. R. 1997- emergency in UP and Bihar
Krishan Kant
Narayanan 2002 Made mandatory to produce letters of support
from alliance partners as proof of majority for PM
claimant
Missile man, DRDO scientist, architect of 2nd
Pokhran Test
Dr. A.P.J. 2002- Bhairon Singh
Returned office of profit bill to cabinet
Abdul Kalam 2007 Shekhawat
His birthday, 15 Oct, is celebrated by UN as
‘World Students Day’
Pratibha 2007-
Hamid Ansari 1st Women President of India
Patil 2012
Refused to sign ordinances on anti-corruption law
Pranab 2012-
Hamid Ansari commuted death sentences of four convicts
Mukherjee 2017
against the advice of the cabinet
Ram Nath
2017- Venkaiah Naidu
Kovind
 FACT SHEET IND POL.4: DY. PMS OF INDIA

Name Tenure PM, Party

Sardar Patel 1947-50 PM- Nehru, Congress party
Morarji Desai 1967-69 PM-Indira Gandhi, Congress
Charan Singh 1979` PM- Morarji Desai, Janata Party
Jagjivan Ram 1979 PM- Morarji Desai, Janata Party
Y.B. Chavan 1979-80 PM- Charan Singh, Congress Party
PM: V.P.Singh, Janata Dal
Devi Lal 1989-91
Note: Devi Lal became Dy. PM twice
L.K.Advani 2002-2004 PM- Atal Bihari Bajpai, BJP
Note: Constitution does not mention the post of Dy. PM; hence, Dy. PM takes oath as union
minister.
 FACT SHEET IND POL. 5 : IMPORTANT COMMISSION AND COMMITTEE

Formed
Name Issue Findings/ recommendation
in
Gorwala Report on Public
1951
Committee Administration in India
To examine the
Balwant Rai working of the
Recommended 3-tier Panchayati Raj System
Mehta 1957 Community
for Rural India
Committee Development
Programme (CDP)

Setting up Central Vigilance

Santhanam
1962 Anti- corruption Commission(CVC)
committee
CVC was set up in 1964

10+2+3 pattern
Advise guidelines
Women’s education
Kothari and policies for the
1964 Neighbourhood school system
Commission development of
Establishment of Indian Education
education in India.
Service

Panchayati Raj
Sadiq Ali
1964. Institutions in Was set up by Rajashthan state Govt
Committee
Rajashthan
Kapur
1966 Killing of Gandhiji Role of Savarkar and his associates
Commission
Khosla
Commission-
1970 Death of Subhash Both commission rejected any conspiracy and
Mukherjee Chandra Bose rumours of activities of Bose after the plane crash
Commission
2005
Rajamannar Centre-state
1969 Set up by DMK Govt in Tamil Nadu
Committee Relation
Tarkunde Election Commission- 3 member
1974 Election reforms
Committee minimum age for voting-18 yrs

Misuse of MISA, and Defence of

To probe the
Shah India rules during emergency
1977 excesses committed
Commission Excess in sterilization program
during the emergency
Poor role of Bureaucracy

2-tier Panchayati Raj Institutions

Ashok Mehta Panchayati Raj
1977 1st committee to recommend
Committee System
Constitutional status to PRI

Sarkaria Centre-state Far reaching suggestions on role of

1983
Commission relationship Governors and use of Article 356
M.P. Thakkar Killing of Indira Conspiracy and persons responsible for the
1984
Commission Gandhi killing
 G.V.K. Rao 1985 Various aspects of Set up Planning commission
Committee PRI District as the basic unit of planning

to consider the type of political and

P.K.Thungan Various aspects of
1989 administrative structure needed in the
Committee PRI
District Planning.

Increasing security deposits for

candidates;
lowering age bar for fighting election
Dinesh
Not more than 2 seats one can contest
Goswami 1990 Election reforms
DPSP to PR
Committee
Anti-defection law
Government funding of election
expenses

M.C.Jain Killing of Rajeev Conspiracy and persons responsible for the

1991
Commission Gandhi killing
Liberhan Babri Masjid Causes and persons responsible for the
1992
Commission demolition Mosque demolition
Srikrishna 1992-93 Bombay Conspiracy and persons responsible for the
1993
Commission riots riots
Ram Nandan
Creamy layers among Backward Castes for
Prasad 1993 OBC reservation
being eligible for reservation
Committee
Swaminathan Stabilizing population, restructuring family
1994 Population policy
Committee welfare program
Bhuria Panchayati Raj
1995 Extension of PRI in tribal areas
Committee Institution(PRI)
political funding and measures to discourage
Indrajit Gupta
1998 Election reforms criminals from helping candidates during
Committee
elections.
Nanavati 1984 anti-Sikh
2000 Persons responsible for the riot.
Commission riots
Nanavati- Godhra train
Causes of both the incidence and persons
Mehta 2002 burning and Gujarat
responsible.
Commission Riot-2002
increasing the income tax exemption limit,
Kelkar
2002 direct tax reforms rationalization of exemptions, abolition of long
Committee
term capital gains tax, abolition of wealth tax etc
Tehelka Tape
Phukan scandal- fake defence
2003 Persons involved in the corruption incidence
Commission deal & corruption
caught on camera

Anti-defection measures
Jeevan
10-fold increase in security deposits
Reddy 2004 Election reforms
Barring criminals from contesting
Committee
election.

Swaminathan 2004 Farmer’s issues Minimum support price(MSP) formula

committee
Socio-economic
Very poor Socio-economic and educational
Sachar and educational
2005 condition of Muslims in India. They are worse off
Committee condition of Muslims
than Dalits.
in India.

Misuse of 356
M.M.
Centre-state National integration council
Punchhi 2007
relationship Concurrent list changes only with State’s
Commission
consultation, etc.

Srikrishna Situation in
2010 Related to formation of Telangana state
Committee Andhra Pradesh
The committee submitted its report and Draft
Srikrishna Personal Data
2017 Personal Data Protection Bill, 2018;
Committee Protection
The bill is yet to be enacted.
By 105th amendments powers of the State
Issue of sub-
G Rohini
2017 categorisation of Governments and Union Territories was restored
Commission to identify and specify Socially and Economically
OBCs
Backward Classes (SEBCs)
 FACT SHEET IND POL. 6: BOOKS AND AUTHORS ON INDIAN POLITY AND POLITICAL
PROCESS
Book Author Theme
Democracy and Discontent:
India's Growing Crisis of
Governability
His other books:
• Poverty Amid Plenty in Political change in India from the late
the New India 1960s to the late 1980s.
Atul Kohli
• Democracy and How declining dominance of Congress
Development in India challenged political order and stability.
• State-Directed
Development
• The Success of India's
Democracy
The Child and the State in
India
His other books:
• Party politics in India
(1957) Myron Issue of child labour, migration, state politics
• State Politics in India Weiner Initiated the study of State Politics in India
(1968)
• Sons of the Soil:
Migration and Ethnic
Conflict in India(1978)
Religion, Caste, and Politics
in India Christophe
Hindu nationalist Movement Jaffrelot
and Indian Politics
The Politics of India Since
Independence
Caste, Faction, and Party in
Indian Politics
•‘Factional Politics in an
Indian State(1965)’
•‘The Politics of India Since
Independence(1990)’
Paul Brass
•‘Ethnicity and
Nationalism(1991)’
•‘The Production of Hindu-
Muslim Violence in
Contemporary India (2004)’
•‘An Indian Political Life:
Charan Singh and Congress
Politics, 1937 to 1961 (2011)’
Coalition Politics and
E.
Democratic Consolidation in
Sridharan
Asia
1.The government and
politics of India Morris- Explained single party dominance (Congress)
2. Parliament in India Jones Adopted structural-functional approach
3. Politics Mainly Indian
Partha Indian nationalism as not main but derivative
1. Nationalist Thought Chatterjee discourse among many sub-national
 and the Colonial World: groups/communities, which he called fragments of
A Derivative Discourse Indian Nation.
2. The Nation and its Subaltern thinker
Fragments

1. The Modernity of
Tradition
How in India traditional structures and norms have
2. In Pursuit of Lloyd and
been adapted or transformed to serve the needs of a
Lakshmi Sussane
modernizing society
3. Explaining Indian Rudolph
Study of political economy of the Indian state
Democracy: A Fifty
Year Perspective

Working a Democratic
Granville working of the Indian Constitution from 1950 to
Constitution: A History of the
Austin 1985
Indian Experience
1.Gandhi's Political
Philosophy
Bhikhu Also wrote “Rethinking Multiculturalism: Cultural
2. Colonialism, Tradition and
Parekh Diversity and Political Theory”
Reform: An Analysis of Gandhi's
Political Discourse

1. Understanding
Caste: From Buddha
To Ambedkar And She wrote many books on Ambedkar, Buddhism,
Gail
Beyond Indian women’s struggle
Omvedt
2. Reinventing Also wrote “Seeking Begumpura”
Revolution: New Social
Movements in India

Asish Political, economic, and cultural domination under

The Intimate Enemy
Nandy colonialism
M. N.
Caste in Modern India Concepts: Dominant Caste, Sankritisation
Srinivas
Rajni Kothari Books:
•Politics in India(1970)
•Caste in Indian
Politics(1970) Coined’ the Congress System’
•State Against Polticisation of Caste
Democracy(1988) Rajni Indian State as ‘incremental democratic
•Rethinking Kothari modernization’
Development(1988) Indian Society as ‘political society’
•Rethinking Used structural-functional approach
Democracy(2005)
•Communalism in Indian
politics(1998)
Achin Vanaik Books Achin Wrote profusely on issues concerning religion,
•‘Communalism Contested: Vanaik communalism and secularism
Religion, Modernity and
Secularization(1997)’
•‘Hindutva Rising: Secular
Claims, Communal
Realities(2017)’
 •‘India in a Changing
World1995)’
 FACT SHEET IND. POL. 7: COMMENTS/QUOTE ON INDIAN POLITY BY THINKER/AUTHORS

Comment/quote Thinker/author Addl. Information

Indian economy as “Bullock Cart Lloyd and They also said that caste in India fosters
Capitalism” Sussane Rudolph democracy
Indian politics as tussle between a
Lloyd and
“demand polity” and a “command In their book ‘In Pursuit of Lakshmi’
Sussane Rudolph
polity”
Lloyd and ‘Explaining Indian Democracy’- by
India as ‘weak-strong state’
Sussane Rudolph Rudolph & Rudolph
Indian federalism as “bargaining Theory of single party dominance in
Morris Jones
federalism” India
Constitution of India is federal in
KC Wheare
structure and unitary in spirit
Indian Politics as “Politics of Initiated the study of State Politics in
Myron Weiner
Scarcity” India
Wrote “The regional roots of
India as a “polycentric hierarchy Aseema Sinha
developmental politics in India”
Indian state as interchangeably Author of “Democracy and Discontent:
Atul Kohli
“weak” and “captured” India's Growing Crisis of Governability”
Indian nationalism as “Derivative Partha Wrote: “Nationalist thought and the
Discourse” Chatterjee colonial world- A Derivative Discourse”
Wrote : “Democracy without
Indian democracy as ‘Democracy Pradeep
Associations: Transformation of the Party
Without Associations’ Chhibber
System and Social Cleavages in India ”
Kanchan
India as a Patronage-Democracy
Chandra
describes Indian federation as a
Pranab
“holding together federation and not a
Bardhan
‘coming together federation”
flailing : wave or swing wildly, un steady,
Calls India a “flailing state.” Lant Pritchett
not settled
Indian party system as
Giovanni until the 1960s in terms of this model,
"predominant party system"
Sartori Congress was the predominant party
Indian Party System as ‘one party Rajni Kothari called it ‘the Congress
Morris Jones
dominant system’ System’
‘Politics in India’ ; ‘Caste in Indian
Indian State as ‘incremental
Rajni Kothari Politics’; ‘State Against Democracy’: books
democratic modernization’?
by Rajni Kothari
Varshney in his work ‘Is India becoming
Three democratic upsurges in the Ashutosh more Democratic’ discussed the three
democratic politics in India Varshney democratic upsurges in the democratic
politics in India
‘India’s Constitution was born more
‘The Politics of India since
in fear and trepidation than in hope Paul Brass
Independence’- by Paul Brass
and inspiration’
India as a Democratic ‘Politics and State-Society Relations in
James Manor
Developmental State India’- James Manor
India as an example of Anthony D. ‘Nationalism’ – by Anthony D. Smith
“Polycentric Nationalism” Smith
 Indian constitution as a ‘seamless
Granville Austin
web’
 FACT SHEET IND. POL. 8 : LANDMARK SC CASES WHICH CHANGED INDIAN POLITY

Case Year Decision and effect

SC struck caste-based
reservation;
State of Madras v. Champakam Dorairajan 1951 FR is superior to DPSP.
Led to 1st amendment

No judicial review to Amendments as

Amendments under article 368 is not ‘law’
Shankari Prasad case 1951
under article 13(2)

Reservation cannot be more than 50%

Balaji v/s State of Mysore 1962
First case in which mention of ‘Basic
Sajjan Singh vs State of Rajashthan 1964
Structure’ was made.
Amendments under article 368 are ‘law’
under article 13(2) and hence can be struck
Golaknath Case 1967
down if they violate Fundamental rights

‘Basic Structure Doctrine’-Parliament

can amend any part of constitution
Kesavananda Bharati case 1973 provided basic structure/feature of the
constitution is not changed.

SC ruled that even Right to Life can be

1975-
ADM Jabalpur Case suspended during emergency as per article
76
359
Further established ‘Basic Structure
Doctrine’
Power of Parliament to amend the
Minerva Mills case 1980 constitution was limited
Restored balance between FR and
DPSP

‘Due Process’ Doctrine : Right to life(

article 21) gave SC power to judicial review
Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India 1978 of not only ‘procedure established by law’
but also ‘ due process of law’

SC gave ‘rarest of rare’ doctrine for

Bachan Singh vs State Of Punjab 1980
capital punishment
Three Judges Cases: 1. SP Gupta v Union
of India (1981)
1981- Gave ‘Collegium system’ of Judges
2. Supreme Court Advocates‐on‐Record
98 appointment
Association v Union of India (1993)
3. Re Special Reference No 1 of 1998
Right against violence in police custody
Sheela Barse v. State of Maharashtra 1983
Olga Tellis vs. Bombay Municipal 1985 ‘Right to Livelihood’ FR under article
Corporation 21
 SC decided ‘Right to alimony(
living support from divorced
husband)’ to Muslim women
But the central Government
Shah Bano case 1985
enacted law to nullify SC decision.
Generated heated debate on
Secularism

Public hanging violates article 21-

Attorney General of India v. Lachma Devi 1988 hence should be banned.

‘Right to Shelter’ under article 21

Shantistar Builders v. N.K. Totame 1990
‘Right to pollution free environment’
Subhash Kumar v. State of Bihar 1991 FR under article 21

Creamy layer policy: creamy layer

among OBC, SC/ST be excluded from
Indra Sawhney v. Union of India 1992
reservation.

Application of article 356 to dismiss

S.R. Bommai v/s Union of India 1994 state Government was made tough
Profoundly affected centre-state relation

Vishaka Guidelines: against sexual

Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan 1997 harassment of women at work place

Disqualification on conviction for certain

offences: convicted person disqualified for
Lily Thomas v. Union of India 2013
6 years from contesting election.

Justice K.S. Puttaswamy vs. Union

of India ‘Right to Privacy’ under article 21
Maneka Gandhi vs the Union of
2017
India; R Sukanya vs R Sridhar; Kharak These cases helped bring ‘Right to
Singh vs State of Uttar Pradesh; Privacy’ under article 21
Govind vs State of Madhya Pradesh

Decriminalised homosexuality by
Navtej Singh Johar vs. Union Of India 2018 striking off parts of Section 377 of the
Indian Penal Code (IPC).
 FACT SHEET IND. POL. 9: LANDMARK ACTS

ACT Year Addl. Info

The Delhi Special Police
1946 CBI was set up under this law
Establishment Act
The Representation of the Rules for election for Parliament and State Legislature
1951
People Act Amended many times
To implement article 17 ( abolition of untouchability) and
Protection of Civil Rights Act 1955
protect rights of SC/ST
Uninterrupted supply of essential goods; to stop hoarding
Essential Commodities Act 1955 or black marketing
In 2020, the Act was modified along with 2 Farm Acts
The Citizenship Act 1955 Rules for acquiring Indian citizenship
Reorganisation of States on linguistic basis- 14 State, 6
States Reorganisation Act 1956
UTs
Unlawful Activities Give powers to Govt to deal with people for protecting
1967
(Prevention) Act (UAPA) integrity and sovereignty of India
The Water (Prevention and
1974 Control and prevent water pollution
Control of Pollution) Act,
The Air (Prevention and
1981 Control and prevent air pollution
Control of Pollution) Act,
The Forest (Conservation)
1980
Act
The Environment
1986 Protection and improvement of the environment
(Protection) Act
The Muslim Women
This Act was brought by Govt to nullify the SC judgement
(Protection of Rights on 1986
on Shah Bano case
Divorce) Act
To minimize corruption in government agencies and
Prevention of Corruption Act 1988
public sector

To prevent discrimination, atrocities and hate

Scheduled Caste and
crimes against SC/ST
Scheduled Tribe (Prevention of 1989
It was felt that Protection of Civil Rights Act
Atrocities) Act,
1955 was not adequate for SC/ST

The Wildlife Protection Act 1972 Protection of wild animals, birds and plants
Energy Conservation Act 2001 To conserve energy and promote clean energy.
NGT was set up quick disposal of the cases pertaining to
The National Green Tribunal environmental issues
2010
Act To implement ‘Right to clean environment’ under article
21

Govt might arrest anyone on suspicion of

threats to national security
Maintenance of Internal
1971 MISA was used during Emergency (1975-77) to
Security Act (MISA)
arrest opposition leaders, journalists, etc
Janata Govt abolished MISA in 1977

Persons With Disabilities 1995

(Equal Opportunities, Protection Special provisions, special quota for disable
of Rights and Full Participation) persons
Act Was amended in 2016- ‘Rights of Persons with
Disabilities Act, 2016’

Orderly development and maintenance of

Foreign Exchange foreign exchange market in India
1999
Management Act, (FEMA) Replaces Foreign Exchange Regulation Act
(FERA)

To regulate ICT in India

Information Technology Act 2000
Also called cyber Act

Competition Commission of India(CCI) was set

The Competition Act 2002 up under this Act
Replaced MRTP Act

Right to Information Act 2005 Landmark Act to implement ‘Right to Information’

National Rural Employment
2005 MG NAREGA is implemented under this Act
Guarantee Act
Protection of Women from The Act provides a definition of "domestic violence" for
2005
Domestic Violence Act the first time in Indian law
Disaster Management Act 2005 Corona Pandemic was dealt in under this Act
constitution of a National Commission and State
Commission for Protection
2006 Commissions for Protection of Child Rights and Children's
of Child Rights Act
Courts for providing speedy trial of offences against children
Also called RTE Act
Right of Children to Free
2009 Right to Education( under article 21) is implemented
and Compulsory Education Act
under the Act
Sexual Harassment of
Women at Workplace
2013 ‘Visakha Guideline’ came out of this Act
(Prevention, Prohibition and
Redressal) Act
National Food Security Mission is implemented under
National Food Security Act 2013
this Act
The Lokpal and Lokayuktas
2013 Lokpal and Lokayuktas were appointed under the Act
Act
Whistle Blowers Protection To protect those who disclose corruption in Govt
2014
Act 2011 organisation
Goods and Services Tax
2017 GST was implemented under this Act
(Compensation to States) Act
Jammu and Kashmir
2019 State of J&K was made 2 UTs- J&K and Ladakh
Reorganisation Act
New and more stronger Consumer protection Act in
Consumer Protection Act 2019
which many new services added

Muslim Women (Protection Made triple talaq unlawful

2019
of Rights on Marriage) Act Called anti- triple talaq Act

Transgender Persons 2019 To protect the rights of Transgender Persons

(Protection of Rights) Act,
Provide Indian citizenship for persecuted religious
Citizenship (Amendment) minorities from Afghanistan, Bangladesh and Pakistan who
2019
Act are Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, Parsis or Christians,
and arrived in India before the end of December 2014
1.The farmers' produce
trade and commerce (promotion
and facilitation) act, 2020. These are 3 Farm laws which provide for market
2.The farmers reforms in Indian Farming sector, contract farming,
(empowerment and protection) and liberalisation of trade in farm produce
2020
agreement on price assurance Farmers of Punjab, Haryana, and UP are
and farm services act, 2020. agitating against these Farm Law, which are on
3. The essential hold by the order of SC.
commodities (amendment) act,
2020.
 FACT SHEET IND. POL. 10: STATE RE-ORGANISATION

Year Event/state created Unique facts

A: former British
provinces
Constitution arranged Indian State into A, B,C,D groups
1950 B and C: Princely
states
D: A&N Islands
Potti Sreeramulu, A Revolutionary leader, died after 56 days of
1952
hunger strike for creation of Andhra Pradesh( from Madras presidency)
1st State on the
1953 Andhra Pradesh created
basis of Language
States Reorganization Act
1956 14 states, 6 UT
Abolished A,B,C,D groupings
Gujrat becomes
1960 Bombay was divided into Maharashtra and Gujrat
the 15th State.
1961 Dadra and Nagar Haveli becomes the 7th UT
Goa, Daman and
1962 Goa, Daman and Diu acquired from Portuguese
Diu- 7th & 8th UT
Nagaland- 16th
1963 Nagaland carved out from the state of Assam
State
Punjab and Haryana created Punjab- last state
1966
Chandigarh also created as UT and common capital on language basis
1971 HP was created HP was UT
NE re-
1972 Meghalaya, Tripura, and Manipur became state
organisation
1975 Sikkim merged in India Sikkim-22nd state
1987 Goa, Mizoram, and Arunachal Pradesh became State from UTs 25 states
Chhattisgarh( from MP), Jharkhand( from Bihar), and Uttarakhand(
2000 28 states
from UP) became states
2014 Telangana ( from Andhra Pradesh) became state 29th State
Note:

1. 14 states and 6 UTs were created as per the SRA-1956

2. Zonal councils were created, Home minister as chairperson, as per SRC
 FACT SHEET IND. POL 11: MAJOR CENTRAL GOVERNMENT
SCHEMES/MISSIONS/PROGRAMS

Scheme name Purpose/sector Unique facts/features

PM Jan Dhan Opened 42 crore new accounts
Financial inclusion
Yojna in name of poor
About 30 cr loan of Rs 15 lakh
PM Mudra Yojna Loan for self-employment
cr given
Swachh Bharat
Cleanliness, hygiene at public places 11 cr toilets made
Mission
Smart City Mission Improved urban living 100 smart cities
Ayushman Bharat Universal Health Insurance Scheme Insurance cover of 5 lakh per
Mission for poor family per year
Mission
Universal Immunization program
Indradhanush
Ujjwala Yojna Free LPG connection to rural poor
Ujala Scheme Cheap LED bulbs in all homes
Electricity connections to all remaining Pradhan Mantri Sahaj Bijli Har
Soubhagya Yojna
un-electrified households Ghar Yojana - Saubhagya
PMAY-G: Rural areas
Pradhan Mantri Providing affordable housing to the
PMAY-U: Urban areas
Awas Yojana (PMAY) poor households
About 1.8 cr houses provided
Ude Desh ka Aam Naagrik-
UDAN Scheme Affordable air travel for common man
UDAN
Social security for poor in form of Rs Poor need to subscribe to the
Atal Pension Yojna
1000 to 5000 Rs monthly pension pension fund; Government
Atal Mission for
Rejuvenation and Strengthen urban Infrastructure-
Urban Transformation sewage, street lights, transport, etc
(AMRUT)
To provide students experience in
Atal Tinkering Labs
creating and modifying 3D designs
Government sponsored and
Fasal Bima Yojna
subsidized crop insurance
Soil Health Card
Free soil testing for farmers
Scheme
Kisan Samman Direct cash transfer of Rs 2000 per 4 Direct Income Transfer Scheme
Nidhi Yojana months to Farmers for farmers
Indian youth(17-23 years) may join They would be called
Indian Armed Forces without any long- ‘Agneeveers’ and will get many
Agnipath scheme
term commitments with attractive salary benefits and assistance after
packages leaving armed forces
 FACT SHEET: TRADITIONAL APPROACHES TO
COMPARATIVE POLITICS
Approaches Facts/features Main thinkers/theorists

Oldest one : Since pre-

political science era
Method: Abstract reasoning,
Normative Aristotle, Rousseau, Kant, Hegel,
moral arguments, Formal logic
Philosophical T.H.Green, Leo Strauss, Isaiah Berlin
and analytic philosophy
Prescriptive, deductive, value
loaded, idealistic, speculative

Genealogical – treating history

as a genetic process – how a
political phenomenon evolved Machiavelli: used this approach in ‘
over time the Prince’
Studying past to understand Oakeshott, Hobbes, Locke,
Historical
the causes of political Rousseau, Marx, Laski
Approach
phenomenon in present Hegel and Marx also used Historical
Example : comparative approcah ( evolution of ideas/matter
analysis of the French, Russian through Historical Dialecticism)
and Chinese Revolutions, by
Skocpol

Aristotle: 6 types of
constitution/Government
Polybius: division of powers among
Focus on Institutions and
organs of state
structures of political system
Bryce: study of American government
Formal, legal,
in comparative perspective
Institutional state/Government and its organs
Edward Finer: wrote’ The History of
Approach Eurocentric, prescriptive,
Government’- Comparative analysis of
normative, speculative
Government from earliest time
Evolved as Comparative
Duverger, Sartori: Comparative study of
Government
political party and party system
Herman Finer and Carl Fredrich- other
proponents
 FACT SHEET: MODERN APPROACHES TO
COMPARATIVE POLITICS
Approaches Facts/features Main thinkers/theorists
Charles Merriam: ‘New Aspects of
Politics’ : founder of behavioural
approach in Comparative Politics
Focus on observing,
Graham Wallas wrote ‘Human Nature
recording, and analysing human
in Politics’
behaviour to understand politics
Arthur Bentley wrote ‘The Process of
Systematic collection and
Government’
examination of facts
Behavioural Both these books help usher
Empirical and positivist
Approach behavioural approach in political science
approach
The eight characteristics features
Scientific testable hypothesis
of behaviouralism as given by David
Value-fact Separation
Attempt to make pure science Easton: (1) Regularities; (2) Verification;
of politics (3) Techniques; (4) Quantification; (5)
Values; (6) Systematisation; (7) Pure
Science; and (8) Integration.

Political David Easton- father of the system

System Political system: Inter-related approach –‘ A system Analysis of
Approach institutions, political activities, Political Life’
actors and processes which Gabriel Almond: ‘Comparative
continuously interact with each Politics: A Developmental Approach’
other and to larger society Morton Kaplan: used system
Derived from Biology and approach in IR
General System Theory David Apter: ‘Introduction to Political
Input, Output, Environment, Analysis’
Feedback Karl Deutsch: ‘Nation and World’
'system' replaced ‘state’ as Features/facts of the System
item of comparison Approach:
Easton’s definition:” behaviour
or set of interactions through Developed from the general
which authoritative allocations of systems theory by Ludwig Von
values are made and Bertallanfy
implemented in society” Structural functionalism was
Inputs to the system : built on the system approach
Called the ‘Balck Box’
• Demands : claims for actions approach as it does not go
that people make to satisfy their deeper inside the system
interests and values David Easton gave a ‘flow
• Support: political obligation – model’ of political system
Consent, obey law, pay taxes Good for genralisation and
borad comparison across
Input functions by Almond: culture/region but weak in
political socialization, political details
interest articulation political
interest aggregation political
communication
Outputs : Laws, rules,
regulations, judicial decisions
 Easton identified 4 types of
Input functions as demand:
Participation in political system,
Allocation of goods and services,
Communication and information,
Regulation of behaviour
The sequence of regulatory
mechanism by Easton is: Gate-
keeping at the boundary, Socio-
Cultural norms, communication
channels and reduction
processes

Derived from system Gabriel Almond and G C Powell :

approach used Easton’s system approach to give
Study political structures and structural-functional approach
functions carried out by them in a Almond borrowed most of the
political system terminology of his structural-functional
Structural- Input functions( Almond): approach from Talcott Parsons
Functional political socialization, recruitment, Structural functionalism as a method
approach interest articulation and was developed to study the politics of
aggregation, and political Politics of developing countries
communication Rajni Kothari and Morris Jones used
Output functions: Rule this approach to study Indian politics
making, application, and Fred Riggs also used this approach
adjudication

Gabriel Almond: father of

political culture approach
Political Culture: pattern of orientation Gabriel Almond and Sidney
and basic attitude in a society towards Verba: ‘The Civic Culture’
political system comparative study of Political
Almond & Verba: Attitudes and Democracy in 5
3 aspects: Cognitive, Affective, Nations- USA, Germany,
Evaluative Mexico, Italy, and UK
3 types: Parochial, subject, Talcott Parsons: Influenced
Political participative Almond & Verba through his
Culture definition of culture- sets of
Approach Almond- homogeneous norms, values, and attitude
culture in developed nations Rajni Kothari and Morris
Jones used this approach also
Edward Finer: matured, in studying Indian politics
developed, low, and minimal Almond and Verba
political culture suggested a ‘sleeping dogs’
theory of democratic culture that
implies that low participation
indicates broad satisfaction with
government

New
Institutionalism Both ‘hard’ and ‘Soft’ James March & Johan
Institutions- norms, rules, Olsen: founders of New
behaviour pattern Institutionalism –‘ The New
Institutionalism: (1984)’
 Linked Institutions to macro Douglous C North- Rational
socio-economic structure and Choice New Institutionalism
individual behavior William Scott: ‘ Sociological
Analytical, explanatory & New Institutionalism’
Empirical institutionalism Paul DiMaggio and Walter
3 new Institutionalism: W. Powell- ‘Institutional
Rational Choice, Cultural( isomorphism’ ; ‘The New
sociological), Structural Institutionalism in Organizational
Analysis(1991)’

Political
development Emerged in 1960-70s Lucian Pye: ‘Political culture
and Harry Truman the US and political development’ ;
Modernization President: gave special meaning political development 3 aspects-
theory to development in his famous equality, capacity, Differentiation
speech after WWII, this started
modernisation theory ‘Aspects of political
development’
There is a fixed path of
development & modernization as Lucian Pye identified 6
traversed by western nations; by crises in political development:
following the same path, poor 3rd 1. Identity 2. Legitimacy 3.
world nations would also become Penetration 4. Participation 5.
developed. Unification 6. Distribution
David Apter:’ The politics of
These theories were claimed modernization’- technocratic
to be applicable across cultural, approach
and were able to explain political Gabriel Almond: ‘Political
processes everywhere Development’
James Coleman, and Sidney
Closely linked to US foreign Verba also gave theory of
policy towards developing political development
countries and its attempt to check James Coleman: ‘The
the tides of socialism/communism Development Syndrome-
(containment policy- Truman Differentation-Equality-
Doctrine) Capacity’
Samuel Huntington: ‘Political
To help 3rd world countries Development and Political
become developed & modern by Decay’
following similar path as travelled Huntington identifies political
by USA/western Europe development with the
Approaches: political culture, institutionalisation of political
developmentalism, corporatism, organisations and procedures
democratization, etc. He challenged the idea of
political development as an
Thinkers supporting unilinear process-rather it is
modernisation theory were cyclic
considered traditional Edward Shils: ‘Political
comparativists; those opposing it Development in the New States’
progressive comparativists. ; ‘Center and periphery’
Edward Shils’ categories of
political system: (i)Political
Democracy (ii) Tutelary
Democracy (iii) Modernizing
Oligarchy (iv) Totalitarian
 Oligarchy (v) Traditional
Oligarchy
Organski: ‘The stages of
political development’ – 1.
political unification, 2.
industrialisation, 3. national
welfare, and 4. affluence.
W.W.Rostow: ‘Politics and
the stages of growth’ : 5 stages
of modernization - 1) traditional
society, 2) preconditions to take-
off, 3) take-off, 4) drive to
maturity and 5) age of high
mass consumption
Max Weber, Talcott Parsons,
A.M. Henderson and Joseph la
Palombara: political
development is linked with legal
and administrative development
Fred Riggs: balance
between the principles of
equality and capacity in political
development; Development
Trap- imbalance between
equality and capacity
Halpern: ‘will and capacity’
approach to the study of political
development

Raúl Prebisch- ‘Doctrine of

unequal exchange’ : Father of
Challenges to Modernisation
dependency theory
Theory: Dependency Theory
Theotonio Dos Santos-
Dependency theory criticized ‘The Structure of Dependence’
the dominant model of Dos Santos: 3 types of
development as ‘Eurocentric’, dependency: colonial, financial-
furthering the capitalist interests industrial, technological-
of the ‘West’. industrial
They were influenced by Neo- Fernando Henrique
Marxism, which visualised Cardoso- Associated-
International state system as development-dependent -was
Dependency
global capitalist system in which also president of Brazil
Theories
the developed capitalist nations ( Andre Gunder Frank-
core) dominated and exploited ‘Development of
Underdevelopment’
underdeveloped 3rd world(
Immanuel Wallerstein-
Periphery)
World System Theory; Core,
Latin America became the
Semi-periphery, periphery
fertile ground of dependency
Johan Galtung: structural
theorists
theory of imperialism
They were called progressive
Samir Amin: global law of
comparativists
value -a system of unequal
exchange
 Elites It was critique of democracy, Gaetano Mosca:
Theory pluralism, and socialism
First developed in the context all societies ruled by a
of polity of western Europe numerical minority, the political
In any organisation, class.
Government (of any form- Elites- superior
democracy or dictatorship) only a organizational skills.
small minority- Elites- occupy top Circulation of Elites: constant
positions, take decisions and rule competition between elites, with
Remaining people are mere one elite group replacing
masses who are mostly another repeatedly over time
bystanders He wrote: ‘The Ruling Class’
Elite Theory appeared against Mosca’s Elite theory is more
the Pluralist theory, which liberal than Elite theory of
believed that in democratic form Vilfredo Pareto
of Government, political power is
widely disbursed among multiple Vilfredo Pareto-
groups/communities Circulation of Elites- the ruling class
Robert Dahl called it ‘ replaced by another ruling/aristocratic
Polyarchy’ class through revolution

‘History is graveyard of
Elites’
2 types of Elites: Lion & Fox
He also gave the concepts of
“residues” and “derivations.”

C Wright Mills: ‘

‘The Power Elites’

Nexus of the leaders of the
military, corporate, and political
class and how the ordinary
citizen is a relatively powerless
subject of manipulation by the
power elites

Robert Michels

‘Iron Law of Oligarchy’

Bureaucratic organization as
rule of elites; not Democratic
Theory of mass mind
formulated on the basis of
the study of German Social
Democratic Party

Schumpeter: “Democracy as a
political Method “

democracy as nothing more

than periodic elections and
ordinary citizens, beyond the act
of voting, should have no role in
shaping policy.

Ortega Gasset
 Theory of the Masses,
Political Formula

Karl Mannheim

Organising and directing

Elites; informally organised and
diffused Elites

Burnham

Economic Approach to
Elitism
 FACT SHEET: POLITICAL CULTURE
Sub-
Facts/Info
topic/theme
• Norm, value, belief, attitude, and orientation of people towards politics
and political system
• How people make meaning of ‘the political’, identify themselves and
Meaning others politically
• patterns of political behaviors that result from the political beliefs, values,
and attitudes of individuals.

• Set of values, beliefs, and attitudes within which a political system

operates. (Kavanagh)
• A structure of value and belief in the political system (Macridis)
• Pattern of orientations to political objects among the members of the
nation (Almond & Verba)
• political objects: both tangible political aspects- Institutions, political
parties and intangible aspects- authority, legitimacy, conventions, etc
• “political culture involves attributes including attitudes, feelings,
sentiments, beliefs, and values which concern the nature of politics that give
Definitions form and substance to political processes” (Lucian Pye)
• Set of attitudes, beliefs and sentiments that give order and meaning to
a political process and which provide the underlying assumptions and rules that
govern behavior in the political system (International Encyclopedia of the
Social Sciences)
• The activity through which individuals and groups in any society
articulate, negotiate, implement, and enforce competing claims they make upon
one another and upon the whole. Political culture is, in this sense, are the set of
discourses or symbolic practices by which these claims are made” (Baker 1990)

Political
Culture as per Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba compared the political culture of 5
Almond & Verba nations and wrote in 1963 ‘The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and
Democracy in Five Nations’
5 nations were: UK, USA, Italy, Germany, Mexico
It was first empirical study and analysis of Political Culture
3 Aspects of Political Culture :

• Cognitive aspect: How much people are aware about Political system,
processes- Motives, interests & power, Identities, and Institutions
• Affective Aspect : What are their feelings and attachments towards
politics and Political Processes
• Evaluative Aspect : And How they evaluate or assess the outcomes(
policies/decisions) of political system

3 Ideal or pure Types of Political Culture

• Parochial
• General ignorance about political objects and a consequent lack of
involvement in political activities
• Ex: Political culture in poorly developed states in Africa- Somalia, Sierra
Leone
• Subject
 • Widespread knowledge about political objects/processes but a
disinclination to participate in political activities, often because of feeling of
powerlessness
• Ex: Political culture in rural India during Mughal and British colonial
period
• Participative
• People have both knowledge about politics and willingness to participate
in the political process
• Ex: Political Culture in USA

Civic Culture: mix of all three types of Political Culture

Talcott Parsons (1902–1979)- American sociologist; Almond & Verba

were influenced by Parson’s thoughts about Political Culture
Samuel Edward Finer ( 1915 – 1993): he categorized political culture as
Other matured, developed, low, and minimal
prominent W. H. Morris-Jones(1918): He used Political Culture approach; wrote
thinkers related extensively on politics and political culture of India The Governments and
to Political Politics in India(1971), Politics mainly India(1978)
Culture Rajni Kothari (1928-2015) : Politics in India (1970), Caste in Indian
approach Politics (1973), and Rethinking Democracy (2005)
Rousseau,-Durkheim ,Montesquieu, -Weber also deeply influenced
Cultural discourse on socio-political organization

Political culture approach is Modern approach in Comparative Politics

Definitions of Political Culture by Lucian Pye, Almond & Verba
The book ‘Civic Culture’ by Almond & Verba
Often 5 nations studied by Almond & verba
repeated facts in 3 aspects and 3 ideal types of Political Culture
PG ETs First empirical study of Political Culture by Almond & Verba
Who influenced Almond & Verba? Talcott Parsons
Civic Culture- mix of all 3 ideal types
 FACT SHEET: POLITICAL PARTIES
Sub-topic/theme Facts/Info

Political Party is an organized group, often with common

ideologies, political aims and opinions, which aims to acquire and
exercise political power to influence public policy.
As per Leon D. Epstein, Political Party is a group that “seeks to
Meanings/Definition
elect governmental office holders under a given label”.
As per Maurice Duverger, Political Party is a class, a doctrine (set
of ideologies).

Political Parties articulate and aggregate societal interests, public

opinion, and policy demands.
Political socialisation is mainly done by political parties
They offer choice to people in choosing political ideologies, policy
options, and governing vision.
They form Government and help implement public policies for
socio-economic development as per their political belief and
Role & functions of
ideologies
Political parties:
Political Parties recruit, train, and nominate political leaders as
representatives of people.
Political Parties are essential channel for representation in
democratic politics.
Governments in modern era, democratic, authoritarian, or
totalitarian, cannot be imagined without political parties.

Types of Parties: • On the basis of ideology or position on ideological spectrum

Left parties

• Communist, Socialist, Social Democrats (center-left), Green,

Liberals (center-left on Social issues)

Right Parties

• Conservatives, Liberals(economy),Fascist, Christian Democrats

(centre-Right), Nationalist
• On the basis of organization and target voters

Cadre, Mass, Catch-all, Party

• Cadre party: elite parties in the beginning of democracy in UK and

USA. Small size of membership limited to few, those having property,
social status, personality, etc.. For example, the Whigs and the Tories in
UK and the Federalists and the anti-federalists in USA.
• Mass party: Parties offering membership to masses, raises
national issues, and have wide electoral base; for example, Socialist
Parties in 20th century Europe; German Social Democratic Party (SPD)
and the UK Labour Party
 • Catch-all party: Parties which aim to get votes from all
class/sections/ interests; for example, the Congress and the BJP in India
• Ideological attachment ( by Hitchner & Levine)

Pragmatic parties, Doctrinal parties and Interest parties.

• Pragmatic parties: don’t have any fixed ideology; quite flexible in

making alliances to gain power. For example, SP, BSP, & RJD in India
• Doctrinal parties: Have fixed party ideology; for example, CPI in
India
• Interest parties: Representing specific interests of a
section/segment of population; for example, Farmers' League in Sweden;
• Constitutional vs. Revolutionary parties

Constitutional parties: who believe in constitution and work within

its framework: Congress, BJP, and all mainstream parties in the world
Revolutionary party: Hindustan Socialist Republican Army by
C.S.Azad; Revolutionary Socialist Party ; currently many political
parties uses the tag ‘revolutionary’, world over, but they don’t reject
the constitution completely.

• Representative and Integrative parties (by Sigmund Neumann

(1956))

Representative: reflect, represent, and channelize public opinion-

Catch all parties
Integrative: shape public opinion by political mobilization- Socialist
Parties

• Party of Government vs Party of Opposition

Liberals, Conservatives, Christian Democrats and Social

Democrats- habitually governing parties
Communist, Regionalists, Environmentalists and Nationalists -
habitually opposing parties

Party System denotes number, nature, ideological make up,

interactions, and inter-relationships among political parties in a
political system at a given time.
As per Heywood, party system is a relatively stable network of
relationships between parties that is structured by their number, size
and ideological orientation.
Party System: As per Duverger, Party systems are described by the number of
parties within a political system during a given time, along with their
internal structures, their ideologies, their respective sizes, alliances,
and types of opposition, competitions, etc.
As per Sartori , party system is a system of interaction between
political parties in a political system.

Factors • Electoral Rule

determining types of • Duverger’s Law: FPTP- two party system
Party System: • Proportional Representation - multi-party system
• Social Cleavages (Societal fault lines) by Rokkan & Lipset
 • European Societies: Rural/urban; center/periphery; worker/owner;
church/state
• Asian & African post-colonial States: Caste, ethnicity, language,
Religion
• Institutional structure or design of the State/Government
• Federal or Unitary;
• Presidential or Parliamentary
• Time: Maturity of political system
• Larger Socio-political context; political culture; major political
events- partition, Constitutional changes, etc.
• Single party system
• Pseudo(false) party system- as at least two parties required to form
a party system.
• Hegemonic- hegemony of single party
• Single party dominance
• Two Party system
Types of party • Distinct vs Indistinct Bi-partisan system
system: • Two plus half party ( 3rd party) system
• Prolonged Dominance of one party
• Multi- party system- by Sartori
• Moderate Pluralism
• Polarized Pluralism
• Fragmented party system
• Two broad coalition System
Maurice Duverger (1917 – 2014): gave Duverger law- FPTP favours two
party system. Also, types of Party System

His book ‘Political Parties(1954)’

Giovanni Sartori (1924 – 2017): gave the most widely used classification
method for party systems ;

his book ‘Parties and Party Systems: A Framework for Analysis

(1976)’
Related Thinkers,
Books & Concepts Stein Rokkan (1921 – 1979): with Martin Lipset he postulated the theory of
social cleavages
His book ‘ Party Systems and Voter Alignments(1967)’
Seymour Martin Lipset (1922 – 2006)- a pluralist thinker; with Rokken gave
social cleavages theory
Other Important books on political party:
‘Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchial Tendencies of
Modern Democracy(1962)’- Robert Michels
‘Political Parties and Party Systems(2003)’- Alan J. Ware
‘Party politics in India(1957)’- Myron Weiner
‘Party building in a new nation(1967)’- Myron Weiner
Duverger Law: FPTP results into two party system
Difference between Interest/pressure group and political party-
Interest/pressure group don’t participate in electoral politics and contest for
Often repeated
political power
facts asked in PG ETs
Catch all party coined by Otto Kirchheimer
Cleavage theory- Rokken & Lipset
Iron law of Oligarchy- Robert Michels in his book Political Parties
 FACT SHEET: ELECTORAL SYSTEMS
Sub-
Facts/Info
topic/theme
• Set of rules that structure how votes are cast at election and how these votes
are then converted into seats (Gallagher,2014)
• Institutional rules, norms, and structure by which representation are decided
in democratic political system
Meaning • Electoral System includes Electoral Rules (franchise rule, eligibility rule for
candidates, rules for party, election campaign rules, etc) , Electoral Formula( How
votes are converted into seats), District(Constituency) Magnitude( Numbers of seats
per constituency), and Ballot rules( Ballot box or EVM, how vote are casted, etc)

• Size & Socio-cultural diversity of the political system

• Literacy- Democratic and political
Factors
• Political Culture
affecting
• Nature of the party system
choice of
Electoral • Socio-economic context
System: • Power politics, consensus and compromise among ruling elites
• Historical experiences, traditions, practices, lesson learnt

• Voter- representative link- clear in FPTP, not clear in PR

• Govt formation
• Multi-party coalition govt in PR system
Effects of • Strong single party govt in Majoritarian (FPTP) system
Electoral • Party System format
System on • Duverger’s Law: Majoritarian system- two party system and PR system:
political multi-party system
• Ideological effects: FPTP: less polarization; PR: multi-polar party system
system:
• More political and societal consensus in PR system
• Under representation of marginalized communities (minorities, women,
indigenous people) in majoritarian (FPTP) system

Main Majoritarian system

types of • Also called Plurality System
Electoral • Winning formula: on getting more than 50% votes or more votes than any
System: other candidate
• District magnitude: generally single member constituency
• Variants of Majoritarian system
• First Past the Post system ( FPTP)
• Other names of FPTP
• Single member simple plurality(SMP) system
• Block vote system
• Simple Majoritarian system
• Alternate Vote (AV) or instant runoff
• voters rank candidates in order of preference
• Winning candidate must secure 50% of preferences
• Single member district
• Supplementary Vote ( SV)
• Variant of AV, voters rank only two candidate
• 2nd Ballot system or 2nd runoff voting
• 2nd round of voting between top two candidates in the 1st round
Proportional Representation (PR) System
 • Seats allotted to parties in proportion of votes obtained using complex
mathematical formula
• District magnitude: Multi-member districts/constituency
• Variants of PR system
• Party List PR:
• Voters chose party which nominate representative on seats won by it.
• Seats allotted to party in proportion to votes obtained by it.
• Single-Transferable-Vote( STV) system
• The winning candidate needs to obtain more than a fixed quota of votes
which is calculated through a mathematical formula.
• Voters give rank preferences to competing candidates.
• In the first round of voting only the first preference votes of each candidate
are counted and those candidates who obtain more than the fixed quota of votes are
declared winners.
• In case no candidate gets the required quota of votes then the bottom most
candidate is struck out and his/her second preference votes are allocated to
remaining candidate. This process is repeated until all the seats of the
constituencies are filled.
• Same rule is followed in AV system under majoritarian system but with 2
difference 1. Single member Constituency and 2. Requirement of more than 50%
votes to win the seat in AV
Mixed Representation System
• Hybrid system mixing FPTP and PR
• Total seats divided in 2 parts
• One part elected as per FPTP another part through Party List PR system
• Voters cast 2 votes- one for candidate as per FPTP for their constituency and
2nd for party as per party list PR
• District magnitude: Single member constituency (FPTP) and Multi-member
districts/constituency for Party List PR

Countries and their electoral system

India, UK, and USA- FPTP for general or major election

Most of the Commonwealth nation- FPTP
Important France: 2nd Ballot system or 2nd runoff voting for presidential election
facts asked Australia: AV system for Parliamentary election
in PG ETs Switzerland: Party list system of PR
Germany: Mixed Representation System( FPTP plus Party List)

Multiple names of FPTP: Block vote system, Single member simple plurality,
majoritarian, simple majority system, etc.
 FACT SHEET: TYPES OF REGIMES
Sub-
Facts/Info
topic/theme
• Political regime denotes principles, norms, rules, decision-making
procedures, institutional arrangements, etc. following which the governance of a
country is carried out.
• Regime, therefore, denotes how political relationships are structured,
and organised in a given society.
Meaning
• As per Roy Macridis, famous comparative thinker, a political regime
embodies the set of rules, procedures, and understandings that formulate the
relationship between the governors(rulers) and the governed(ruled).
•

Types of • Democratic Regime

Regimes • Rulers are chosen by the people through free fair, and periodic election
• legitimate Govt having people’s consent and mandate to rule
• Civil and Political Liberties: Rights & Freedom to Citizens protected by
constitution and courts, which limit the powers of the state
• Rule of Law: Constitutional Government
• Presence of strong & autonomous Civil Society (NGOs, interest groups,
social movements, opinion leaders)
• Free participation of citizens in political processes
• Strong, Independent, and Autonomous Institutional arrangement based
on rule of law.
• Populism: Populist Regimes
• Populism denotes democratic politics for protecting and furthering the
interests of ‘the people’, ‘the real and pure people’, against the ‘corrupt elites’,
and entitled class.
• Populist leaders, party, and movements claim to represent ‘the real and
pure people’.
• In Populism, ‘the real people’ are generally the majority ethnic, racial,
religious community. In the populist ideology, they are the true and real people
of that nation.
• Populist ideology don’t believe in minority rights, pluralism, and multi-
culturalism.
• Populism is anti-elitist, anti-establishment, anti-system, anti-
institutionalist, and illiberal. Populism denotes majoritarianism, as the ‘the
people’ are always in majority.
• It also denotes identity politics. Cultural Nationalism is the most common
identity used in Populism. ‘the people’ are considered as true and pure member
of the nation and political community as defined by the Populist leader/party.
• Authoritarian Regime:
• Authoritarianism denotes any political system that concentrates power in
the hands of a supreme leader or a small elite that are neither chosen by nor
responsible to the people.
• A form of government characterized by the rejection of political plurality (
diversity of culture, political ideologies), the use of a strong centralised power to
preserve the political status quo, and dilution in the rule of law, separation of
powers, and democratic values.
• It denotes blind submission to a central authority, as opposed to
individual freedom of thought, belief, and action.
 • Personalistic: Headed by supreme leader wielding great amount of
individual power- Hitler in Nazi Germany, Francisco Franco Spain, Saddam
Hussein- Iraq, Zia-ul-Haq- Pakistan, Mobutu in Zaire
• It also denotes arbitrary use of power by the ruler, who is not bound by
rule of law or constitution. People have no choice in replacing the ruler by
voting.
• Individuals and groups have very few civil & political rights.

• Totalitarian Regime
• Oppressive Rule by single political party following distinct political
ideology.
• Total control of State/Govt of almost all aspects of public and private life.
• State/Government interfere in both public and private domain to decide
for the people the right way of life- food, dress, entertainment, travel, moral
standards, education, etc.
• For the ruling party the totalitarian regime is project for social
transformation- bringing in new civilisation.
• All these actions are guided by the state ideology. The party becomes
the vehicle to implement the ideology. Difference between the party and state
are diluted.
• Thus, it denotes subordination of all aspects of individual life to the
authority of the state.
• Denotes most extreme and complete form of authoritarianism.
• Benito Mussolini coined the term ‘totalitario’ in the early 1920s to
characterize the new fascist state of Italy, which he further described as “all
within the state, none outside the state, none against the state.” This became
the defining feature of totalitarian regime.

Parliamentary Presidential form of government

vs Presidential • President is directly elected by the people and acts as both head of the
form of Govt State and head of the Government.
• President is not accountable to the legislature, which is also directly
elected by the people.
• Thus, in Presidential form of government there is clear separation of
power between the executive (president) and the legislature
• In Presidential form of government head of state and head of Govt is
same person
• Executive is selected by President; the executive is accountable to the
President and Not to the Legislature
• Not very rigid party discipline; Legislatures may vote on principles on
specific issues cutting official party line
• Example: USA is the best example
Parliamentary form of government
• In parliamentary form of government, executive comes out the
legislature(parliament).
• Leader of the majority party in parliament forms Government and
becomes Prime minister.
• PM heads the cabinet (council of minister), which is responsible and
accountable to parliament.
• President is nominal head of the State. President has very little
discretion to act of his own choice. President is bound to act on the advice of
cabinet headed by PM.
• Hence, parliamentary form of government is also called cabinet form of
Government.
• There is no clear separation between executive and legislature
 • Rigid party discipline and loyalty to official party line. Party can issue
‘Whip’ to vote on party line on specific issues.
• Example: UK, India, Canada, Australia, and most of the European
nation-states
Semi-presidential system
There are both a directly elected president, as head of state and with
substantial executive powers and a presidentially appointed prime minister, who
heads the Government and his cabinet, which is responsible to the legislature.
Example: France, Russia, Sri-Lanka, Congo, etc. follow this hybrid form of
Government.

Difference between Authoritarian and Totalitarian regime? Authoritarian

regime, unlike Totalitarian regime, is not an ideological project; it does not
intervene in the private and public life of citizen; unlike Totalitarian regime it
is status quoist and merely concerned with preserving power

Which democratic form has strict separation of power? Presidential form

Which form of Govt has features of cohabitation? Semi-Presidential
Important system
facts/info asked France has which form of Govt? Semi-Presidential system
in PG ETs Which country has unique system of plural executive ( multiple head of
Govt)? Switzerland which is governed by 7 member Federal council
Which country follow best the separation of power doctrine given by
Montesquieu? USA
Who is the author of ‘Democracy in America’? Alexis de Tocqueville
In which form of Govt head of state and head of Govt is same person?
Presidential form of Govt
In which form of Govt head of state hold only nominal power?
Parliamentary form of Govt
 FACT SHEET: PUBLIC POLICY
Sub-
Facts/info
theme/Topics
Collective or public decision-making process to solve complex common
Meaning problems of society

Essentially a decision taken in public domain

Aim: to solve complex societal problems
Decision taken in public domain, by public representatives or public officials,
by the process of collective decision making
Features
Output of the political system
Political party want political power for implementing public policies conforming
to their political values and ideologies
Public Policy is the life line of Public Administration
“Public policy as the ‘outputs’ of the political system and public policy as ‘the
authoritative allocation of values for the whole society”- David Easton
“Public policy is whatever governments choose to do or not to do”- Thomas
Dye
“a policy is an attempt to define and structure a rational basis for action or
Definitions
inaction” Wayne Parsons
“a course of action adopted and pursued by government” -Nicholas Henry
‘Purposive course of action followed by an actor or set of actors in dealing
with a problem or matter of concern’- Anderson
“it is what governments do and fail to do – to and for their citizens” -Lineberry
• Legislature, executives(govt.), and Judiciary make policies
• Legislative policy: Energy Conservation Act 2001; Reservation quota
for disadvantaged groups, Aadhar Act, etc
• Executive Policies: MNAREGA, Ayushman Bharat Mission, Mid Day
Meal, DBT, etc.
Who makes
• In parliamentary form of Government, both the above policies are
Public Policy ?
actually initiated and made by the Government (executive), which obtains
approval of legislatures, if required.
• Judicial policies: ‘Creamy layer’ policy in reservation, Policy of
Judges appointment (called the Collegium system), Auction of natural
resources such as wireless spectrum, coal block, etc.
Who Implement
Executive; Public Administration
Public Policy ?
Policy analysts, experts, media, political leadership, and executives evaluate
Who Evaluate
policies
Public Policy ?
Types of Public • On the basis of arena (site, location) of Policymaking:
Policy • Legislative vs administrative vs judicial
• On the basis of Policy Issues/ subject domains:
• Education policy, foreign policy, defense, economic, environmental
policy, etc.
• Substantive vs Procedural policy
• Example: substantive policy: reservation quota in jobs; procedural
policy: Administrative reforms
• Distributive and re-distributive policy
• Ex: Distributive policy: universal basic Income; re-distributive policy:
Land reforms
• Regulatory vs self- regulatory
 • Ex: Regulatory policy: RERA, Pollution control acts; self-regulatory
policy: policy of masking & social distancing during pandemic.
• Material vs symbolic
• Ex: material policy: farm loan waiver; symbolic policy: national
anthem in cinema hall
• Policies involving public goods vs private goods
• Ex: Policy involving public good : nationalization of banks ; Policy
involving private good : privatization policies.

• Generally, a 6-stage process

• Problem Identification and Agenda Setting
• Policy formulation
• Search for policy alternatives (as solution for the problem identified)
• Policy Adoption
Policy Cycle:
• Choosing a policy alternative
Stages in Policy
• Attaching solution to the problem
Process
• Policy Implementation
• Policy Evaluation
• Feedback and course correction
• But in real life Policy making process may be random, non-linear,
non-sequential, chaotic, and unexpected
• Political system Approach
• Public policy as output of the political system
• Proponent: David Easton
• Group or pluralist theory/model
• Public policy is outcome of group struggle, each group trying to bring
policy to serve its interest.
• Proponent: Robert Dahl and other pluralist thinkers
• Elite theory/model
• Public policy represents values and preferences of a governing elite.
• Proponent: C.Wright Mill and other thinkers of Elite theory
• Rational choice theory
Model or
• Public policy as outcome of actions of individuals who are self-
Approaches to
interested, rational, and utility maximizers.
public policy:
• Proponent: Herbert Simon; Vincent Ostram ( Public choice theory-
similar to Rational Choice theory)
• Institutionalism
• Public policy is a function of institutional structure, norms, rules, and
procedures.
• Proponent: Bryce, Lowell and Ostrogorski ( old) ; March & Olsen
(New Institutionalism)
• Incremental Model: policy as small variations on past policies;
Proponent: Charles Lindblom
• Game Theory: policy as rational choice in competitive situations;
Proponent: Von Neumann
Types of Policy • Formal Evaluation
Evaluation • Evaluating routine tasks, budget, procedure of policy implementation
• Target group satisfaction Evaluation
• Survey to assess satisfaction of the target group
• Output and Outcome Evaluation
• Identifying and measuring output and outcomes
• Comparing them with intended output and outcome
• Expenses and effectiveness Evaluation
• Cost- benefit analysis
• Evaluation of long term consequences
 • Impact assessment on core problem other than symptoms of
problem, general people other than the target group, other unintended
consequences

• Internal/Executive Evaluation
• Appraisal of program/schemes under executive direction
• Niti Aayog
• Legislative Evaluation
• Parliamentary standing committee
Arena of Policy • Audit : CAG and PAC
Evaluation: Indian • People’s representatives : MP, MLAs
Scenario • Political parties and leadership
• Expert Evaluation
• Policy experts, NGO, Academics, policy institutions
• Specific Commissions : ex: Administrative reform commission
• Media and opinion leaders

• Counter Factual Method

• Business as usual vs business under policy
• Measuring Results
• Output vs Outcome
• Efficiency vs Effectiveness
• Cost Benefit Analysis
Methods of
• Ratio of cost and monetized benefits(outcomes)
Policy evaluation
• Cost-Effectiveness Analysis
• Effectiveness (outcome) vs cost ratio
• Experimental Methods
• Observation on sample of target and non target groups
• Statistical Surveys
• Sampling, questionnaire, interviews, observations, secondary data
• Vaguely Defined Problem
• Multiple goals/objectives
• Conflicting goal ;
• equity vs efficiency
• Measurement Issues
Challenges in
• Choice of criteria and metrics
Evaluation of public
• Limited time span, resource crunch, skill, competency, value
Policy
subjectivity
• Lack of Information and Data
• Bias and partisan
• Professional and personal bias, political compulsions, partisan
behaviour
Some landmark • Right to Information Act 2005
policies in recent • Right to Education (RTE) 2006
times • National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA)-2006
• Demonetization- 2016
• GST- 2017
• Aadhar Act and Direct Benefit Transfer- 2016
• The Real Estate (Regulation and Development) Act-RERA-2016
• Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana, 2014
• Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code, 2016
• Universal Health Care Policy: ‘Aayushman Bharat’
• Free Electricity and water policy in New Delhi
• Citizenship Amendment Act -2019
• Vaccination Policy for Covid-19
 • Political Parties
• Top Leaders, Ideologues
• Prime Minister’s Office(PMO)
• PM and his advisors- Economic Advisory Council to the Prime
Minister, Security Advisor, Advisor to PM
• Niti Ayog
• Ministry/Department/Agencies
Main • Minister and Secretary
Actors/Institutions in • Cabinet
Policy Making in • Cabinet Secretariat and Cabinet Secretary
India • Cabinet Committees: Appointments, Economic Affairs, Parliamentary
Affairs. Political Affairs. Security. Investment and Growth, Employment &
Skill Development, Accommodation
• Civil Society
• NGOs, mass leaders, public opinion, People’s movement, interest &
pressure groups
• Legislatives: Parliament & its committee
• Judiciary: SC
 FACT SHEET: GLOBAL JUSTICE
Sub-
Facts/Info
topic/theme
• Notion of global justice raises fundamental questions on our
responsibilities and rights as world citizen, and the nature of relationship
among individual, societies, and states in global arena
• Justice cannot be bounded by state boundaries, neither it is the
preserve of some privileged people/culture/nation.
Meaning
• widening of the scope of justice to the global level, beyond the
boundary of state
• In realm of international relation it means just and fair distribution of
global resources, benefits and responsibilities, and equal status to all nations

• Cosmopolitanism is the idea that all human beings are members of a

single community
• the belief that all people are entitled to equal rights and justice, no
Cosmopolitanism
matter what their citizenship status or other affiliations, such as nationalism,
happen to be.
• Ideas of Cosmopolitanism and global justice are related
• John Rawl, attempted to give a theory of global justice through his
book ‘Law of People’-1993
• Rawls proposed 8 principles and 3 institutions which shall be agreed
upon by rational liberal and non-liberal but decent people at global level. He
also suggested limited assistance to non-decent and burdened people to
Rawls’
bring them into world federation of people.
Conception of
• But in pursuit of wider agreement and his conviction about limited
Global Justice
responsibilities towards people of other nations, his law of people have more
critics than admirers.
• Rawls didn’t agree to expand his difference principle at global level.
This became the main critique of his theory of global justice

Rawls’ Law of • By a “law of peoples”, Rawls means a “political conception of right

People and justice that applies to the norms and principles of international relation
among people of the world”
• 3 kinds of People: liberal, decent non-liberal, outlaws and burdened
people
Characteristics of Decent NON-LIBERAL people: well-ordered hierarchical
society
• Society must not be aggressive; It must conduct its affairs in ways
that are peaceful and respectful of other societies.
• It must provide basic human rights- life, liberty, property, right to
formal equality- to all its members.
• Those who administer the law must believe that the law incorporates
a common good idea of justice
• Must have a ‘decent consultation hierarchy’ in which the interest of all
members of the society are taken into consideration
Rawls’s Law of people:
• 1st step: social contract among citizen of each liberal society/people
• 2nd step: Agreement on 8 principles and 3 organizations among
representatives of liberal people in ‘original position’ and under the ‘veil of
ignorance’
 • 3rd Step: Decent NON-LIBERAL people would also accept the law of
peoples – why?
• Because it would be rational choice consistent with their
commitments to be well ordered decent people.
• 4th step: Decent people will help non-decent non-liberal, burdened
people develop into well-ordered decent people and accepting Law of
People.
Rawl’s law of people: 8 principles, 3 organisation
Eight Principles governing ‘Law of Peoples’

1. Peoples (as organized by their governments) are free and

independent, and their freedom and independence is to be respected by
other peoples.
2. Peoples are equal and parties to their own agreements.
3. Peoples have the right of self-defence but no right to war.
4. Peoples are to observe a duty of nonintervention.
5. Peoples are to observe treaties and undertakings.
6. Peoples are to observe certain specified restrictions on the conduct
of war (assumed to be in self-defence).
7. Peoples are to honour human rights
8. Peoples have a duty to assist other peoples living under unfavorable
conditions that prevent their having a just or decent political and social
regime.

Three global organizations

1.One for ensuring fair trade among people
2.Cooperative banking institution from which people may borrow-
3.A confederation of people like UN

Amartya Sen wrote ‘Idea of Justice( 2009)’ to explain his idea of Global
Justice
Non- contraction theory of justice
3 components

First: uses elements of social choice theory and practical public

reasoning to arrive at agreed upon issues to realize justice at global
Theory of global level – no need to search ideal order
justice by Amartya Second: Instead of just rules and Institutional fairness, focusses on
Sen how justice can be realized for people across globe
Third: Instead of building ideal global institutions, trying to realize
justice by drawing strength from multiple sources-Media, NGOs, global
movements, regional associations, international treaties/conventions,
global leaders, UN and other international organisations

So, instead of aiming for perfectly just order and institution, we may attempt to
reduce injustice and advance justice by practical reasoning

Thomas Pogge
Charles Beitz
Martha Nusbaum
Main Proponents
John Rawls
of Global Justice
Amartya Sen
Henry Odera Oruka
Simon Caney
 FACT SHEET: NATIONALISM
Sub-
Facts/Info
topic/theme
• Nationalism: identification with one's own nation (national
consciousness) and placing primary emphasis on promotion of its culture
and interests as opposed to those of other nations
• Nationalism is a phenomenon which emerged in the eighteenth
century in western Europe and-then spread during the 19th and 20th
Meaning
centuries to other parts of the world.
• Nationalism has been the most potent ideology in modern times for
human Collectivity, more than religion, cosmopolitanism, race, and ethnicity
• But Nationalism acquired negative connotation in Europe due to its
association with Fascism and cause for two World wars

Nation: a large body of people united by common descent, history,

culture, or language, inhabiting a particular country or territory.
"Psychological bond that ‘define’ a people and differentiate them
from others- subconscious conviction of belonging to one community
"A nation is a historically constituted, stable community of people,
formed on the basis of conman language, territory, economic life and
psychological make-up manifested in a common culture".(Joseph Stalin)
Thus, nation is large group of people who have same ( real or
imagined) culture, food habits, dress, way of life, worldview, past history,
and future aspiration. Normally people of a nation live in a fixed
geographical area for centuries.

Benedict Anderson: who wrote ‘Imagined Community(1983)’

Definitions Nation: a socially-constructed community, imagined by the people
who perceive themselves as part of a group-
Thus, Anderson declares nation as imagined community.

Ernest Gellner: who wrote ‘Nations and Nationalism(1983)’

‘Nationalism is political principle that holds that national and political

units should be congruent.’

Anthony D. Smith: who wrote ‘Nationalism(1994)’

"an ideological movement for attaining and maintaining autonomy,

unity and identity on behalf of a population deemed by some of its
members to constitute an actual or potential 'nation'”

Types of 2 main types: gradualist and nationalist

Nationalism- Gradualist:
Anthony D Smith
state sponsored patriotism
Through colonization
Provincialism

Nationalist:
 ethnic nationalism
territorial nationalism

• Political institution having sovereignty over a fixed territory, and

population residing within that territory, having an effective government, and
capacity to enter into relations with other states as equal.
• Political community that successfully claims the monopoly of the
legitimate use of physical force(violence or coercion) within a given territory
(Weber)
• Kind of political subdivision of globe
State
• State is defined as having:( As per the Montevideo Convention (1933)
• a defined territory and boarder
• a permanent population
• Sovereignty: both internal & external
• an effective government
• the capacity to enter into relations with other states.

• A state whose population considers themselves as a nation

• When territorial boundaries of a nation is same as that of the state
• When a nation has its own state
• All modern states which are members of UN are considered as
Nation-state
Nation vs State • Emerged first in 19th & 20th Century Europe, when Linguistic and
Ethnic nations got their own state
• De-colonized states of Latin-America, Asia, and Africa were also
called nation-states
• In true sense, very few countries can be defined as Nation-State

Tagore
• Tagore was totally against the ideology of nationalism
• To him, nation( nation-state) is organized political and economic
union of people for mechanical purpose- power, material gain, competitive
advantage
• For Tagore, nationalism divides humanity and restrict liberty and free
thought
• He was true cosmopolitan
Gandhi
Nationalism in • To him, western nation-state was violent soulless machine
thoughts of modern • He was influenced by Mazzini’s nationalism in Italy
Indian Political • He countered militant nationalism, propounded by Savarkar and Tilak,
Thinkers through his book Hind swaraj (1909)
• But he differed from Tagore as Gandhiji was not against Indian
attaining political nationalism
Savarkar
• Seems to have followed western notion of Nation
• To him, Hindus are a nation, in all sense
• Hindu Rashtra(Nation)- Common Territorial identity, Common Racial
Identity( Jati), Common Cultural Identity
• Believed in cultural nationalism, NOT religious nationalism

Some other Partha Chatterjee in his book ‘The Nation and Its Fragments(1993)’ criticized
Important info/facts Benedict Anderson’s Imagined Community

In his book Nationalist Thought and the Colonial World: A Derivative

Discourse; Partha Chatterjee gave the concept of nationalism as derivative
discourse in post-colonial societies

Some other Important books on nationalism:

Nationalism – Five Roads to Modernity- Liah Greenfeld

Liberal Nationalism and Its Critics- Gina Gustavsson (Editor), David
Miller (Editor)
The Cultural Defense of Nations- Liav Orgad
National Identity - Anthony D. Smith
The Invention of Tradition- Eric J. Hobsbawm
The Ethnic Origins of Nations: Anthony D. Smith
Nationalism and Modernism: Anthony D. Smith

Notes on Nationalism: George Orwell

Nationalism- Rabindranath Tagore
On Nationalism- Romila Thapar
Nationalism and the State- John Breuilly
Marxism and the National and Colonial Question- Joseph Stalin
Why Nationalism- Yael Tamir
 FACT SHEET: CLIMATE CHANGE
Sub-
Facts/Info
topic/theme
Climate change refers to long-term shifts in global temperatures and weather
patterns, in particular, a change apparent from the mid to late 20th century onwards
and attributed largely to the increased levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide produced
by the burning of fossil fuels.

Climate change in linked to global warming, which is rise of atmospheric

temperature due to increased presence of Green House Gases (GHGs), such as,
Meaning
CO2, Methane, Water vapour, Nitrous oxide, Fluorinated Gases (HFCs, PFCs, SF6),
etc.

These Green House Gases trap heat energy re-radiated by earth, called the
blanket effect, and don’t allow the heat to escape to outer atmosphere. Due this green
house effects the earth’s atmosphere becomes warmer. This is called global warming.
Global warming causes climate changes.
Main Green CO2, Methane(CH4), Water vapour, Nitrous oxide( N2O), ozone (O3), Fluorinated
House gases Gases (HFCs, PFCs, SF6), etc
• Pre-Industrial Era: 250 part per million Co2
Rising CO2 Sources of Co2 balanced by Sink
level in • Now, CO2 level rose to 412 ppm. Rising avg. global temp by 1 ° C from
atmosphere pre-industrial level

Impact of
Global Rise in sea level, melting of Polar Ice & Permafrost, flooding, unusual rain patterns,
warming and coastal flooding, drought , desertification , pandemic, more severe and frequent
Climate cyclones/storms, excess heat waves, etc.
Change
Clean and
Green Energy Solar, Wind, Hydro, Green Hydrogen- they don’t produce CO2
Sources
Development ( socio-economic) which can be sustained for ever without exhausting
Sustainable
all the natural resources. It denotes inter and intra-generational equity, global justice in
Development
distribution and use of natural resources, and sustainable living.
Major
Environment 5 June,1972: UN conference on the human environment at Stockholm
and Climate Sweden- UNEP(United Nations Environment Programme) was established at
Change Nairobi Kenya and ‘Principle 21’- sovereignty over national resources vs
treaties and responsibility for transnational pollution of nations- was adopted.
Agreements 5 June 1972: First World Environment Day celebration started
1985-1987:
Brundtland Commission report-” Our Common Future”, concept
of ‘Sustainable Development’ became mainstream discourse in
global economic management.
Vienna Convention- 1985: for protection of the Ozone layer in
Stratosphere
Montreal Protocol- 1987, to ban CFC which caused Ozone hole,
was signed.
1992:
 UN conference on Environment & Development (UNCED)-Rio
Earth Summit was held;
‘Agenda 21’: action plan to limit CHG emissions.
UN Framework Convention on climate change (UNFCCC);
Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) set up. Yearly
Conference of Parties (COP) signing UNFCCC was planned.
CBDR-common but differentiated responsibilities was adopted
Till date 26 COP held, last was in Glasgow, UK
1997:
KYOTO Protocol: signed during 3rd COP under UNFCCC in
Kyoto, Japan.
binding targets for industrialized 41 countries to cut greenhouse
gas emissions (Avg 5.2 %) from 1990 base during 2008-12
First and only legally binding targets for reduction of CHGs
India and China were out of the legally binding targets for
reduction of CHGs
This was resented ( not liked) by USA and western Europe

2002:
World Summit on sustainable development (WSSD),
Johannesburg;
Sustainable development red-defined as interdependence of
socio-economic development and environmental protection.
2007
Bali CoP: ‘Road Map’ for Climate Negotiations ; 2009
Copenhagen COP failed to reach to agreement on Framework for
climate change mitigation beyond 2012
2015 : Paris Climate Accord (COP 21)
COP 21: Paris Climate Accord: New regime on climate change
efforts based on the concept of Intended Nationally Determined
Contribution (INDC)- mandatory but self-decided emission cut and
other measures by signing parties from 2020 till 2035 to meet the
goal of limiting rise of atmospheric temperature to within 2 degree
compared to pre-industrial levels.

Important
facts/info often 1st UN summit on Human Environment : Stockholm Conference, 5 June,
asked in PG 1972
ETs Stockholm + 50 : Conference on Environment and climate change at
Stockholm, 5 June 2022 to commemorate 50th anniversary of the Stockholm
Conference, 5 June, 1972
5 June 2022: 50th anniversary of the World Environment Day
Sustainable development: the concept was given by the Brundtland
Commission, 1987
Famous books on Sustainable development:

Rachel Carson’s The Silent Spring (1962)

The Tragedy of the Commons (1968)- Garrett Hardin
‘Limits to Growth’-1972 by the ‘Club of Rome,
UN report ‘Only One Earth’ at the Stockholm Conference, 1972
Our Common Future (1987)- Brundtland Commission

5 Global Commons : The high Seas, Deep Sea, The atmosphere ·

Antarctica , The Outer Space.
 1st legally binding targets for reduction of CHGs: Kyoto Protocol( COP 3)-
1997
Temperature rise control target- Paris Climate Accord- 2015-below 2
degree ( from the pre-industrial time)
CBDR-common but differentiated responsibilities- was adopted in Rio
earth Summit- 1992
First UN agency in Africa- UNEP (United Nations Environment
Programme) in Nairobi, Kenya; set up in 1972
India’s NDC targets:

Reduction of emissions-intensity target of 33%–35% by 2030 below 2005

levels;
To increase the share of non-fossil-based energy resources to 40% of
installed electric power capacity by 2030

Last COP : COP 26 at Glasgow UK in 2021

Next COP: COP 27 at Sharm el-Sheikh, Egypt, in 2022
Note the difference between the Vianna convention 1985 on Ozone layer
protection and the Montreal protocol 1987 for banning CFCs for protecting
Ozone layer
Ozone layer is in Stratosphere ( in which planes fly)
Ozone Hole was noticed over the north pole during 1980s
Bhutan is the only carbon negative ( reduction in CO2 level) country in the
world
India Aims to Become Carbon Neutral by 2070
Green Hydrogen are hydrogen fuel produced from green and clean energy
sources. India has launched Green Hydrogen Mission
USA pulled out of Paris Climate Accord in 2017
Climate change Strategy: 1. Mitigation ( try to minimise its impact) 2.
Adaptation( try to live with it)
1988: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC): Data
collection, report on Global warming
IPCC received the Nobel Peace prize in 2007 ; USA’s Vice-President Al
Gore and IPCC’s R.K. Pachauri, Chairman of IPCC received the prize
 FACT SHEET 1 : IR THEORIES
IR. 1A: REALISM: REALIST APPROCAH TO IR
Themes/components Facts/features

National Interest defined in terms of Power is the bases of IR

and Global politics
Interest and power are signposts of politics
Statism: States are the main actors in IR
International state system is Anarchic- absence of any world
Govt. Each state is to survive by self-help
Core Themes No Idealism, universal morality, benevolence, altruism in IR
Each nation can do anything to protect its national interest, only
limitation is the relative power and capabilities
Politics is autonomous of universal moral principles. Politics has
its own rules of morality.
Nations while protecting their national interests are not bound
by universal moral precepts.

3 ‘S’ : Statism, Survival, Self-Help

Statism: States are main actors of IR
Survival and Self-Help: International state system is anarchic;
hence self-help is only way for survival of state
Great variation in relative powers of the states
Balance of Power: In absence of world govt for survival Power
must be balanced by power.
States are defined as rational actors, pursuing their interests
Features
rather than being agents of morality.
Interests rather than national morality guides actions of states
in global world order.
State pursue goal of ‘security maximization’ or ‘power
maximization’ for its survival
Security Dilemma( coined by John Herz) : lack of trust- each
state increasing its capabilities/power- end result heightened
tension, no increase in security

Hans Morgenthau is father of Classical Realism

Gave 6 principles of Realism in his book ‘Politics among
nation(1948)’
Based on human nature: competitive and egoistic human
nature as base of realist approach
Behaviours of States matches human behaviour
Classical Realism
Interest and power are signposts of politics
Politics has its own standard of morality.
National interest, and Not national morality, decides foreign
policy
Other thinkers: Thucydides, Thomas Hobbes, E.H. Carr, Arnold
Wolfers

Neo Realism
Propounded by Kenneth Waltz in his book ‘Theory of
 International Politics(1979)’
Instead of human nature its bases its theory on Anarchic
Structure of International state system and great variation in
relative powers and capabilities of states.
Also called structural realism
States aim security, power is means to attain security
Hence, States are security maximiser

Offensive: State are power maximiser

States try to achieve security through domination and
hegemony
John Mearsheimer-chief proponent
Defensive: States are security maximiser, for them power is
Offensive Vs only means to achieve security goal.
Defensive Neo Realism States maintain moderate and reserved policies to attain
security
Structural modifiers- security dilemma, geography, elite beliefs
and perceptions
Kenneth Waltz, Robert Jervis, John Herz, Stephen
Walt, Jack Snyder

Thucydides: Father of Realism; His ’Melian dialogue’(on

Peloponnesian War- between Athens & Sparta) is regarded as a
classic realist account.
Machiavelli : His ‘Prince’ a classic in Realism
Thomas Hobbes: His ‘Leviathan’ is realist in approach
Main Thinkers-
Hans Morgenthau: Father of IR; ‘Politics Among
Classical Realism
Nations’ (1948)- gave 6 principles of Classical Realism
Interest & Power Flag post/placard of Politics
Interest defined in terms of power- bases of IR
Politics separate from morality
E. H. Carr : ‘The Twenty Years' Crisis’ (1939)

Kenneth Waltz: Father of Neo-Realism

wrote ‘Man, the State, and War’,( 1959)
‘Theory of International Politics’ (1979)- this book gave birth to
Neo-realism
John Mearsheimer: Offensive Neo-realism; “The Tragedy of Great
Main Thinkers- Neo- Power” (2001)
Realism Robert Kaplan: ‘’The Coming Anarchy ”(paper articles), Asia's
Cauldron; pioneer in system approach in IR
Robert Jervis : Perception and Misperception in International
Politics
Reinhold Niebuhr : Christian realism ; ‘Moral Man and Immoral
Society’(1932), ‘Nature and destiny of Man’(19390
 FACT SHEET IR 1.B: LIBERALISM: LIBERAL
APPROACH TO IR
Themes/components Facts/features

Taking human nature as positive (rational, co-operative,

tolerant), it focusses more on co-operation, interdependence,
international institutions, etc. in IR
National Interests are varied, multi-dimensional, cannot be
solely defined in terms of power
States are main but not the sole actor
NGOs, MNCs, International Institutions, cobweb of
Core Themes people/groups linked through multiple channels of interactions
Free trade, free flow of capital, modernisation, globalisation,
democracy, people to people contact and cooperation, international
regime and institutions, shall bound/integrate nations towards
cooperation and interdependence
Vision of less conflictual and more peaceful and progressive
world joined by common interests and bound by interdependence
and integration.

Liberalism and realism are two contending mainstream theories

in IR
Deals with ‘Low politics’ Issues- Economic, Social, ecological,
technological (High politics- National security, War, Diplomacy-
dealt in by realism)
Idealism- Belief in moral values, cosmopolitanism, progress,
Features
peace, Institutions
Closely linked to liberal democracy- free market capitalist
economy, Democratic welfare state- and Liberalisation,
Privatisation, Globalisation (LPG)
2 variations: Classical and Neo-Liberalism
Neo-liberalism has gone too close to neo-realism in ideology

Less idealistic, more pragmatic

Primacy of state, power politics, anarchic world order but belief
in Institutions to facilitate peace and cooperation
States are rational actor, seeking to maximize their interests-
which are varied- in the anarchic world order
In cooperative venture, states are concerned with absolute
Neo Liberalism gains, not relative gains, but concerned about cheating
State may shift loyalty and resources to institutions if they are
mutually beneficial and fulfil interests of the state
Obstacle to cooperation: areas of no common interest (zero
sum game), cheating- no compliance by others,
International regimes and institutions help govern a competitive
and anarchic world system

Democratic peace
theory Liberal belief that democracies often avoid going to wars due to
people’s pressure
 Given first by Immanuel Kant (‘Perpetual Peace’)
Democratic Peace Theory: Michael W. Doyle

Given by Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye

Multiple and layered channel of interconnections: Inter-state,
trans governmental, and transnational
Absence of Hierarchy among Issues: overlapping issues- no
Complex primacy to security/military issue
Interdependence theory Minor role of Military force in resolving conflicts in globalized
world
It has become core principle of neo-liberalism. It is half way
between realism and liberalism, between power politics and
cooperation, between high and low politics.

Classical:
Immanuel Kant: gave ‘Perpetual Peace’ Theory
Thomas Paine: wrote ‘Rights of Man(1791)’
Jeremy Bentham: Father of utilitarianism
Woodrow Wilson: 14 point - statement of principles for peace
Neo-Liberalism
Main Thinkers Democratic Peace; Security Community
Michael W. Doyle- ‘’Democratic Peace’’, ‘’Liberalism and World
Politics’’
Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye: Complex Interdependence
Theory- ‘Power and Interdependence’
David Mitrany- Functional integration theory-‘ The Functional
Theory of Politics(1975)’
 FACT SHEET IR 2: IMPORTANT IR BOOKS AND THEIR AUTHOR(S)

Ideology Book( year) Author Theme

Realism Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Hans 6 principles of
Power and Peace (1948) Morgenthau classical realism
War between
Melian dialogue (about 400 BCE) Thucydides Athens & Sparta-
Peloponnesian war
Gave theory of
1.‘Theory of International Politics’(1979)
Kenneth Neo-realism
2. Man, the State, and War
Waltz Level of
Analysis
Offensive Neo-
realism- states are
John power maximisers;
The Tragedy of Great Power Politics (2001)
Mearsheimer conflict between
great powers will
never see an end
Realist account
The Twenty years' Crisis (1939) E. H. Carr of International-
war period
Moral Man and Immoral Society (1932) Reinhold Christian
Nature and destiny of Man (1939) Niebuhr realism
1) Theses
on the state of
current world
affairs in the
post-Cold War
era
2) Conflict
among
1) The Coming Anarchy nations in
(article,1994) south China
2) Asia's Cauldron (2014) Robert Sea
3) Monsoon: The Indian Ocean and Kaplan 3) growing
the Future of American Power (2010) importance of
the Indian
Ocean and its
perimeter
states as the
new
geopolitical
center of the
developing
world
political
psychology:
Perception and Misperception in International Robert cognitive
Politics( 1976) Jervis psychology to
decision making in
IR-
The Art of War(1521) Niccolò A realist
Machiavelli account of military
 history, strategy, or
theory; in the form
of Socratic
dialogue
ancient
The Art of War(5th Century BCE) Sun Tzu Chinese military
treatise
Realist account
of state of nature,
Thomas state, sovereignty,
Leviathan (1651)
Hobbes a-moral and value-
free international
system, etc.
unit level
analysis and
System and Process in International Politics Morton A.
system theory in
(1957) Kaplan
IR

Liberalism •Jus ad Bellum

(right to war)
•Jus in Bello
(rights in war)
Hugo •Rights of
On the Law of War and Peace(1625)
Grotius Individuals
•Humanitarian
Intervention
•Freedom of
the Seas
Perpetual Immanuel Democratic
Peace (1795) Kant peace theory
Idealism in IR-
Woodrow peace,
14 point peace principle(1918)
Wilson cooperation,
interdependence
Gave principles
After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in Robert
of neo-liberalism in
the World Political Economy(1984) Keohane
IR
Soft Power: The Means To Success In World Joseph Nye coined
Politics( 2004) Nye ‘soft power’ in IR
Gave theory of
complex
Power and Interdependence-World Politics in Keohane interdependence
Transition (1977) and Nye Primary book of
neo-liberalism in
IR
Gave
1.Liberal Peace: Selected Essays ( 2011) Michael W. democratic peace
2. ’Liberalism and World Politics’’( 1986) Doyle theory

Gave theory of
David
The Functional Theory of Politics (1975) Functional
Mitrany
integration
International Regimes (1983) Stephen D. international
 Krasner regime as
international
process and
collection of rules,
norms of
behaviour in IR
Gave Two-
Diplomacy and Domestic Politics: The Logic of Robert Level Game theory
Two-Level Games (1988) Putnam for international
organisation
Role of
domestic factors in
Taking Preferences Seriously: A Liberal Andrew shaping
Theory of International Relations (1997) Moravcsik international
relations

Marxism Early Marx-

Theory of
Alienation
materialistic
conception of
history
Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts (1844) class struggle,
The German Ideology (1845),; published in conflict in capitalist
1932 society, social
The Manifesto of the Communist Party (1848) revolution "The
Karl Marx history of all
Das Kapital (Capital)- 1967
With hitherto existing
The Holy Family(1844) Engels society is the
With history of class
Other books by Marx:
The Poverty of Philosophy’ ; ‘The Eighteenth Engels struggles“
With Dissection of
Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte’ ;’The Civil War in
Engles Capitalism, its
France’ ; ‘the Grundrisse’; ‘Theories of Surplus
contradiction,
Value’ ;'the critique of political economy’, ‘The
destructive
Class Struggles in France’, and ‘The Critique of
tendencies
the Gotha Program of 1875’
a critique of the
‘Young Hegelians’
and their thoughts
Note He wrote
on class struggle,
and socio-political
history of France.
Critique of
The Origin of the Family, Private Property and
Frederick capitalist
the State (1884)
Engels nuclear family
Socialism: Utopian and Scientific (1880)

World-Systems Analysis: An Introduction Gave ‘World

(2004) System Theory’-
Immanuel
The Modern World-System ( 1974) Core, Semi-
Wallerstein
The Capitalist World-Economy (1979) periphery, and
Periphery
The Development of Underdevelopment Andre Gave the
(1966) Gunder Frank dependency theory
 Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin
America (1967)
Unequal
exchange between
the ‘Core’ and
Samir
Unequal development(1974) ‘periphery’
Amin
Amin coined
the term’
Eurocentrism’
‘Prison Notebooks’ (1929-35) A Gave theory of
Antonio
Great and Terrible World: The Pre-Prison ‘cultural
Gramsci
Letters, 1908-1926 Hegemony’
critique of
“realist” theory of
IR ; provides a
The follies of globalisation Theory (2000) Justin historical-
The empire of civil society (1994) Rosenberg materialist
approach to the
international
system
reciprocal
relationship
between power
Production, power, and world order (1987) Robert W. and production
Political economy of a plural world (2002) Cox Globalisation:
global civil society,
power and
knowledge
Beyond Realism and Marxism(1990)
‘The Transformation of Political Community’ Andrew
Critical Theorist
(1998) Linklater
Critical Theory and World Politics (2007)
critique of both
Herbert capitalism and the
One-Dimensional Man (1964)
Marcuse Communist society
of the Soviet Union
Criticism of
modernisation;
Jürgen
The Theory of Communicative Action (1981) adaptation of
Habermas
Talcott Parsons’
AGIL Paradigm
Feminism J. Ann Feminist re-
Gendering world politics (2001)
Tickner formulation of 6
J. Ann Principles of
Gender in international relations (1992) Morgenthau
Tickner
Bananas, Beaches and Bases(1990) Cynthia Role of women
Enloe in IR as plantation
sector workers,
diplomatic wives,
sex workers on
military bases, etc.
tackles themes
of tourism,
 nationalism,
militarism,
consumerism,
diplomacy, and
domestic work.
‘Women and Wars’ (2013) Carol Cohn
Gendering Global Conflict. Toward a Feminist Laura Women’s issue
Theory of War (2013) Sjoberg in conflict & war
Busting the
Megan myth of only man
Beyond the Band of Brothers (2015)
MacKenzie capable of military
service
Just War Theory( 1991)
Jean
New Wine in Old Bottles: International Politics
Bethke
and Ethical Discourse (1998)
Elshtain
Women and War(1995)
Feminist International Relations: An Christine
Unfinished Journey(2001) Sylvester
Feminist International Relations: 'Exquisite Marysia
Corpse'(2013) Zalewski
Feminism and international relations (1994) Sandra
Whitworth
Social Propound
Constructivism constructivist
Social Theory of International Politics (1999) Alexander approach to the
Wendt study of
international
relations
Formative book
Nicholas
World of our making ( 1989) on constructivist
Onuf
approach to IR
An
evolutionary-
constructivist
World Ordering: A Social Theory of Cognitive Emanuel social theory of
Evolution( 2019) Adler change and
stability of
international social
orders
Importance of
Peter J. regions in post-
A world of regions (2005)
Katzenstein cold war global
politics.
National Interests in International Society Martha
(1996) Finnemore
Empire of Humanity: A History of Michael
Humanitarianism (2011) Barnett
Security Communities (1998) Emanuel a group of
Adler and states that enjoy
Michael relations of
Barnett dependable
 expectations of a
peace.
Barry New
Buzan, Ole perspective on
The Security: A New Framework for Analysis
Wæver and non-military
Copenhagen Jaap de Wilde. security
School
People, States and Fear: The National Barry
Security Problem in International Relations (1983) Buzan
 FACT SHEET IR 3.1: MAJOR COLD WAR EVENTS IN
CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER

Event Year Addl. Info/Features/Trivia

US foreign policy towards containment of Communist

expansion worldwide, especially in 3rd world
Truman “US would provide political, military and economic
1947
Doctrine assistance to all democratic nations under threat from external
or internal authoritarian forces”
Called ‘containment’ policy

Blockade of West Berlin by USSR; Western Allies

Berlin organised the Berlin Airlift to keep food and supplies flowing to
1948-49
Blockade West Berlin
1st major crisis of the cold war

Korea was Japan’s colony; after defeat of Japan in WWII, it

was divided into North and South Korea along 38 degree
1950- latitude; North-Communist; South: Capitalist
Korean War
1953 1950-53: War between north & south Korea supported by
USSR/China and USA respectively
1st major war during the Cold war

Egypt nationalised the Suez Canal

The Suez This led to invasion of Egypt in late 1956 by Israel, followed
1956
Crisis by the United Kingdom and France
Known as 2nd Arab-Israel war, after the 1st war in 1948

countrywide revolution against the USST supported

Hungarian
1956 communist Government
Revolution
Was suppressed by USSR

USSR shot down U-2 reconnaissance plane of USA over its

U-2 territory claiming it was Spy plane
1960
Incident Resulted into diplomatic crisis and cancelling the 1960
Paris Summit between the WWII allied powers

Civil war in Congo after it gained independence from

Congo Belgium
1960-65
Crisis Proxy war between USA and USSR; they supported rival
groups

Erection of 1961
the Berlin Wall Major diplomatic activities concerning the city of Berlin
 The ‘Iron Curtain’ manifested in form of physical barrier (
the Berlin Wall) between the ‘East’ and ‘West’

a failed attempt by the USA to topple the Communist

Bay of Pigs regime in Cuba by supporting opposition groups (Cuban exiles)
1961
Invasion This angered Cuban President Fidel Castro and led to
Cuban Missile Crisis

Colombo Indo-China War- peace attempt by 6 NAM countries who

1962
proposal met at Colombo

Cuba became communist led by Fidel Castro in 1959. It

allowed USSR to install nuclear missiles facing USA
USA blocked sea access to Cuba, heightened tension
between the superpowers
Cuban
1962 Sanity returned to both superpower and war avoided
Missile Crisis
1st real possibility of nuclear war during the cold war
IR theory of decision making used this as case study-
Graham Allison wrote ‘Essence of Decision: Explaining the
Cuban Missile Crisis’

Vietnam (Indochina) was French Colony. During WWII

Japan took over Indochina;
1955: France leaves, new state of Vietnam was divided into
North & South along 17 degree Latitude ; North-Communist;
The South : Capitalist
1955-75
Vietnam War 1965: USA sends massive land troops to south Vietnam to
fight Communist forces; war lingers till 1975;
Communist won, Vietnam United as communist nation;
huge negative impact on USA
This led to renewed cold war called ‘ New Cold War’

a period of political liberalization and mass protest in the

Czechoslovakia against the dominance of USSR
The Prague Was suppressed by USSR but lasted for 8 months as
1968
Spring people/civilian resisted
Finally the Velvet Revolution ( 1989) set the country free
from Soviet domination.

Israel and Arab countries fought 5 wars; most intense were

Arab-Israel
1967-73 •1967: The Six-Day War ( 3rd Arab-Israel war)
Conflicts •1973: The Yom Kippur War( Ramadan War, or October War)- led to
oil crisis, Camp David Accords

Islamic revolution in Iran led by its spiritual leader Ayatollah

Khomeini
Iranian
1979 Iran overthrew the US supported Shah dynasty and
Revolution
became an Islamic Republic
Since then, US has strained relation with Iran
 Afghanistan 1979- 89 1978: Communist coalition toppled the centrist govt; USA
Crisis helped the ‘Mujahideen’ opposing the communist Govt.
USSR sent a large troop to protect the communist regime;
proxy war between USSR and USA lingered for 10 years,
when in 1989 USSR pulled out of Afghanistan

9 November 1989: the wall dividing east and West

Fall of the
1989 Germany was broken- Germany unified
Berlin war
Signalled end of the cold war

August August Coup by hardliner communist leaders against Gorbachev; failed by

Coup in USSR 1991 street protest led by Boris Yeltsin
Dissolution December
Gorbachev Resigned, USSR dissolved
of USSR 25, 1991
 FACT SHEET IR 3.2:
MAJOR GLOBAL EVENTS, EXCLUDING THE COLD WAR EVENTS-TABLE 1
Event Year Addl. Info/Features/Trivia
Formal treaty ending the WWI
Treaty of Versailles 1919 It also sowed the seed of WWII by treating Germany very harshly
pricking its national pride
19th Amendment of the US Constitution- granting voting rights to
1920,
Women's Suffrage women after a long struggle
USA
New Zealand, in 1893, 1st country to give voting rights to Women
Stalin Became
1924 Stalin’s doctrine: 1. Leninism 2. Socialism in single country
USSR chief
The Great Wall street, the US share market, crashed in October 1929
1929
Depression starting the
Series of programs, public work projects, financial reforms, and
The New Deal 1933 regulations enacted by President Franklin D. Roosevelt to counter the
effects of the Great Depression
Played under the backdrop of Nazi Germany’s idea of racial
Berlin Olympic
1936 purity; Athlete Jesse Owens, busted this racial myth by winning 4
Games
gold medals- Hitler watched
Hitler, as part of theory of Lebensraum( nation need space to
Annexation of the
1938 breath), annexed the Sudetenland region of neighbouring
Sudetenland
Czechoslovakia; the allied power just watching
1 September 1939- Hitler attacked Poland, the allied powers
WW II Begins 1939
declared war on Germany; WW II begins
A non-aggression pact between Hitler and the Stalin that enabled
Molotov–
1939 those two powers to partition Poland between them
Ribbentrop Pact
Obviously Hitler broke this pact two years later
Operation
1941 June 22, 1941- Hitler launched attack on Russia
Barbarossa
Dec 7 , 1941- Japan did a massive air attack on U.S. Navy ships
Pearl Harbour
1941 parked at Pearl Harbour, Hawaii, US military base in pacific ocean;
Bombing
USA joined WWII
June 6, 1944- Codenamed Operation Neptune- most crucial
The D-Day- victory of the Allied forces which captured Normandy, France- led to
1944
invasion of Normandy liberation of France and victory of Allied powers in the Western
Fronts
6 and 9 August, 1945- USA dropped Nuclear bomb ( named ‘Little
Nuclear Bombing
1945 Boy’ and ‘Fat Man’) on Hiroshima ( 6Aug- Little boy) and Nagasaki( 9
on Japan
Aug- Fat Man)
End of WWII 1945 Sept 2, 1945- Japan surrenders, WWII ends
Truman Doctrine 1947 US foreign policy of containment of Communism
Independence of
Burma and Ceylon (Sri 1948
Lanka) from Britain
Official name ‘European Recovery Program’- USA giving aid of
The Marshall Plan 1948 $13 billion to 16 Western European countries to rebuild their
economy after WWII
May 15, 1948
Birth of Israel 1948
1st Arab-Israel War
Berlin Blockade 1948 24 June, 1948: USSR surrounding West Berlin, air lift operation
by USA and its western allies
 Start of the Cold War
Apartheid 1948 Beginning of apartheid in South Africa.
30 member countries
Creation of NATO 1949
North Macedonia latest to Join in March 2020
1st Oct, 1949- Establishment of the People's Republic of China(
Rise of Communist
1949 PRC) under leadership of Mao Zedong; The Republic of China (
China
RoC) led by Chiang Kai-shek relocates to Taiwan.
USSR goes
1949 2nd nuclear country, 3rd was UK, 4th France, 5th China
Nuclear

MAJOR GLOBAL EVENTS, EXCLUDING THE COLD WAR EVENTS-TABLE 2

Event Year Addl. Info/Features/Trivia
First Hydrogen
1952 USA tested First Hydrogen Bomb- code-named Mike,
Bomb Test
Bandung
1955 29 African Asian countries participated
Conference.
Warsaw Pact 1995 Easter Bloc counter to NATO; now dissolved
Pakistan’s
1956 Pakistan adopts its own Constitution
Constitution
Treaty of Rome, which would eventually lead to the European
Treaty of Rome 1957
Union
Launch of Sputnik 1 by USSR and the beginning of the Space
Age.
Sputnik 1
1957 Yuri Gagrin- 1st man to space- 1961; Valentina Tereshkova 1st
The Space age
woman in space
Laika, the Dog, 1st animal in space
French Fifth
1958 French Fifth Republic established
Republic
Great Leap Mao Zedong launched Great Leap Forward- economic and social
1958
Forward campaign as part of 2nd Five year plan
Uprising in Tibet against China leads to the exile of the Dalai
Dalai Lama to India 1959
Lama to India
Beginning of the
1959 1st Nov, 1959
Vietnam War
American Civil
1960 Against racialism, equal civil rights to Blacks
Rights Movement
1950- Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual
Sino-Soviet split. 1960
Assistance
independence of
1962 From France
Algeria
Martin Luther King
Jr. delivers "I Have a 1963 Very famous speech on jobs and freedom
Dream" speech
Assassination of
1963 22 Nov, US president Kennedy assassinated
John F. Kennedy
Segregation ends
1964 Civil Rights Act abolishes segregation in the USA.
in USA.
Singapore gains separated from Malaysia to become an independent and
1965
independence sovereign state.
 Cultural Revolution 1966 Mao Zedong launched Cultural Revolution- purging ( cleaning,
in China removing) remnants of capitalist and traditional elements from
Chinese society
3rd Arab-Israel war
resulted in Israel occupying the Gaza Strip, the Sinai Peninsula(
Six-Day War 1967
from Egypt), the West Bank( from Jordan) and the Golan Heights(
from Syria).
Bangkok Declaration is the founding document of ASEAN ; 10
ASEAN founded 1967
members; Headquarter- Jakarta
Sino-Soviet border
1969 near Manchuria
conflict
20 July- under the Apollo Mission, Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin
Man on Moon 1969
become the first two humans on the moon.
known as the Jordanian Civil War- between Jordanian army under
Black September 1970 the leadership of King Hussein, and the Palestine Liberation
Organisation (PLO), under the leadership of Yasser Arafat
17 Israeli Olympic team members( during the Munich Olympic-
Munich massacre 1972
1972) killed in terrorist act by Black September terrorist organization
Sharp rise in oil prices causing global energy crisis
Oil crisis. 1973
Break of Bretton Woods exchange System
Carnation Overthrow of authoritarian regime of Estado Novo ; transition to
1974
Revolution Democracy
a remarkable counter-terrorist hostage-rescue mission carried out
Operation Entebbe 1976
by Israeli commandos at Entebbe Airport in Uganda
economic policy reforms initiated by Deng Xiaoping in 1978 to
Open Door policy of
1978 open China to foreign businesses that wanted to invest in the country
Deng Xiaoping
Start of China becoming capitalist
a broad anti-bureaucratic social movement in Poland, using
Solidarity methods of civil resistance to advance the causes of workers' rights
1979
movement. and social change
Lech Wałęsa was the main leader of the movement
Taking hostage of 52 US diplomats and citizens by the students
supporting the Islamic Revolution in Iran; they took over the U.S.
Iran hostage crisis 1979
Embassy in Tehran
The crisis went for 444 days!
Iran–Iraq War. 1980
a surprise airstrike conducted by the Israeli Air Force on an
Operation Opera 1981
unfinished Iraqi nuclear reactor near Baghdad
undeclared war between Argentina and the UK over two British
Falklands War. 1982
dependent territories in the South Atlantic: the Falkland Islands ;
Israeli invasion of
1982
Lebanon
Bombing of U.S.
1983 results in 63 deaths.
Embassy in Beirut
Invasion of
1983 Grenada is an island nation in Caribbean sea
Grenada by USA.
Bhopal Gas Leak of methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas from the Pesticide plant of
1984
disaster. Union Carbide, killing several thousands
Mikhail Gorbachev becomes General Secretary of the Communist
Mikhail Gorbachev 1985
Party of the Soviet Union.
 Iran–Contra affair 1985 a political scandal in USA involving the sale of arms to the
Khomeini government of the Islamic Republic of Iran
Space Shuttle Challenger breaks apart 73 seconds into its flight,
Challenger disaster 1986 killing all seven crew members aboard.
Major setback to NASA space programs
The Chernobyl nuclear accident in the Chernobyl Nuclear Power plant
1986
disaster Worst Nuclear accident
Perestroika( economic restructuring) and Glasnost( Political
Perestroika and Openness) by Mikhail Gorbachev
1988
Glasnost Many consider them as Genie taken out of Bottle by Gorbachev;
led to fall of USSR
Tiananmen Square Chinese troops fired at student-led demonstrations held in
1989
Massacre Tiananmen Square, Beijing
US invasion of
1989
Panama
Code name: Operation Desert Storm
Gulf War 1990 Liberation of Kuwait, which was annexed by Iraq by US -led
coalition of 35 nations

German
1990 3 Oct, West and East Germany united
reunification.
Operation Solomon 1991 a secret Israeli military operation to airlift Ethiopian Jews to Israel.
Yugoslav Wars 1991 Beginning of breakup of Yugoslavia- Balkanisation
Peaceful breakup of Czechoslovakia into Czech Republic and
Velvet Divorce 1993
Slovakia.
World Trade Center
1993 Terrorist attack on the WTC, New York
bombing.
EU was born 1993 1st Nov, 1993- European Union Becomes Reality
Amazon.com is
1994 By Jeff Bezos
Born
Transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong from the United Kingdom
Hong Kong back to to China.
1997
China Hong Kong and Macau- Special Administrative Region following
“one country, two systems" policy
Asian financial Impacted much of East Asia and Southeast Asia ; raised fears of
1997
crisis a worldwide economic meltdown
Google founded 1998 Google was founded by Larry Page and Sergey Brin.
Euro introduced 1999 The new currency of EU- Euro introduced
UN The Millennium To discuss role of UN in new millennium
2000
Summit UN MDG- 8 Millennium Development Goals-2000-2015
9/11 2001 11 Sept, 2001- Al-Qaeda terrorist attacks on USA
Despite Hans Blix, the head on Un enquiry commission finding no
US-Iraq War 2003
Nuclear or WMD in Iraq USA attacks Iraq with its coalition of willing
Facebook Founded 2004 By Mark Zuckerberg
Steve Jobs introduced iPhone, which changed the mobile handset
The iPhone 2007
market
Sub-prime lending
2008 Engulfed almost entire globe
Financial crisis
Bin Laden Killed 2011 At Abbottabad, Pakistan by US Navy SEAL
 Russia Annex 2014 Russia annexed the Crimean Peninsula in the Black Sea
Crimea USSR was expelled from G-8
Street protest in Hong Kong against possible dilution of ‘one
Hong Kong
2019 country, two system’ policy which gives some autonomy to the Hong
Protests
Kong
COVID-19, the worst Pandemic engulfs the globe, changing the
The Pandemic 2020
very way human lived on planet Earth
February, 2022- Putin’s Russia invades Ukraine on pretext of self-
Russian Attacks on defense as it apprehend Ukraine joining NATO
2022
Ukraine Ukraine’s President: Volodymyr Zelenskyy
Ukraine’s Capital: Kiev
 FACT SHEET IR 3.3:
IMPORTANT TREATIES, COVENANTS, AGREEMENTS
TABLE -1
Treaties Year Facts, Features, Impacts. Relevance

Signed between ancient Greek city-states of Athens

446/445
Thirty Years' Peace and Sparta
BCE
Ended the First Peloponnesian War

royal charter of rights agreed to by King John of

Magna Carta 1215 England
Granted certain rights to Feudal Lords and Barons

Ends the Thirty Years' War and the Eighty Years' War,
and gave the Westphalian template of International state
Westphalia Treaty 1648 system- Sovereignty, territorial integrity, equality, non-
interference in domestic issues, etc.
The treaty is still very much relevant.

Established military alliance between England and

Treaty of Paris France against Spain.
1657
(1657) There are many ‘treaty of Paris’ ; included here only
as arbit info

Unites the Kingdoms of England and Scotland to

Treaty of Union 1707
create the Kingdom of Great Britain.

Peace of Utrecht 1713 Ends the War of the Spanish Succession.

Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II grants Diwani rights to

Treaty of Allahabad 1765 the British East India Company, India.
Start of British Colonial Rule in India

Between the Peshwa of the Maratha and the British

Treaty of Purandar 1776
East India Company, India.

Between the Peshwa of the Maratha and the British

Treaty of Salbai 1782 East India Company, India. To end the first Anglo-Maratha
War

Treaty of between Tipu Sultan and the British East India

1784
Mangalore Company to end the Second Anglo-Mysore War.

Treaty of between Tipu Sultan and the British East India

1792
Seringapatam Company to end the third Anglo-Mysore War.
 The Nawab of Arcot give away territories in India to
Carnatic Treaty 1801
Great Britain for two hundred rupees

After the end of Napoleonic Wars, the 5 great powers

Treaty of Paris of of Europe- Austria, France, Prussia, Russia, and the
1815 and Congress of 1815 United Kingdom- entered into an agreement
Vianna This general consensus among great power in Europe
was called ‘the concert of Europe ’which lasted till WW I

between the East India Company and Nepal after the

Treaty of Sugauli 1816 Anglo-Nepalese War of 1814–16
It fixed the boundary line of Nepal,

peace treaty which ended the First Opium War (1839–

Treaty of Nanking 1842
1842) between the United Kingdom and China

Ends the First Sikh War between Great Britain and the
Treaty of Lahore 1846
Sikh Empire.

First Geneva Establishes rules for the humanitarian treatment of

1864
Convention battlefield casualties.

Setting up the Universal Postal Union( UPU), which

became the second oldest international organization
Treaty of Bern 1874
The oldest is International Telecommunication
Union(ITU), set up in 1865

Treaty of
1879 Ends the first phase of the Second Anglo-Afghan War.
Gandamak

Triple Alliance
1882 Alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy.
(1882)

Convention for the Preservation of Wild Animals, Birds

London
1900 and Fish in Africa
Convention of 1900
First international agreement on wildlife conservation.

Formally ended the 1904–1905 Russo-Japanese War.

Treaty of
1905 Japan defeated Russia, giving confidence to many
Portsmouth
Asian colonial nations

International
1912 The first international drug control treaty.
Opium Convention
Treaty of Brest- 1918
Litovsk Between Russia and the Central Powers; Russia pulls
out of World War I.
 the most important of the peace treaties that brought
World War I to an end.
Treaty of Versailles 1919 But it sowed the seed of WWII by treating Germany
very harshly
Also called treaty of Paris

brought the Third Anglo-Afghan War to an end

Treaty of
1919 United Kingdom recognizes Afghanistan's
Rawalpindi
independence

Treaty on the
Creation of the Union
1922 Birth of USSR
of Soviet Socialist
Republics

Treaty of Berlin 1926 Germany and the Soviet Union pledge neutrality.

Kellogg–Briand signed by Germany, France, and the United States

Pact or 1928 They pledged not to take recourse to war
Pact of Paris These were series of treaties to avoid WW II

Geneva
Establishes rules for the treatment of prisoners of war;
Convention on 1929
predecessor of the 1949 Third Geneva Convention.
Prisoners of War

Statute of
1931 Creates the British Commonwealth.
Westminster

The Convention codifies the declarative theory of

statehood as accepted as part of customary international
law
Montevideo
1933 It also states rights & duties of states
Convention
Give 4 criteria to statehood: a permanent population, a
defined territory, government, and capacity to enter into
relations with the other states

Czechoslovakia Surrenders the Sudetenland to

Munich Agreement 1938
Germany.

Also known as Hitler–Stalin Pact, Nazi–Soviet Pact or

Nazi–Soviet Alliance
Molotov–
1939 a non-aggression pact between Nazi Germany and
Ribbentrop Pact
the Soviet Union
Of course this didn’t stop Hitler to attack Russia

a military and political alliance between Fascist Italy

Pact of Steel 1939
and Nazi Germany
 Tehran Conference 1943 Top leaders of 3 allied powers met at Tehran , Iran
after the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran
the three leaders coordinated their military strategy
against Germany and Japan and made a number of
important decisions concerning the post World War II era

creates IMF and World bank

Bretton Woods
1944 Bretton woods exchange system for global trade
system
The exchange system came to an end in 1973

also called the Washington Conversations

Dumbarton Oaks
1944 Idea of setting up the UN were formulated and
Conference
negotiated

Also known as the Crimea Conference

Conference of the Victors, the allied powers, to decide
the post WWII world
Yalta Conference 1945
Attended by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt,
British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Soviet
Premier Joseph Stalin.

Potsdam Another conference of the allied power to plan the

1945
Conference post-war peace

UN set up
San Francisco
1945 51 nations( Poland next day) signed the UN charter on
Conference
26 June 1945

a legal agreement between many countries, signed at

Geneva in 1947, whose overall purpose was to promote
General
international trade by reducing or eliminating trade
Agreement on Tariffs 1947
barriers such as tariffs or quotas
and Trade (GATT)
On 1st January 1995, WTO started functioning as new
Avatar of GATT, though GATT still exists

North Atlantic Also known as the Washington Treaty

1949
Treaty NATO was set up

Treaty of London 1949 Created the Council of Europe

Universal
UDHR was proclaimed by the United Nations General
Declaration of Human 1948
Assembly in Paris on 10 December 1948
Rights (UDHR)

Genocide
1948 Signed at Paris; Criminalizes genocide
Convention
 IMPORTANT TREATIES, COVENANTS, AGREEMENTS
TABLE -2

Treaties Year Facts, Features, Impacts. Relevance

Formally ends the war between the Allied

Treaty of San Francisco 1951
powers and Japan, ending the WWII

collective security non-binding agreement

between Australia , New Zealand separately, and
ANZUS Treaty 1951
the United States to co-operate on military matters
in the Pacific Ocean region

Also known as the Baghdad Pact

Central Treaty Organization Military alliance between Iran, Iraq, Pakistan,
1955
(CENTO) Turkey and the United Kingdom
formed in 1955 and dissolved in 1979.

Formed in 1955 by the Manila Pact, signed in

1954
Members( 8): the United States, France, Great
Southeast Asia Treaty Britain, New Zealand, Australia, the Philippines,
1955
Organization (SEATO) Thailand and Pakistan
Was dissolved in 1977
Note: Pakistan was member of both CENTO
and SEATO

Meeting of 29 newly independent Asian and

African states, which took place in 1955 in
Bandung Conference 1955 Bandung, West Java, Indonesia
It was precursor to the NAM Summit at
Belgrade- 1961

Called the Warsaw Pact

Established the military alliance of communist
Warsaw Treaty Organization 1955
Eastern Bloc under the leadership of USSR
Was dissolved in 1991

Established the European Economic

Treaty of Rome 1957
Community.

Established the International Atomic Energy

Agency( IAEA)
International Atomic Energy
1957 IAEA promotes the peaceful use of nuclear
Treaty
energy, and to inhibit its use for any military
purpose, including nuclear weapons.

Indus Waters Treaty 1960

a water-distribution treaty between India and
 Pakistan, mediated by the World Bank
Pakistan got- Jhelum, Chenab, Indus water
India got waters of Ravi, Beas, Satluj

Establishes the Latin American Free Trade

Montevideo Treaty 1960
Association.

International treaty on diplomatic intercourse

Vienna Convention on
1961 and the privileges and immunities of diplomatic
Diplomatic Relations
missions

International Convention on
Elimination of racial discrimination, and
the Elimination of All Forms of 1969
criminalize hate speech
Racial Discrimination (ICERD)

Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful

Montreal Convention 1971
Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation

signed by Egyptian President Anwar Sadat and

Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin
Camp David Accords 1978
The accord led directly to the 1979 Egypt–Israel
peace treaty.

Common VISA for European Community

Schengen Agreement 1985
member nations

International agreement regulating treaties

between states.
Vienna Convention on the Known as the "treaty on treaties", it establishes
1969
Law of Treaties rules, procedures, and guidelines for how
international treaties are defined, drafted,
amended, interpreted, and generally operated

Meeting between US President George Bush

Malta Summit 1989 and Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev
during which they declared the end of Cold war

a peace conference, held in Madrid and co-

sponsored by US and USSR.
It was an attempt to revive the Israeli–
Madrid Conference 1991
Palestinian peace process through negotiations,
involving also Arab countries, including Jordan,
Lebanon and Syria.

Maastricht Treaty 1992

Foundational treaty to establish European Union
(EU)
 Signed between the then-twelve member states
of the European Communities
Created the ‘Euro Zone’- new EU currency

set up a framework that would lead to the

resolution of the ongoing Israeli–Palestinian
conflict.
Oslo Accord 1993 It was the first face-to-face agreement between
the government of Israel and the Palestine
Liberation Organization (PLO).
Established Palestinian interim self-government,

Free trade agreement between Canada, the

United States of America, and Mexico
North American Free Trade
1994 NAFTA is now replaced by United States-
Agreement (NAFTA)
Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA), which
entered into force on July 1, 2020

United Nations Convention Provides universal legal controls for the

on the Law of the Sea 1994 management of marine natural resources and the
(UNCLOS) control of pollution

non-binding UN pact to encourage businesses

United Nations Global and firms worldwide to adopt sustainable and
2000
Compact socially responsible policies, and to report on their
implementation

created Union of South American Nations

UNASUR Constitutive Treaty 2008 (UNASUR)
Signatories: twelve South American nations
 FACT SHEET IR 3.4: ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECOLOGICAL TREATIES, CONVENTIONS,
AGEERMENTS

Treaty Year Facts & Features

Sets aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve, establishes

Antarctic freedom of scientific investigation and bans military activity on the
1959
Treaty continent
First arms control and environmental treaty

Forbids the placing of nuclear weapons or any other weapons of

Outer Space
1967 mass destruction on celestial bodies and into outer space in
Treaty
general.

United Nations Conference on the Human Environment

Stockholm First UN summit on environment and sustainable development
1972
Conference UNEP- United Nations Environment Programme was set up in
1972

To protect the stratospheric Ozone hole, banned used of CFC

Montreal
1987 It was the outcome of the 1985 Vienna Convention for the
Protocol
Protection of the Ozone Layer

Landmark agreement on sustainable development

to devise strategy for stabilizing CHG (greenhouse gases)
emissions at safe levels on the basis of equity and in accordance
with ‘common but differentiated responsibilities and respective
capabilities’
Agenda 21: Developed states should take the lead, committing
Rio Earth themselves to restoring 1990 levels of CHG emissions by the year
1992
Summit 2000.
UN framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC):
framework for further action ; bound signing parties/nations to
continue dialogue through Conference of Parties (CoP).
Since Rio summit, 26 CoP have been held till date. All global
negotiations and Climate agreements are signed through the CoP
mechanism

3rd CoP held at Kyoto, Japan

Set legally binding targets for developed nations to limit or
reduce their greenhouse gas emissions to at least 5.2 per cent
Kyoto
1997 below their 1990 levels by 2012
Protocol
Kyoto Protocol also established 3 innovative market
mechanisms for meeting emission targets- Clean Dev Mechanism
(CDM), Joint implementation, Carbon

Bali Climate It was Cop 13- 13th meeting of CoP to UNFCCC

Change 2007 Roadmap for new Emission Reduction Regime post Kyoto
Conference Protocol after 2012
 CoP 15 of UNFCCC
Copenhagen The Summit was to decide a new framework for climate change
2009
Summit mitigation beyond 2012
But no final agreement on the new Regime post Kyoto

CoP 21 under UNFCCC

The agreement set goal to limit global warming to well below 2
degree compared to pre-industrial levels.
The agreement legally binds all parties to communicate
commitment, in terms nationally determined contribution (NDC), to
Paris reduce their CHG emissions in order to reach the goals of the Paris
Climate 2015 Agreement.
Agreement However, implementation of NDC itself is not legally binding.
By 2020, all countries had to submit their nationally determined
contributions (NDCs) for reducing CHG emission and other climate
change actions by 2035.
US, in 2020, become the first nation in the world to formally
withdraw from the Paris climate agreement.

Glasgow CoP 26 under UNFCCC

Climate Change 2021 The latest CoP and Climate change conference held in
Conference Glasgow-Nov, 2021
 FACT SHEET IR 3.5: ARMS CONTROL TREATIES

Treaty Year Facts & Features

Sets aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve, establishes

freedom of scientific investigation and bans military activity on
Antarctic Treaty 1959
the continent
First arms control and environmental treaty

Banned Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer

Partial Test Ban Space and Under Water
1963
Treaty (PTBT) First nuclear arms control treaty
India signed and ratified the treaty

Anti-Ballistic
Signed by USA and USSR
Missile Treaty 1972
Limits the use of anti-ballistic missile (ABM) systems
(ABM)

Limits the spread of nuclear weapons through non-

proliferation, disarmament, and the right to utilize nuclear
Non-
technology for peaceful purposes.
Proliferation Treaty 1968
India has neither signed nor ratified
(NPT)
Israel and Pakistan also not signed
North Korea signed but came out of it in 2003

Biological effectively bans biological and toxin weapons by prohibiting

Weapons 1972 their development, production, acquisition, transfer, stockpiling
Convention (BWC) and use

bi-lateral nuclear arms limitation treaty between USA and

USSR during the height of the cold-war
Signed by US president Richard Nixon and Leonid
Brezhnev, general secretary of USSR
SALT (Strategic
This agreement set limits on the number of strategic
Arms Reduction 1972
ballistic launchers of the US and USSR for a period of five
Talks)
years pending a comprehensive agreement.
The agreement set target for reduction of ICBM and SLBM
(Inter-continental ballistic and submarine-launched ballistic
missile).

Threshold Test established a nuclear "threshold," by prohibiting nuclear

1974
Ban Treaty tests of devices having a yield exceeding 150 kilotons

Signed by US president Jimi Carter and Leonid Brezhnev,

general secretary of USSR
SALT II 1979 SALT II was not ratified due to the deterioration of the
relation between USA and USSR following the Soviet
intervention in Afghanistan.

Moon Treaty 1979

 The Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the
Moon and Other Celestial Bodies as per the international law,
including the United Nations Charter.

Signed by USA and USSR

Eliminates nuclear and conventional ground-launched
INF Treaty 1987
ballistic and cruise missiles with ranges of 500 to 5,500
kilometres

bilateral treaty between the United States and the Soviet

Union on the reduction and the limitation of strategic offensive
arms
START resulted in the removal of about 80% of all strategic
START nuclear weapons then in existence
(Strategic Arms START 1 was followed by Start II ( signed in 1993) and in
Reduction Treaty)- 1991 2010 it was renewed as ‘New START Treaty’ between USA
START I and Start and Russia, extending deep reductions of American and Soviet
II or Russian strategic nuclear weapons through February 2026
START II banned the use of multiple independently
targetable re-entry vehicles (MIRVs) on intercontinental ballistic
missiles (ICBMs). Hence, it is often cited as the De-MIRV-ing
Agreement

Signed in Helsinki, Finland

Treaty on Open
1992 Establishes a program of unarmed aerial surveillance flights
Skies
over the entire territory of its participants.

Chemical
Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and
Weapons 1993
Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction
Convention (CWC)

Bans nuclear weapons test explosions and any other

Comprehensive nuclear explosions, for both civilian and military purposes, in all
Nuclear-Test-Ban 1996 environments.
Treaty (CTBT) India has not signed CTBT
yet to enter into force

Strategic
Also known as treaty of Moscow,
Offensive
2002 Limits the nuclear arsenals of Russia and the United States.
Reductions
was superseded in 2011 by the New START treaty
Treaty(SORT)

Vienna 1990- series of agreements on confidence and security-building

Document 2011 measures between the states of Europe

Arms Trade multilateral treaty that regulates the international trade in

2013
Treaty conventional weapons

Wassenaar 1996
Arrangement promoting transparency and greater responsibility in
 transfers and trades of conventional arms and dual-use goods
and technologies
India is party to the agreement

is a multilateral export control regime (MECR)

to help member countries to identify those exports which
Australia Group(
1985 need to be controlled so as not to contribute to the spread of
AG)
chemical and biological weapons.
India Joined AG in 2018

Voluntary association of 48 countries that are capable of

exporting and transporting nuclear technology
Nuclear
Purpose of the NSG’s guidelines is to prevent civilian
Suppliers Group 1975
nuclear material, equipment, and technology from reaching
(NSG)
countries that might use it to construct nuclear weapons
India is Not a member of NSG

UN backed treaty of nuclear disarmament

first legally binding international agreement to
comprehensively prohibit nuclear weapons with the ultimate
Treaty on the
goal being their total elimination.
Prohibition of
2017 But till date only about 50 nations have signed the treaty.
nuclear weapons
None of the 9 nuclear nations, including India has signed the
(TPNW)
treaty.
USA has openly opposed the treaty calling its allies not to
sign the treaty.
 FACT SHEET IR 3.6: CONVENTIONS ON HUMAN RIGHTS
Treaty Year Facts & Features

Universal Declaration of UDHR was proclaimed by the United Nations

1948
Human Rights (UDHR) General Assembly in Paris on 10 December 1948

Signing parties commits to respect the civil and

political rights of individuals, including the right to
International Covenant on
life, freedom of religion, freedom of speech,
Civil and Political Rights 1966
freedom of assembly, electoral rights and rights to
(ICCPR)
due process and a fair trial.
China and Cuba have Not signed ICCPR

It commits the signing parties to work toward

International Covenant on the granting of economic, social, and cultural rights
Economic, Social and Cultural 1966 (ESCR) to the individuals, including labour rights
Rights (ICESCR) and the right to health, the right to education, and
the right to an adequate standard of living.

Name given to UN General Assembly

International Bill of Human
1994 Resolution 217
Rights
Includes UDHR, ICCPR, and ICESCR

Convention on the international bill of rights for women

Elimination of All Forms of to eliminate discrimination against women and
1979
Discrimination against Women girls in all areas and promotes women's and girls'
(CEDAW) equal rights

Protection of civil, political, economic, social,

Convention on the Rights of
1989 health and cultural rights of children
the Child (CRC)

International Convention on
the Protection of the Rights of Monitored by The Committee on Migrant Workers
All Migrant Workers and 2003 (CMW)
Members of Their Families
(ICRMW)
International Convention for
to prevent forced disappearance defined in international
the Protection of All Persons
2006 law, crimes against humanity.
from Enforced Disappearance
(CED)
Convention on the Rights of to promote, protect, and ensure the full enjoyment of
Persons with Disabilities 2007 human rights by persons with disabilities and ensure that
(CRPD) persons with disabilities enjoy full equality under the law.
 FACT SHEET-IR 4.1: UN: ESSENTIAL FACTS, GK,
TRIVIA
Information
Facts & Features
Item
Finalised in San Francisco Conference (April 25–June 26, 1945)
Formation Dumbarton Oaks Conference in 1944- Finalisation of basic principles
Yalta Conference: Those principles were re-affirmed
Inauguration
24 October, 1945
Day

maintaining international peace and security,

protecting human rights,
Objectives delivering humanitarian aid,
promoting sustainable development,
and upholding international law

Headquarter New York City

51
Nos. of
50 members signed the UN charter on June 26, 1945
Founding
Poland, the 51st founding member, signed in Oct, 1945
Members
India is one of the founding member
Current
193 ; last member to join UN- South Sudan in 2011
members

1. the General Assembly- all members- equal votes

2. the Security Council- 15, 5 permanent members have veto
6 organs or
3. the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)
principal
4. the Trusteeship Council; now dissolved
organisations
5. the International Court of Justice( ICJ)- at Hague
6. and the UN Secretariat, headed by UN secretary General

UN Year Set Up/

UN special
specialized Headquarter Function
Agency
agencies Current Head
Nov,1945/ Paris
Helping improve education worldwide
Director General
UNESO and to protecting important historical and
(DG): Ms Audrey
cultural sites around the world.
Azoulay
Food and leads international efforts to fight
Oct, 1945/ Rome
Agriculture hunger. technical knowledge and
DG: Qu Dongyu
Organization (FAO) information to aid development.
attainment by all peoples of the highest
WHO (World 1948/ Geneva possible level of health.
Health DG: Dr Tedros Health: a state of complete physical,
Organisation) Ghebreyesus mental and social well-being and not
merely the absence of disease or infirmity.
ILO 1919/ Geneva Promotes international labour rights by
DG: Guy Ryder formulating international standards on the
freedom to associate, collective bargaining,
 the abolition of forced labour, and equality
of opportunity and treatment.
UNIDO (United
promotes industrial development for
Nations Industrial 1966/ Vienna
poverty reduction, inclusive globalization
Development DG : Gerd Müller
and environmental sustainability.
Organization)
1865 (Oldest)/
ITU
Geneva protect and support everyone's
(International
Secretary fundamental right to communicate, set
Telecommunication
General- Dr global standard for telecommunication
Union)
Hamadoun Touré
1874 ( set up by
treaty of Bern; 2nd
UPU ( Universal helps to ensure a truly universal
oldest)
Postal Union) network of up-to-date postal services
DG: Masahiko
Metoki
IMO
1948/ London
(International sets standards for the safety and
Secretary-
Maritime security of international shipping
General- Kitack Lim
Organization)
Set up in 1998
under the Rome
permanent international court with
Statute
ICC jurisdiction to prosecute individuals for the
Headquarter:
(International international crimes of genocide, crimes
Hague, Netherland
Criminal Court) against humanity, war crimes and the crime
President:
of aggression
Justice Piotr
Hofmański
WMO (World 1950/Geneva promoting international cooperation on
Meteorological President: David atmospheric science, climatology,
Organization) Grimes hydrology and geophysics
Exchange rate, global economic
1944/Washington
IMF(International development, structural adjustment
MD: Kristalina
Monetary Fund) program, loan to tide over Balance of
Georgieva
payment
1944/
Funding development projects to both
World Bank Washington
Government and NGOs for education,
Group President: David
energy, health, development
Malpass
 IR 4.2 : UN FUNDS, PROGRAMS, RELATED
AGENCIES
Information
Facts & Features
Item
UN Funds, United Nations Development Programme
Set up: 1965
Programs, helping to eradicate poverty, reduce
UNDP Headquarter:
related inequalities and build resilience so countries
New York City
agencies can sustain progress to meet SDG
Set up : To promote socially and environmentally
1975 sustainable human settlements development
UN-HABITAT
Headquarter: and the achievement of adequate shelter for
Nairobi, Kenya all.
United Nations International Children's
Set up: 1946 Emergency Fund
UNICEF Headquarter: to save children’s lives, to defend their
New York City rights, and to help them fulfil their potential,
from early childhood through adolescence
World Food Programme
Set up: 1961
world’s largest humanitarian agency
WFP Headquarter:
was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in
Rome, Italy
2020.
Set up: 1969
UNFPA Headquarter: United Nations Population Fund
New York City
Set up: 1950
United Nations High Commissioner for
UNHCR Headquarter:
Refugees
Geneva
Set up: 2010
gender equality and the empowerment of
UN WOMEN Headquarter:
women
New York City
Set up :
Called "Atoms for Peace" organization
IAEA 1957
"Atoms for Peace" was famous address of
(International Atomic Headquarter:
US president Eisenhower
Energy Agency Vienna
Aim: to promote the safe, secure and
Related Agency DG: Rafael
peaceful use of nuclear technologies
Mariano Grossi
Set up: 1995
WTO Headquarter: World Trade Organisation
Geneva
Set up: 1951
IOM Headquarter: International Organization for Migration
Geneva
United Nations Framework Convention on
Set up: 1992
Climate Change
UNFCCC Headquarter:
Conference of parties ( CoP) for climate
Bonn, Germany
talks held every year under UNFCCC
UN Commission Set up: 1992 To oversee the outcomes of the 1992 Rio
on Sustainable Headquarter: Earth Summit on Sustainable Development
Development (CSD) New York City
 Set up: 2006
UN Human to promote and protect human rights
Headquarter:
Rights Council around the world.
Geneva
Office of the High to promote and protect human rights that
Set up: 1993
Commissioner for are guaranteed under international law and
Headquarter:
Human Rights stipulated in the Universal Declaration of
Geneva
(OHCHR) Human Rights (UDHR) of 1948
Current
Secretary António Guterres- Portuguese
General
First
Secretary Trygve Lie- Norwegian
General
SDG- Sustainable Development Goals- 17 key Goals for entire humanity, adopted
in 2015, for universal call to end poverty, protect the planet, and ensure that by 2030
all people enjoy peace and prosperity:

1. No Poverty, (2) Zero Hunger, (3) Good Health and Well-being, (4)
Quality Education, (5) Gender Equality, (6) Clean Water and Sanitation, (7)
Affordable and Clean Energy, (8) Decent Work and Economic Growth, (9)
UN SDG
Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, (10) Reducing Inequality, (11)
Sustainable Cities and Communities, (12) Responsible Consumption and
Production, (13) Climate Action, (14) Life Below Water, (15) Life On Land,
(16) Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions, (17) Partnerships for the
Goals.

Also remember MDG (Millenium Development Goals)- 8 goals- 2000-2015

1st Asian to become secretary General- U Thant of Myanmar

U Thant is also the longest serving UN secretary General
1st South Asian to be elected as President of General assembly- Vijaya
Laxmi Pandit- India
1st Pakistani to be elected as President of General assembly- Muhammad
Zafarullah Khan
Current President of General assembly, Abdulla Shahid, is from Maldives
1965: Numbers of security council members increased to 15
NIEO: New International Economic Order- proposal by ‘South’ in UN
Trivia
under UNCTAD(United Nations Conference on Trade and Development-
1964) and during the 4th NAM summit at Algiris; rejected by developed
‘North’
All the climate talks, called CoP, are done under UNFCCC (United Nation
framework convention on climate change), which was framed during Rio
earth Summit-1992
G-77: at the UN is a loose coalition of developing nations, designed to
promote its members' collective economic interests
Now China is 2nd biggest fund giving nation , after USA, to UN

FACT SHEET IR 4.3: SOME ADDITIONAL TRIVIA RELATED TO UN

FAMOUS QUOTES/ENDEAVOURS
 UN Secretary
Info item Addl. Info/Trivia
General
Quote:
1.“The United Nations was not
created to take humanity to heaven,
but to save it from hell”
2. “Everything will be all right -
2nd UN Sec Gen(1953-61)
you know when? When people, just Dag
Swedish
people, stop thinking of the United Hammarskjold
Known for his quotes/one liner
Nations as a weird Picasso
abstraction and see it as a drawing
they made themselves. - Dag
Hammarskjold

Quote: “The one common

undertaking and universal
1st UN Sec Gen (1946-53)
instrument of the great majority of Trygve Lie
Book: ‘In the Cause of Peace (1954)’
the human race is the United
Nations.”
7th UN Secretary General
“State should be viewed as the
He was from Ghana
servant of its people and not vice Kofi Anan
Wrote “We the Peoples: A UN for the
versa”
Twenty-First Century”

6th UN Sec Gen (1992-96)

From Egypt
Boutros It included Preventive diplomacy,
Agenda For Peace- 1995
Boutros-Ghali peace making peace-keeping, and
Post-conflict Peace building ( in this
order)

The Resolution states that in any cases

UN General where the Security Council, because of a lack
Assembly of unanimity among its five permanent
“Uniting for Peace"
resolution- 377 A members (P5), fails to act the GA will do
(1950) whatsoever possible, by collective actions, to
maintain peace.
8 global
development 8 MDGs: No extreme poverty and hunger,
goals to be universal primary education, gender equality
achieved by 2015 and women empowerment, reduce child
“Millennium Development Goals
fixed after the mortality, improve maternal health, combat
(MDGs)”
Millennium HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases,
Summit of the UN environmental sustainability, global partnership
in 2000 for development
2000-2015
17 key Goals
“SDG”- 2015-30 for entire For sustainable development
humanity
 FACT SHEET IR 4.3: UN CHARTER- CHAPTERS AND THEIR CONTENTS

Chapter
of UN What it contains Addl. Info/Trivia
charter
Chapter Purposes and
I Principles- Article 1-2
Chapter Membership Article 3-
2 5
Chapter UN Organs; Article 7-
3 8
Chapter The General UNGA- like Parliament of UN
4 Assembly; Article 10-22 Much less powerful than UNSC
The Security Council; UNSC- like Government of UN
Chapter
Article 23-32 15 members- 5 permanent with Veto
5
From 11 to 15 member- 1965
Chapter Pacific Settlement of
Peacekeeping force/mission- not mentioned in UN charter
6 Disputes ; Article 33-38
Article 39-51; Action
Using force to bring Peace
with Respect to Threats
Chapter Peacekeeping mission: called chapter six and half ( why?)
to the Peace, Breaches
7 As it is in between chapter 6 (Pacific Settlement of Disputes)
of the Peace, and Acts of
and chapter 7 ( using force for peace)
Aggression
Chapter Article 52-54;
Regional IGOs- such as ASEAN
8 Regional Arrangements
Article 55-60;
Chapter
International Economic
9
and Social Cooperation
ECOSOC- Economic and Social Council , one of the six
Article 61-72; The
Chapter principal organs of the UN, responsible for the direction and
Economic and Social
10 coordination of the economic, social, humanitarian, and cultural
Council
activities carried out by the UN
Declaration Regarding
Chapter
Non-Self-Governing
11
Territories
Chapter International
12 Trusteeship System
The Trusteeship Council, which was set up under UN
Chapter The Trusteeship
mandate system, was dissolved in 1994, when Palau, the last
13 Council
of the original 11 trust territories, gained its independence.
Article 92-96; The ICJ is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations
Chapter
International Court of Headquarter: Peace palace, Hague, Netherland
14
Justice (ICJ) ICC Also co-located
Chapter Article 97-101; The
UN secretary General Heads the UN Secretariat
15 Secretariat
Article 102-105;
Chapter Miscellaneous Provisions
16 regarding International
Treaties
Chapter Article 106-107;
17 Transitional Security
 Arrangements
When adopted by a vote of two thirds of the members of the
Article 108-109; General Assembly and ratified in accordance with their
Chapter
Amendments to UN respective constitutional processes by two thirds of the
18
charter Members of the United Nations, including all the permanent
members of the Security Council.
50 members signed UN charter, at San Francisco, 26 June
Article 110-111; 1945
Chapter
Ratification and Poland Signed UN charter on 15 October 1945- 51 founding
19
Signature member
India is one of the Founding Members
 FACT SHEET IR 4.4: UN SECRETARY GENERALS
Name Country Period Addl. Info/Trivia
1946 1st *Sec-Gen UN
Trygve Lie Norway
1952 Wrote’ In the Cause of Peace’
2nd and perhaps most popular Sec-Gen UN
Dag 1953-
Sweden Wrote ‘Markings( 1963)’
Hammarskjöld 1961
Famous for his Quotes on UN
Longest serving UN Sec Gen
1961-
U Thant Myanmar 1st from Asia
71
Wrote ‘View from the UN’
Kurt 1972-
Austria Wrote ‘In the Eye of the Storm’
Waldheim 81
Javier Also was PM of Peru
1982-
Pérez de Peru Longest lived UN Sec-Gen
91
Cuéllar Wrote ‘Pilgrimage for Peace’
Oversaw breakup of Yugoslavia and the Rwandan
genocide
Boutros 1992-
Egypt 1st from Africa
Boutros-Ghali 96
Published ‘Agenda For Peace’ in 1995
Wrote ‘Unvanquished: A U.S.–U.N. Saga’
Won 2001 Nobel Peace Prize
“We the Peoples: A UN for the Twenty-First Century”
1997-
Kofi Annan Ghana UN global compact and MDG during his tenure
2006
In September 2016, Annan was appointed to lead a UN
commission to investigate the Rohingya crisis in Myanmar
Ban Ki- South 2007- 2nd from Asia
moon Korea 2016 UN SDG
António
Portugal 2017- Current UN Sec-Gen
Guterres
*Sec- Gen: Secretary General
 FACT SHEET IR 4.5: INDIA’S PARTICIPATION IN UN PEACEKEEPING MISSION

Peace Keeping
Year Addl. Info
Mission
UN Peacekeeping in 1950-
Operation Tomahawk by USA forces
Korean war 54
1954–
Indo-China Indo China- Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos
70
United Nations
1956–
Emergency Force
67
(UNEF) in Middle East
United Nations
1960–
Operation in the Congo
64
( ONUC)
United Nations
1992-
Transitional Authority in
1993
Cambodia
United Nations
1992–
Operation in
94
Mozambique(ONUMOZ)
United Nations 1993–
Operation in Somalia 94
United Nations
1994-
Assistance Mission for
96
Rwanda
1989- The United Nations Angola Verification Mission I (I UNAVEM)
Angola
1999 was a peacekeeping mission in Angola during the civil war.
1999-
Sierra Leone United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL)
2001
2006–
Ethiopia-Eritrea United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea (UNMEE)
08
Since
Lebanon Currently ongoing UN peacekeeping
1998
Since Ongoing- UN Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic
Congo
2005 of the Congo or MONUSCO
UN Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF) is a United
Since Nations peacekeeping mission tasked with maintaining the
Golan Heights
2006 ceasefire between Israel and Syria in the aftermath of the 1973
Yom Kippur War
Since
Ivory Coast United Nations Operation in Côte d'Ivoire (UNOC)
2004
Since
Haiti United Nations Stabilisation Mission in Haiti
1997
Since
Liberia United Nations Mission in Liberia
2007
 FACT SHEET-IR 4.6 : WORLD BANK GROUP

Information
Facts & Features
Item
Was set up in 1944 along with IMF as outcome of Bretton Woods agreement to
Formation
provide concessional loan to European countries for reconstruction post WWII

To provide concessional loan to European countries for reconstruction

post WWII
Since 1960s, it has changed and widened its role. Now it provides long
term low interest loans technical assistance to both Government and Non-
Government developmental projects in middle-income or creditworthy poorer
Objectives
nations in the areas of Health care, education, energy, agriculture, water &
electricity, environmental protection, sustainable development, etc.
It is further widening its role from project financing to macro-economic
management by broader "structural adjustment” loans to Middle & low
Income nations

Headquarter Washington, D.C.

World Bank Group Consists of:

1. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)- popularly

called the World Bank
It is group of 2. International Development Agency (IDA)
5 organisations 3. International Finance Corporation (IFC)
4. and Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA)
5. The International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID)

Current
189
members
Current
David R. Malpass- American economist
President
First MD Eugene Meyer

In addition to providing loans, the World Bank’s assessment of a member

government’s economic performance significantly influences the borrower’s
access to other donor aid and private capital
To position itself as “Knowledge Bank” where it tried to position itself as
the repository of ‘development expertise’.
Trivia Member nations of IMF automatically becomes its members
Sources of funds: by selling World Bank bonds to investors and
Contributions from Members
voting rights proportionate to economic strength (share of
the Bank's capital stock held by the member)
World Bank is technically an agency of the United Nations system
 FACT SHEET-IR 4.7 : IMF: INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

Information
Facts & Features
Item
Finalised in The Bretton Woods Conference- 1944, formally known as the United
Formation Nations Monetary and Financial Conference, at the Mount Washington Hotel, situated
in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, USA
Inauguration
1944
Year
Initial: oversee the new monetary order that was established by the Bretton Woods
agreement
Objectives
After collapse of Bretton Woods agreement: Reducing global poverty, encouraging
international trade, and promoting financial stability and economic growth
Headquarter Washington, D.C.
Nos. of
Founding 44
Members
Current
190
members
Current MD Kristalina Georgieva- Bulgarian economist
First MD Dr. Camille Gutt

Gita Gopinath is the Chief Economist of IMF from 1 October 2018

IMF became infamous in 3rd world countries due to its ‘Structural
Adjustment’ program to help poor countries tide the Forex crisis
Trivia Chief Institution through which L.P.G. guided by the Washington
consensus - was carried out in 2nd & 3rd world countries
Member states contribute fixed quota proportion to their economic
strength and getting proportionate voting rights
 FACT SHEET-IR 4.8 : WTO: WORLD TRADE ORGANISATION

Information
Facts & Features
Item
Finalised in the Uruguay rounds of GATT in 1995, which is UN forum for trade.
WTO is new Avatar of GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade ) which is a
Formation
legal trade agreement among many nations under UN conference on Trade and
Employment in 1947 at Geneva
Inauguration
1 January 1995
Day
Regulating and facilitating ‘free’ trade among member nations and dispute
Objectives
resolution related to trade
Headquarter Geneva, Switzerland
Nos. of
Founding 23
Members
Current
164
members
Current MD Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala- Nigeria- 1st Women DG
First MD Peter Sutherland- Ireland

Doha Round, started in 2001 is the latest rounds of trade talks

Important
Doha Development Agenda: to improve the trading prospects of
WTO rounds of
developing countries.
talks
Stalemate of Doha Round on Agriculture and subsidies

ITO (International Trade Organization) was to set up along with IMF and
World bank as outcome of Bretton Woods conference in 1944; but due to
reluctance of USA, ITO never became reality.
India is the founding member of WTO
China joined WTO in 2001
Trivia
trading territory (custom territory) may become member- Hong Kong and
Taiwan; EU is also a member.
Each member has permanent mission or representative at WTO
headquarter at Geneva
One Member One Vote- Unlike IMF
 FACT SHEET IR 5.1: REGIONAL COOPERATION ORGANISATIONS: ASIA
Regional
Facts & Features
Forum

Association for South East Asian Nations

Established: •1967- Bangkok Declaration
10 Members: 5 founders- Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines,
Singapore and Thailand Plus Brunei Darussalam, Vietnam, Lao PDR,
ASEAN
Myanmar (Burma) and Cambodia
Headquarter: at Jakarta, Indonesia
Current chairmanship: Cambodia
Latest ASEAN Summit: Oct, 2021 at Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei

South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation

Set up: 8 December 1985 at Dhaka, Bangladesh- SAARC charter
signed
SAARC Members: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Maldives, Sri-
Lanka (Founders) plus Afghanistan (joined in 2007)
Headquarter: at Kathmandu, Nepal
Latest SARRC Summit: 18th at Kathmandu- Nov, 2014

Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic

Cooperation
members of BIMSTEC: India, Sri-Lanka, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal
(SAARC nations) plus Myanmar and Thailand (non-SAARC nations)
BIMSTEC
Called mini-SAARC, India investing in it as an alternative to SAARC
under its ‘Look east Policy’
Headquarter: at Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Latest BIMSTEC Summit: 4th - Kathmandu, Nepal August 2018

Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation

Promotes free trade throughout the Asia-Pacific region.
21 Members- USA, Canada, Russia, China, Australia, New Zealand,
Chile, Peru, Mexico, Japan, South Korea, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and 7
ASEAN nations
APEC
It is backed by USA
More than 50% of World’s GDP
Headquarter : at Singapore
Latest APEC summit: Nov, 2021 chaired by New Zealand, held
virtually.

Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership

a free-trade agreement involving the ASEAN Plus Six (excluding India)
It is backed by China
The RCEP is the first free trade agreement between China, Japan, and
RCEP South Korea, three of the four largest economies in Asia.
RCEP is the world's largest trading bloc- $2.3 trillion trade potential in
2019
Headquarter: Hanoi, Vietnam
India backed out and didn’t join RCEP
 BRICS Acronym coined for an association of five major emerging national
economies: Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa
Formed in 2009, S. Africa joined next year
Headquarter: Shanghai, China
BRICS Development Bank: now called New Development Bank
Latest BRICS Summit: Host- India, Sept, 2021- virtual

Pacific Economic Cooperation Council

A network of member committees composed of individuals and
institutions dedicated to promoting cooperation across the Asia Pacific
PECC
region
23 members- many ASEAN members, China, Japan, Korea, etc
Headquarter: Singapore

Also called Shanghai Pact, is a Eurasian political, economic, and

security alliance; set up in 2003
Members: 8: Shanghai Five- China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia
Shanghai and Tajikistan PLUS India, Pakistan, Uzbekistan
Cooperation India, Pakistan Joined in 2017
Organisation The SCO is the largest regional organisation in the world in terms of
(SCO) geographical coverage and population, covering three-fifths of the
Eurasian continent and nearly half of the human population.
Headquarter: Beijing, China
Latest SCO summit: Sept, 2021- virtual

Members: Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United
Arab Emirates
Gulf All members are Monarchy
Cooperation Founded 1981
Council (GCC) Headquarter: Riyadh in Saudi Arabia.
Proposed to become "Gulf Union" with tighter economic, political and
military coordination.

Organisation of Islamic Cooperation

founded in 1969, consisting of 57 member states, mostly being Muslim-
majority countries
Objective:” the collective voice of the Muslim world" and works to
OIC "safeguard and protect the interests of the Muslim world in the spirit of
promoting international peace and harmony"
SAARC nations who are members of OIC: Afghanistan, Bangladesh,
Pakistan, Maldives
Headquarter: Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

The Indian
Ocean Rim Aims:
Association Social development of Indian Ocean Rim region.
(IORA) Enhancing security and protection from piracy.
Trade facilitation.
Set up on 6 March 1997
Headquarters: Ebene, Mauritius
23 members- Australia, Bangladesh, the Comoros, France, India,
Indonesia, Iran, Kenya, Madagascar, Malaysia, Maldives, Mauritius,
 Mozambique, Oman, Seychelles, Singapore, Somalia, South Africa, Sri
Lanka, Tanzania, Thailand, the United Arab Emirates, Yemen

Collective
Military alliance in Eurasia consisting of Armenia, Kazakhstan,
Security Treaty
Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan
Organization
Headquarter: Moscow
(CSTO)

BCIM: The Bangladesh–China–India–Myanmar Forum for Regional

Other Cooperation
Forum/economic CPEC: China–Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC)
corridors in Asia BBIN: Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal (BBIN) initiative
CMEC: China-Myanmar Economic Corridor (CMEC)

IGO to include whole Asia and to integrate separte regional

organisations- ASEAN, SAARC, SCO, GCC, etc
Asia
Set up 2002
Cooperation
Members: 34 country- India, China, Indonesia, and almost all Asian
Dialogue (ACD)
countries
Headquarter : Kuwait

Mekong MGC was set up in 2000 at Vientiane, Laos to cooperate in the areas of
Ganga tourism, culture, education, and transportation.
Cooperation 6 member countries- India, Thailand, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos and
(MGC) Vietnam
 FACT SHEET IR 5.2: GLOBAL IGOs AND REGIONAL
ORGANISATIONS: OTHER THAN ASIA
Regional
Facts & Features
Forum/IGO

An inter-governmental organisation (IGO) of world’s largest and

advanced economies and wealthiest liberal democracies- Canada,
France, Germany, Italy, Japan, UK, and USA
Set up in 1973; 1st Summit- 1975
Headquarter: None! as it is not based on a treaty and has no
G-7 permanent secretariat or office
It was called G-8 from 1997 to 2014, when Russia was also a
member; after Russian annexation of the Crimea, it was expelled from the
group
Also called ‘Library Group’
Latest G-7 Summit : June 2021 in Cornwall, England

IGO comprising 19 countries and the European Union (EU).

Composed of both industrialized and developing nations- 90% GDP,
75-80& trade, 2/3rd population, and half the land !
India, Brazil, Argentina, China, Indonesia, Saudi Arabia, South Korea,
South Africa- developing nation and member of G-20
Set up in 1999
G-20
Headquarter: does not have a permanent secretariat or Headquarters
Current President: Indonesia
Primary forum for international economic and financial cooperation
among developed & developing world
Latest G-20 Summit: Oct, 2021- Rome, Italy
Next planned at Bali, Indonesia in Oct, 2022

Founded in Belgrade Yugoslavia in 1961 by newly independent 3rd

world countries
5 founding members- 1. Josip Broz Tito from Yugoslavia 2.
Jawaharlal Nehru from India · 3. Gamal Abdel Nasser from Egypt 4.
NAM Sukarno from Indonesia 5. Kwame Nkrumah from Ghana
Its Algiris Summit in 1973 led to demand of NIEO- New International
Economic Order
Latest Summit: October 25–26, 2019 in Baku, Azerbaijan
Current Presidency: Azerbaijan, till 2022

G-77
Set up in 1964, at Geneva, by 77 developing nations as an outcome of
UNCTAD- United Nations Conference on Trade and Development-1964
UNCTAD itself is an IGO based at Geneva
Since then membership of G-77 increased to 134
Headquarter: same as UN Headquarter
Work for the economic interest of developing nation, new economic
order( NIEO), and sustainable and equitable development
 Latest Summit : 45TH Annual Meeting of Ministers for Foreign Affairs
– Nov, 2021, New York
Present Chairmanship: Pakistan

North Atlantic Treaty Organization

Set up: 1949
Security Alliance: mutual defence in response to an attack by any
NATO external party.
Members: 30 (USA, UK, and other European nations)
Recent members: Montenegro in 2017 and Macedonia 2020.
Headquarter: at Brussels, Belgium

officially the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual

Assistance among USSR and Eastern Bloc nations
WARSAW Set up: 1955, Warsaw, Poland
PACT Direct rival to NATO
Headquarter: at Moscow, USSR.
Was Dissolved in 1991

European Union
Set up: 1993 by the Maastricht treaty
Political and economic union of European nations
27 Members- UK, France, Germany, and all western/central/south
plus few erstwhile Eastern Bloc European nations.
North Macedonia- latest member to join EU – march 2020
EU UK exited EU ( BREXIT)- on 31 January 2020
Headquarter: at Brussels, Belgium
Behave like supra-nation: Has European Parliament, Common
currency (Euro), common VISA (Schengen Visa), Common Foreign and
Security Policy, common market
European Commission- its executive arm
EU is member (represented) of UN, WTO, G7, G20

African Union
Replaced Organisation of African Unity (OAU), set up in 1963
Set up : 2001 in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
AU 55 members: almost all African Nation
Headquarter: Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Largest regional organisation in terms of membership count
Latest Summit: 34th- February , 2021- virtual

North American Free Trade Agreement

Set up 1994
Members: USA, Canada, Mexico
Headquarter: The NAFTA Secretariat is located in separate national
NAFTA
offices in Mexico City, Ottawa and Washington
One of the largest trade blocs in the world by GDP
NAFTA is now replaced by United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement
(USMCA), which entered into force on July 1, 2020

MERCOSUR
 Official name : Southern Common Market
South American trade bloc
Set up : by the Treaty of Asunción in 1991
Full members are Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay.
Venezuela is a full member but has been suspended since 1
December 2016.
Associate countries are Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana,
Peru and Suriname
Headquarter: Montevideo, Uruguay.

Union of South American Nations

Regional IGO of 12 South American countries
UNASUR Headquarter: Quito, Ecuador
Set up in 2008
Almost defunct (non-working) as most of the members have withdrawn

Organization of American States

Set up 1948
OAS
35 Members: of both North and South America
Headquarter: Washington, USA

Commonwealth of Independent States

Formed in 1991 by erstwhile republics under USSR
CIS 9 members: 4 central Asian republics ( except Turkmenistan which is
associate member), Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Moldova, and Russia
Headquarter: Minsk, Belarus

Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries

Set up: 1960 in Baghdad
Members: 5 founders- Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela
OPEC
plus: 7 African nation( Libya, Angola, Algeria, Gabon, Guinea, Nigeria,
Congo), UAE
Headquarter at Vienna, Austria

The Cairns Group is a coalition of 19 agricultural exporting countries

which account for more than 25 per cent of the world’s agricultural
Cairns Group
exports, and one observer (Ukraine).
Set up in Cairns, Australia, in 1986

The Australia, New Zealand, United States Security Treaty

Collective security non-binding agreement between Australia, New
Zealand, and the United States to co-operate on military matters in the
ANZUS Pacific Ocean region
ANZUS was overshadowed in late 2021 by AUKUS, a trilateral
security pact between Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United
States.

Now
Dissolved or UNASUR: Union of South American Nations; Set up: 2008 ; but by
2019 most members withdrew
Defunct SEATO: set up in 1954 by Southeast Asia Collective Défense Treaty,
organisations or Manila Pact, as cold war military alliance; was dissolved in 1977
CENTO: Central Treaty Organisation (CENTO), originally known as
the Baghdad Pact, a cold war military alliance, set up in 1955, dissolved
in 1979
Pakistan was member of both SEATO and CENTO ; both the
organisation was backed by USA for its strategic interests in Asia.
WARSAW PACT: see above.
NAFTA- replaced by USMCA
FACT SHEETS: INDIA’S FOREIGN POLICY
 FACT SHEET IR 6.1: INDIA’S FOREIGN POLICY
INSTRUMENTS IN RECENT TIMES
Foreign Policy
Year Facts & Features
Component

India’s extended neighbourhood can be said to stretch from

‘Extended
1998- the Suez Canal to the South China Sea.
Neighbourhood’
2004 This includes West Asia/the Gulf, Central Asia, Southeast
policy
Asia and the Indian Ocean Region

Policy of non-alignment, without fear or leaning to one side

1977- or another
Genuine NAM
79 This was against the Policy of leaning more towards USSR
Under Indian PM Morarji Desai

India’s security is coterminous with the region and any

1971-
Indira Doctrine interference of external powers is taken as a threat to India’s
77
security.

Under PM Narsimha Rao

To develop political, economic and security co-operation
‘Look East’
1991 with countries in Southeast Asia
Policy
To act as a counterweight to China in Southeast Asia
More engagement with ASEAN

Under PM Narendra Modi

to promote economic cooperation, cultural ties and develop
‘Act East’ Policy 2014 a strategic relationship with countries in the Asia-Pacific region
focus is being given to the development of the North East
region.

Good relation with immediate neighbours, in south Asia, by

Gujral Doctrine 1996
extending one way ( non-reciprocal ) concessions

ASEAN India Free Trade Agreement

AIFTA 2009 The ASEAN-India Trade in Goods Agreement was signed
and entered into force on 1 January 2010

To engage more with Middle East and Gulf countries-

politically, economically, and culturally
‘Look West’ Free Trade Agreements with Gulf Cooperation
2014
Policy Council(GCC)
Closer ties with OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum
Exporting Countries)
 Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and
Economic Cooperation
5 SAARC nations- India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri
Lanka Plus Myanmar and Thailand
BIMS-TEC 1997
Secretariat is in Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Referred to as the mini SAARC.
Due to political conflict between SAARC members, India
focussing on BIMS-TEC

Top level bilateral talks of foreign and defines minister of

2+2 Talks each country
India is holding 2+2 talks with USA Japan, and Australia

Quadrilateral Security Dialogue

Strategic dialogue between the USA, Japan, Australia and
India
QUAD 2007
Started in 2007, on Japan’s initiative
Joint military exercises called ‘Exercise Malabar’
Latest QUAD meeting: March 2022- virtual

Set up in July 2022 during the visit of US president to West

I2U2- Western
2022 Asia
Quad
India, Israel, USA, UAE- members

Free Trade Agreement

FTA
India signed FTA with Sr-Lanka and ASEAN

Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement

CEPA India signed CEPA with South Korea ( 2009), Japan(2010),
and UAE( 2022)

FACT SHEET IR 6.2: INDIA’S FRIENDSHIP AND STRATEGIC TREATIES

Treaty Year Facts & Features

Indo-Bhutan
Was extended by signing 2007 Treaty of Perpetual Peace
Treaty of Perpetual 1949
and Friendship
Peace and Friendship

Also called Delhi Pact

bilateral treaty between India and Pakistan in which
Liaquat–Nehru
1950 refugees were allowed to return, abducted women and looted
Pact
property were to be returned, forced conversions were
unrecognized, and minority rights were confirmed.

India-Nepal 1950
Treaty of Peace and The treaty allows free movement of people and goods
Friendship between the two nations and a close relationship and
 collaboration on matters of defense and foreign policy.

Indo–Soviet
Treaty of Peace, Signed in the backdrop of India-Pakistan conflict in 1971
1971
Friendship and Raised questions on India’s commitment to NAM
Cooperation

Signed in 1972 after the Bangladesh war

signed by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and President
Shimla Agreement 1972 Zulfikar Ali Bhutto of Pakistan on 2nd July 1972
Agreement to solve all issues by bilateral talks without
involving external agencies

India–
Bangladesh Treaty of
Signed by the Prime Minister of India Indira Gandhi and
Friendship, 1972
the Prime Minister of Bangladesh Sheikh Mujibur Rahman.
Cooperation and
Peace

India Bangladesh Exchange of the landlocked territories

Land Boundary 1974 was revived in 2015; for this Indian Parliament enacted
Agreement 100th constitutional Amendment Act 2015.

Signed in Colombo on 29 July 1987, between Indian

Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi and Sri Lankan President J. R.
Jayewardene
It was to resolve the Sri Lankan Civil War by enabling the
India- Sri Lanka 13th Amendment to the Constitution of Sri Lanka and the
1987
Accord Provincial Councils Act of 1987
India sent its Force- Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF),
which had to fight a bitter and tough battle with LTTE
This failed accord became prime reason for loss of life of
Rajeev Gandhi

The Lahore Declaration was an agreement between India

and Pakistan to reduce the risk of accidental or unauthorized
use of nuclear weapons.
Signed at Lahore by Pakistani PM Nawaz Sharif and
Indian PM Atal Bihari Vajpayee after the historic Lahore
Summit
Lahore
Before the Summit, Vajpayeeji rode the inaugural Delhi–
Declaration and 1999
Lahore Bus service to reach Lahore from Delhi.
Lahore Treaty
But this bonhomie (friendly relation) lasted only for a short
time as soon afterwards Pakistan forces entered into Kargil,
which led to the outbreak of 1999 Indo-Pakistan Kargil War in
May 1999.
Lahore Bus service was suspended after 2001 Parliament
attack.

Agreement between India and Nepal regarding the development of

Mahakali treaty 1996
watershed of Mahakali River
 FACT SHEET IR 6.3: INDIA’S FTAS AND ECONOMIC PARTNERSHIP

FTA
Year Signed with Addl. Info, Features, Trivia
Agreement
CEPA-
South Korea-
Comprehensive
2009
Economic Most Comprehensive FTA
Japan-2010
Partnership
UAE-2022
Agreement
CECPA-
Comprehensive
Economic
2021 Mauritius
Cooperation and
Partnership
Agreement
CECA-
Comprehensive Singapore
Economic (2005) and
Cooperation Malaysia (2011)
Agreement
BECA: Basic
Exchange and
2020 USA
Cooperation
Agreement
India-Sri Lanka
Free Trade 1st FTA of Sri-
1998
Agreement Lanka
(ISLFTA)
Previously
known as the
Bangkok
Agreement
Oldest
preferential trade An initiative under the United Nations Economic
Asia Pacific agreement and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
Trade Agreement 1975 between countries (ESCAP) for trade expansion through exchange of
(APTA) in the Asia-Pacific tariff concessions among developing country
Members: members of the Asia Pacific Region.
Bangladesh,
China, India, Lao
PDR, Republic of
Korea and Sri
Lanka
ASEAN-India
A free trade area among the ten member states of the Association of
Free Trade Area 2009
Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and India
(AIFTA)
 Lectures on the Republic of Plato- R.L. Nettleship- praise
The Man and His Work - A.E. Taylor- praise

Plato was first to use Socratic dialectical method

Sabine said, “What Aristotle calls the ideal state is always
Other
Plato’s second-best state”
important
He was idealist, romantic, and utopic thinker
facts
Was student of Socrates and teacher of Aristotle
His school in Athens: The Academy

Aristotle Concepts
(384–322 BC) World of being (ideas) and world of
becoming (material world of our senses)
are one and same
Theory of Form Reality can be understood from our
and Causes senses, no need for imagining any
other(intelligible) world
4 Causes- Formal, Material, Efficient,
Final

Justice is virtue, virtue in action

Distributive justice- justice as
'fairness’ in distribution of income, offices,
rewards, honours
based on the principle of equity-
Theory of Justice proportional and arithmetic equality
Corrective or rectifactory justice :
regulating the social or ethical
relationships between the citizens -
simple reciprocity- do with others what
you would do with yourself

Historical theory of origin of state

State in time: after individual & family
but in essence state prior to individual &
family
Theory of State
State (Polis) represent supreme moral
and ethical virtue of a political community
State is required for fulfilled and
flourished individual life (Eudemonia)

6 types, based on rule by whom, and

whose interest?
Rule by one- Monarchy & tyranny
Rule by few- Aristocracy & Oligarchy
Types of
Rule by many- Polity & democracy
Constitution/Govt
Tyranny, Oligarchy, and Democracy
are unjust, perverted forms of govt
His choice- combination of Polity and
Aristocracy

Revolution- cycle Cycle of change- Monarchy- tyranny-

 of change of Govt aristocracy-oligarchy- polity-democracy-monarchy
form

Household -Husband, wife, children,

slave, property
Low opinion about Women:

Household/family inferior to men, an incomplete

defective male!
has reason, but without authority;
hence, she has to be under command
of male!

Property & Unlike Plato, he supported private property &

Wealth wealth but with conditions
Slave- like household property
Slavery
Supported slavery but with many conditions

Aristotle denied citizenship to

foreigners, slaves and women and other
manual and menial workers.
Who is Not a Citizen?
mere residence in the polis does not
make a persons a citizen-aliens and
slaves reside along with citizens in the
same city.
Also right of suing and being suied
Theory of also doen not make one ekigible for
Citizebship citizenship
Merely descent from a citizen also not
sufficient critiera for citizenship.
a citizen is anyone who is entitled to
share in deliberative or judicial office.
Citizen posses Ethical & Moral virtue
Citizen are those who rule and are
being ruled
Citizenship was a public duty
Good Citizen- good human being

Politics
Nicomachean Ethics
Books
Metaphysics, Rhetoric
On the Soul

Other
important Student of Plato in his ‘Academy’;
facts Teacher of young Alexander the Great of Macedonia
Founded Lyceum -his own Academy
Master writer on Biology, Mechanics, Astronomy, Logic,
Economics, Politics, Theology, rhetoric, Poetics
Considered as true Scientist, ‘THE Philosopher’, ‘First
Teacher’, The Master of Them That Know'
Father of Political Science, Political Realism, founder of
Historical and Comparative methods, Constitutionalism, and
 formal Logic

Machiavelli Concepts
(1469 – 1527) Supreme goal of the Prince (king)- to
maintain the state-safety & security
Statecraft- real- State- non-ethical amoral entity, not
politic bound by conventional morality
Political actions are to be judged only
by its outcome- ‘end justifies means’

"Flexible Disposition “, Pragmatism,

Ruthlessness, Cunningness,
Deceitfulness, Boldness, courage, and
Shrewdness, and Will power
Loin & Fox: combined qualities of
Virtù- qualities
strength/force and Shrewdness
required in the
Mastery in power politics
Prince/king
Judicious mix of violence/cruelty and
benevolence
Fear rather than Love for political
obligation
Pretentions: should wear mask

Fortuna is a malevolent and

uncompromising source of human misery,
pain, and disaster.
Compared Fortuna with fickle,
tempestuous (angry, violent) women- like
Fortuna: Fate,
furious river
Destiny
Fortuna is enemy of political order, the
ultimate threat to the safety and security
of the state
A prince having Virtù can respond to
and tame the Fortuna.

Favoured Republic than Monarchy as

form of Government
Republics more flexible, public
Republicanism
spiritedness, better able to achieve
common Good, and secure freedom to
people/community

Good Republic
His ideal was Ancient Roman
Republic
His Ideal Republic
Good Laws & good Institution,
Flexible Institutions, Mixed Constitution:
Monarchy +Aristocracy+ Democracy,
Public Discourse, Active contention
(conflict) between the people and nobility,
Armed people, Encouraging Immigration,
Inculcating Public spiritedness, Civic
 Virtue and Civic Religion among the
citizen, Renewal or re-invention of the
Republic every 10 year
Republicanism of USA represent
many of these qualities.

Politics should be separated from

Religion
Instrumental view on religion- in
disciplining people and help ruler
manipulate people’s emotions
Religion-
Criticized Christianity, raised the
Secularism
Pagan( Pre-Christian beliefs) civic
religions of ancient societies such as
Rome
kept silence on his views on after life,
eternity of soul, salvation,

‘The prince’
Books
‘The Discourses on Livy’- his idea of Republicanism

Was a senior diplomat in Florence Republic after fall of

Medici Monarchist rule
Other Represents Italian Renaissance- humanism, secularism,
important scientific reasoning
facts Called ‘child of his time’
Founder of modern political science, modern conception of
State, and Republic, Father of political realism

Quotes Teacher of Evil- Leo Straus

on him the murderous Machiavelli -Shakespeare
Thomas Concepts
Hobbes (1588 Negative view of nature of man
–1679) Bundle of matter in motion, motion
creates emotions
Man guided by appetites, desire, and
passions
Self-preservation and glory- chief
Nature of Man appetites
Power is the means to satisfy man’s
desires
Happiness -continuous progress of
desire, restless and perpetual desire for
more power
Competition, fear & suspicion of others

State of Nature
Human life without any political order-
no civil society/Government
no limit to right of natural liberty
Private Judgment- each one judge, jury,
executioner
Unsatiable desire for power & glory,
competition, fear & mistrust- war of ‘all
 against all’
life of man, Solitary, Poor, Nasty,
Brutish, and Short

Agreement/covenant with one and all to

form civil society and state/Government
Transferred their rights, will, and power
to a 3rd party- the sovereign- Leviathan
The Sovereign is Not party to the
contract
Social Contract Power of the sovereign is absolute,
unlimited, undivided, unalienable
People get peace, price- to obey
command of the sovereign
The contract is valid only till the
sovereign is able to maintain peace and
security

As people get peace, they should obey

the laws & commands of the sovereign
Grounds for No Political Obligation-
Political
to protect right of self-preservation, to
Obligation
protect family and honour, when the
sovereign is not able to maintain peace
and security

‘De Cive’ (On the citizen), ‘De Corpore’ (On the Body) , ‘De Homine ‘
(liberating Man)
Books
• ‘The Elements of Law’, ‘Natural and Politic’
• ‘Leviathan’- his seminal creation- social contract/sovereign

1st modern thinker who gave secular basis of sovereignty,

individual autonomy and liberty, direct relation of individual to
state, social contract, scientific approach to social
Other arrangements
important Grandfather of Liberalism and individualism
facts Pioneer of realism in politics
First modern political scientist
first to modernize the tradition of Natural Law
First modern thinker to give idea of negative Liberty

John Concepts
Locke (1632 – Somewhat positive view of man’s
1704) nature
Man has God gifted sense of reason
Nature of man Able to self-govern and live with others
in peace
Seeks pleasure, avoid pain, is self-
interested but is rational

State of Nature
Human life without any common
superior authority to judge between them
 Not pre-political, pre-social- can
happen any time- statelessness
Each individual is free, equal and
independent; but bound by law of nature
Private Judgment: Each one is judge,
jury and executioner
Each individual possesses natural
right-liberty, equality, life, property
State of general ‘peace, goodwill,
mutual assistance and preservation’
But peace is fragile, possibility of
conflict anytime

to remove the inconvenience of nature

of state and to better protect their rights
men enter into contract with ‘one and all’
to set up sovereign community by
transferring some of their rights
Political community, then by majority
set up the Govt.- legislative and executive;
Social Contract legislative is supreme, executive
subordinate to legislative
Govt/sovereign is not absolute, is party
to the contract and bound by its obligation
to act for common good
2 stage contract, 1st stage by express
consent of all, 2nd stage by majority vote
and tacit consent

The Government is also party to the

contract
Govt. is to follow natural law, is not
above law, not absolute
Govt as trustee to the community
Nature of
Limited Government
Government
The community is permanent-
Government changeable anytime
Popular sovereignty- sovereignty resides
in people, expressed by majority of the
representatives.

Theory of
Property Rights property as ‘fruit of labour’ : persons
own their own body and labour, when they
mix their labour with that which is
unowned it becomes their property.
right to property includes the rights to
life, liberty
3 principles of property-no wastage,
sufficiency condition, lobour restriction
duty of charity toward poor and have
nots
Govt has no right to take property
without the consent of the property owner
 Consent is the basis
Tacit consent by subsequent
generations
right to dissent against the unjust law
Political or any immoral law
Obligation grounds of NO political obligation:
government fails to maintain peace
and order, protect natural rights, protect
them from external aggression, act
arbitrarily and becomes tyrannical.

‘A Letter Concerning Toleration’ • ‘Two Treatises of Government’ •

Books ‘An Essay Concerning Human Understanding ‘• ‘Some Thoughts
Concerning Education’

Spiritual father of European enlightenment

Other
Father of classical liberalism and capitalism
important
Influenced both French and American revolution and
facts
American declaration of Independence
 FACT SHEET WPT 2: FACT SHEET: MODERN
WESTERN POLITICAL PHILOSOPHERS- AS PER CUET-
PG SYLLABUS
Thinker Facts to remember
Rousseau Concepts
(1712-1778) Isolated living of human without speech,
language, society, and private property
State of Savage man- 2 innate feeling- 1. self-love
nature and Pity for others
life was frugal, lazy, contended, peaceful-
‘noble savage’

Private property, division of labour, laws to

protect property rights.
Origin of
Resourceful vs resourceless- inequality
inequality
dimensions of inequality: Wealth, rank,
power, personal merit

Impact of civilization corrupted ‘noble savage’ and de-based

civilization human nature
Individualism
State based on individual rights and negative freedom
and negative
is immoral, unjust, and inequal State
liberty

People as equal enter into contract with

others and with all to form political ‘Community’
–Republic or Body Politic
Individuals subsume their power, rights,
possessions, identity to the community, become
its indivisible part
Social They gain: common force for protection,
contract equal citizenship, sovereignty, civil liberty, moral
freedom, identity, forum for just & moral act
The community and each of its members are
directed by ‘General Will’ – ‘sum of real wills’-
serve common interest- common Good
By obeying laws flowing from General Will,
one gain moral freedom

Not a one-time event but a continuous

process
Features of
Popular Sovereignty: cannot be delegated
his Social
to Government or representatives
Contract
As citizen of the community, one gets back
both Political and Personal Liberty

General Will
General will is ‘real will’ of the community
Real will- guided by the higher self
 Actual will- guided by lower self
Laws flowing from general will – just, morally
good, liberating

‘Social Contract’
‘Emile, or On Education’
‘The Confessions’- autobiography
Books
Essays: ‘discourse on science and arts’ and ‘discourse on origin of
inequality’
Article: ‘Discourse on political economy’

Philosophical father of French Revolution

Other Favoured positive liberty, direct democracy, self-government,
important unalienable popular sovereignty
facts Against representative democracy
Romanticism and utopic ideas- like Plato

J.S.Mills Concepts
(1806–73) Liberty and individual autonomy -vital human
interests, propellor of civilization
2 sources of threat: State/govt and mass
Society ( greater threat)
Harm principle- one is free to act as per
Liberty one’s will until no one is harmed
Any unique, new idea/thought should be
protected even if it is false or partially true
Self-regarding vs other-regarding Actions
Personal liberty expressed through
'experiments in living’ is everyone’s right

Minority voice threated by state, mass

society
In democracy, harmed by Populism,
Minority
Majoritarianism, tyranny of Majority
Rights
To protect Minority rights: PR electoral
system, Plural voting, Second chamber of
parliament

Added quality in estimation of pleasure

Higher vs lower pleasure
Higher pleasure- pleasures “of the intellect,
of the feelings and imagination, and of the moral
His
sentiments”
principles of
Lower Pleasure: physical and sensual- men
utility
share with animals
He made Bentham’s classical utilitarianism
more moral, ethical but also diluted its
pureness.

Subjection of
Women Women’s subjection by men has its origin in
physical superiority of men
 No logical or rational basis of women’s
subjection
Men & women equal in moral goodness,
virtue, capabilities
Gender is social construction, not natural
Utility loss: by stopping 50 % of human to
flourish as rational, equal being
Marriage- the chief institution of Subjection
Women should get property, custody, legal,
and political rights.

Referred himself as a qualified socialist

Supported worker’s participation in
management, distribution of profit between
workers and managers, decent wages to
workers, and worker’s cooperatives.
Advocated distribution of lands of big
Liberal
landlords to landless tillers, diffusion of wealth,
Socialism
laws for limit on inheritance, inheritance and
wealth tax, labour unions, and decent wages to
workers
supporter of cooperatives- farmer’s
cooperative, consumer cooperative, worker’s
cooperatives.

A System of Logic (1843), Principles of Political Economy (1848) • The

essay On Liberty (1859), Utilitarianism (1863) • Considerations on
Books
Representative Government (1861), • The Subjection of Women (1869)-
with his wife Harriet Taylor

Like his father, he worked for East India Company

His father, James Mill, was friend of Jeremy Bentham
Was contemporary of Marx, who was living in England, but
Other
did not have interactions with him.
important
Considered as reluctant democrat, liberal feminist, and
facts
qualified Socialist
Compared with Nietzsche for range of intellectual thoughts
Champion of Liberty, women, and minority Rights.

Karl Marx Concepts

(1818 – 1883) Material conditions of life determine
consciousness/idea
Dialectical (inbuilt contradiction) Conception
of matter/object/entity
History as stages of different mode of
Historical
material production
Materialism
Mode of production- Forces of Production
plus Relation of Production
Each mode of production brings its own
superstructure- polity, culture, laws, media,
education

Alienation
Alienation: a condition of oppression,
disaffection arising from loss of control over
 productive activity
4 Types of Alienation:

Alienation from product of labour, Alienation

from the act of production, Alienation from
species-being, Alienation of man from man

Not only the worker but capitalist class also

face alienation, but they cope up better with
wealth & resources

Labour alone generate value in any product;

Exchange value of the labour power
(purchased at the market rate) is less than the
Theory of
use value of that labour put into the product
Surplus labour
Surplus of use value of labour over its
exchange value is retained by the capitalist as
profit, for Marx, it is theft!

Freedom in social production, which one

joins without any compulsion and as equal
Freedom is regaining human essence of
social creativity: Man producing to realize
Conception
essence of being Human, act of self-realization
of Freedom
Political vs Human emancipation: political
freedom- superficial- part of superstructure; true
freedom only freedom and equality in base-
mode of production

Change in mode of production would be

brought by a social revolution by the working
class
Social revolution is natural Dialectic process-
contradiction within the existing mode of
Theory of production
Revolution At a certain stage of development in mode of
production the forces of production come into
conflict with existing relations of production
Then comes the period of social revolution
which changes the ‘base’ which in turn changes
the ‘superstructure’

State is part of the society’s superstructure

State promote and protect the interest of the
dominant class - state is the organ of class
dominance
Theory of
“the executive of the modern state is but a
State
committee for managing the common affairs of
the whole bourgeoisie”
Relative autonomy of state- state is not
free to act of its own
 Books His main creations:

Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts (1844)- Early Marx-

Theory of Alienation
The German Ideology (1845), with Engels- materialistic
conception of history; published only in 1932
The Manifesto of the Communist Party(1848) : with Engels- class
struggle, conflict in capitalist society, social revolution "The
history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class
struggles“
Das Kapital( Capital)- 1967, later volumes published by Engels
after death of Marx.- Dissection of Capitalism, its contradiction,
destructive tendencies

His other Books/creations:

‘The Poverty of Philosophy’ ; ‘The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis
Bonaparte’ ;’The Civil War in France’ ; ‘the Grundrisse’; ‘Theories of
Surplus Value’ ;'the critique of political economy’, ‘The Class Struggles in
France’, ‘The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte’, ‘The Critique of
the Gotha Program of 1875’

Was from Germany, but lived in England in exile

Influenced by German Philosopher Friedrich Hegel,
Economists Adam Smith, David Ricardo, Ludwig Feuerbach (a
Other young Hegelian)
Important Inverted Hegel’s dialectic idealism
Facts Lifelong friendship and partnership with Frederick Engels, a
German Philosopher settled in England.
Young vs matured Marx- The German Ideology (1845) is the
dividing line ; this division was given by Loius Althussar

John
Rawls(1921 - Arguably the greatest political philosopher of 20th Century
2002) He revivided the normative political theory and social contract
tradition with his seminal creation ‘ Theory of Justice(1971)’
Rawls Theory of Justice as Fairness:
Assumptions and definitions:
Social contract: people come together, leaving ‘state of
nature’ to frame rules to construct society
Initial position: Beginning of a society or political system
when members of society frame rules to govern social life
Veil of Ignorance: members of society framing rules are
ignorant of their status and position in society
Rawlsian individual : Stripped down abstract individual :
free, and equal, rational, self-interested but not egoist,
individualistic, autonomous but having ‘sense of justice’, and
conservative risk takers
3 principles of justice:
Equality Principle: Each person has an equal right to the
most extensive liberties compatible with similar liberties for all
Fair Equality of opportunity principle: Social and economic
inequalities should be arranged so that they are attached to
offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair equality
of opportunity.
Difference Principle: Social and economic inequalities
should be arranged so that they are to the greatest benefit of the
least advantaged persons,
Lexical priority of Rawls’ 3 principles of Justice:
1st priority- Equality of liberty principle; 2 priority Fair Equality
of opportunity principle and 3rd priority- the Difference Principle
Other facts about Rawls’ Theory of Justice:
Justice as first virtue of any social arrangement
Society as system of mutual advantage
Concept of overlapping consensus
Based on the difference principle
Criticized by communitarians for unincumbered self,
individualism, and undermining community
Criticized by Feminists for being biased towards males;
Rawlsian individuals seems to be men, thinking on the pradigm
of male dominated society
Susan Miller Okin reformulated Rawls’ principle of Justice
from the feminist perspectives
Rawls ignored only one social contract thinker- Hobbes- in his
political thoughts
His theory of justice is end-state theory as it suggests a
particular distribution pattern
Rawls gave rise to modern Liberalism which supports welfare
state, progressive taxation, and distributive justice
 FACT SHEET IPT : INDIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT
AS PER CUET-PG SYLLABUS

Thinker Main concepts/facts/books

Lead the 1st wave of modern Indian Thinkers

‘Father of Modern India’; ‘Pioneer of Indian Renaissance’

Concepts:

Liberal Humanism- all mankind are one great family of which numerous
nations and tribes are only various branches
Judging socio-religious practices through reason and social utility
He saw unity in all religion: 1. Universal Supreme being 2. Existence of
soul 3. Life after death
Note: But he ssems Not to believe in Existence of soul and Life after
death; Brhamo Samaj does not believe in both these things.
Spiritual Synthesis: synthesized transnational humanist culture
Cosmopolitanism: proposed ‘World Congress’
Social reforms before political freedom
English rule- God sent opportunity for social reform and modernization of
Indian society
Champion of Civil Rights, women’s education, liberal political economy
Raja Ram Societies:
Mohan Roy
(1772 – Atmiya Sabha in 1815, the Calcutta unitarian Association in 1821 and
1833) the Brahmo Sabha in 1828

Journals:

Brahminical Magazine’; Bengali weekly- ‘Samvad Kaumudi’ ; Persian

weekly -‘Mairat Al Akbar’; English weekly -‘Bengal Gazette’

School/colleges:

Hindu College(Presidency College); the Anglo-Hindu School; Vedanta

College

Books/essays:

Tuhfat-ul-Muwahhidin (A Gift to Monotheism)- 1803 ;

The Precepts of Jesus- The Guide to Peace and Happiness (1820)
Modern Encroachments on the Ancient Rights of Females (1822)
The Universal Religion (1829) ; History of Indian Philosophy (1829)
Many translations of Vendantic texts and Upanishads in Hindi, Bengali,
English

Bhimrao Great scholar and architect of Indian Constitution

Ambedkar(1891 His thoughts/concepts:
–1956)
Caste system: biggest weakness of Indian social system
Only by elimination of Caste system, socio-economic progress possible
 Social democracy: Socialism with liberal democracy and constitutional
Government-“Democracy to work towards socialism but have its basis in a
regime of rights”
Supported state socialism
Constitutional morality: adopted it from George Grote;
Pragmatism: from John Dewey, his teacher at Colombia University
Graded inequality: inequality based on group identity- caste system
Social Justice- Justice prevails upon ensuring Liberty, Equality, Fraternity
Trinity of Rights: Liberty, Equality, Fraternity
Social reform is prior to political and Economic reform
Political democracy useless without social democracy

Books:

‘Castes in India- 1916’ ;

‘Annihilation of caste-1936’
‘Who Were the Shudras? 1946’ ;
‘The Untouchables -1948’
Castes in India: Their Mechanism, Genesis and Development
‘The Budhha and his Dhamma-1957’
Gandhi and Gandhism
Philosophy of Hinduism
The Problem of the Rupee: Its Origin and Its Solution
States and Minorities
Book on him : ‘Ambedkar: Towards An Enlightened India’- Gail Omvedt

Journals:

‘Bahishkrit Bharat in Marathi’ ; ‘Mook Nayak’

‘Janata’ and ‘Samata’ magazines

Societies:

Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha 1924

Samata Sainik Dal -1924
Samaj Samata Sangh-1927
Depressed Classes Education Society-1928

Political Parties:

1937: Independent Labour Party

1942: Scheduled caste federation
1956: The Republican Party

Other Facts:

Publicly Burnt ManuSmriti in 1927

Participated in Round table conference, got separate electorate for Dalits
But agreed to leave separate electorate as per the ‘Poona Pact’ with
Gandhiji
Was member of Viceroy’s executive Council
Chairman of the drafting committee of constituent assembly
Was against the Panchayati raj System- it would sustain caste system
First law minister of India, but resigned on issue of ‘Hindu Code Bill’
Converted to Buddhism in 1956; in 1936 he declared he would not die a
Hindu
 Gandhi- his
idea of Swaraj His idea of swaraj contained in ‘Hind Swaraj’, published in 1909
Gandhi’s Hind Swaraj influenced by Mazzini’s Italy
Influence on political thoughts of Gandhiji
John Ruskin (Unto This Last), Henry Thoreau( civil disobedience), Leo
Tolstoy- an pacific anarchist ; Italy’s Mazzini, Dada Bhai Naoroji Un-British
Rule in India , Gopal Krishna Gokhle ( his political Guru), Jainism( non-
violence), Vaishnavism(Catholicism)
Swaraj- meaning
Literal: self- governance, freedom, liberation
For Individual: self-mastery, self-restrain, self-realization, moral
goodness
For community/polity- self-governing autonomous community life without
any formal coercive authority (state)-A kind of Enlightened Anarchy
4 components of Swaraj: Polity, Economy, Social Order, and Dharma
His other thoughts/concepts:
Oceanic circle: self-governing, self-reliant, autonomous communities,
starting from village in concentric circle- nation as communities of
community
Vision of decentralized, non-hierarchical, participative and substantive
democracy
Satyagraha: active resistance based on truth and non-violence,
involving soul-force and power of truth
Sarvodaya- Good for all; Antyodaya- good to the last one in the row-
the poorest of the poor
Trusteeship: Capitalist class as trustee of wealth of the society, uses it
for welfare of the masses and society
Bread labour: each one need to do the manual work equivalent to value
of his material consumption- honour/dignity to manual labour
Freedom from want: limiting our want- voluntarily poor
Instead of western modern civilization, he had vision of ideal civilization,
which is not materialistic, individualistic, mechanistic, and dependent on
western medical treatment, transport, trade, and way of life
Rejected Determinism, believed in relative truth and one step at a time
News paper/Journal/Magzines
Indian Opinion- Newspaper
Young India - weekly journal
Navajivan - Newspaper
Harijan - weekly newspaper in English
Gandhi’s Ashrams: Chronology
Phoenix Settlement, established in 1904 in KwaZulu Natal;
Tolstoy Farm, established in 1910 outside of Johannesburg
Sevagram Ashram (est. 1936 in. Wardha).
Kochrab Ashram was the first ashram in India by Gandhiji; Founded in
1915 near Ahmedabad
Sabarmati Ashram- 1917 (Kochrab Ashram shifted and re-named)
Other facts:
Went to South Africa to fight case of Gujrati businessman
Considered himself Enlightened Anarchist
He followed Deontology- Means ( to achieve end) should also be good;
choices and rules should be right
Won Kaisar-i-Hind in 1915, which he returned in protest against
Jallianwala Bagh massacre
Satyavir Ki Katha, translated into Gujarati by Gandhiji was from Apology
of Plato; he called Socrates ‘Satyavir’
 Translated John Ruskin’s ‘Unto This Last’ as ‘Sarvodaya’ in Gujrati; he
published it in nine instalments in Indian Opinion
Was given title of ‘Mahatma’ by Rabindranath Tagore
Considered Gopal Krishna Gokhle his political guru
Sadagraha (Satyagraha) term was suggested by his borther Maganlal
His autobiography- My Experiments with Truth

Revolutionary Hindu nationalist leader and political thinker

Concepts/thoughts

Who are Hindu?

People following religions of India,
whose ancestors had lived on ‘Bharatvarsha’,
and who consider ‘Bharat’ as Punyabhumi

Religion of India: Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, etc

Hindutva: Hinduness; feeling of being Hindu
3 elements of Hindutva: Hindu Nation ( territory), common Racial
Identity( Jati), and common Cultural Identity

Societies:
Vinayak Abhinav Bharat, India House, Free India Society
Damodar Books:
Savarkar
(1883-1966) ‘The Indian War of Independence-1909’ ;
‘Mera Aajewan Karawaas – 2007’
‘Hinditva: Who Is a Hindu? -1923’ ;’
Kaala Pani’ -2007’ ;
‘Mopla- 1967’

Other Facts:

He called 1857 revolt as 1st war of Independence

Influenced by Joseph Mazzini, western Enlightenment and nation-state
1910: arrested in London for revolutionary activities; sentenced to life
imprisonment at Kalapani- A&N islands
1923- conditional release, sent to Ratnagiri Jail- social reformer, writer
President of Hindu Mahasabha for 7 years- 1937-43
Despite being its philosophical founder, never Joined RSS
Was a rationalist Atheist- was against ‘Hindu ritualism’, Cow protection
In 1970, PM Indira Gandhi released Postal Stamp on Savarkar

Kautilya-
Arthasashtra Also called ‘Chanakya’ and ‘Vishnu Gupta’; lived in about 4th century BC
He is mentioned in ‘Mudra-Raksha by Visakhadutta, ‘Das-Kumar-Charit,
by Dandin, Kathasaritsagar by Somadeva and Jain & Buddhist Texts
Was a scholar at Taxila university , the teacher and mentor of
Chandragupta Mourya
Manuscript of Arthashastra was discovered by R. Shamasastry in
Mysore Oriental Library in 1909
 Arthashastra –Nitishastra ; contains: Statecraft, Science of Politics,
Political Economy, Social norms & customs, Civil & Criminal Law, Justice
system, Inter-state politics, Warfare, Criminology, Intelligence & Espionage
Core theme: Arthashastra is the science which explains the means of
the attainment and protection of that earth ( resources/artha) - Science of
Politics
Political realism- like Thucydides, Machiavelli, and Morgenthau
Origin of state: State originated to end Matasyanyay and maintain
peace, order, and welfare of the people
Saptang: 7 limbs of state: Swami Amatyas, Janapada, Durgas, Kosha,
Danda, Mitra
Kautilya’s Saptang: 7 elements compared to limbs of body part:
Amatya- Eye; Suhrid( mitr/allies)- eyes; Kosha- Mouth; Durg- arms
An able king can fine tune Saptang to make his state strong and
victorious
Mandal Theory: International-state real politics
Basic premises: Neighbours are natural enemy, Enemy of Enemy is
friend, Friend of friend is friend, Friend of Enemy is Enemy, No permanent
friend or enemy in politics, Power is the means to maintain the state, The
King may adopt any means to protect & maintain the State
Mandala: circle of Kings: 5 in front: Ari, Mitra, Ari-Mitra, Mitra-Mitra, Ari
Mitra-Mitra
4 in back side: Parashanigraha:enemy at back, Akranda:friend at back,
Parashanigrahasara: Ari-Mitra, Akranda sara: Mitra-Mitra
Vijigishu : King aspiring to conquer the world
MADHYAMA: Powerful Kingdom close to both the Vijigishu and his
immediate enemy
UDASIN : Neutral state out of the circle of States of Vijigishu; more
powerful than any of the kings in the circle.
72 elements ( or Prakriti ) of IR and foreign policy in Mandala theory

Theory of Chatur Upayas 4 Instruments of conflict resolution

Sama, Daana, Danda, Bheda
Theory of Shadguna - 6 Guna: six fold policy or six measures on
diplomacy
Sandhi , Bigraha, Yāna, Āsana, Dvaidhībhāva and
Samśraya,