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Revision Notes Contents

Changes in 2nd Edition……………………………….... 273
UNIT 1 – POLITICAL THEORY ………………………...6
Liberty, Equality, Justice, Rights, Democracy, Power, Citizenship,
Sovereignty, State, Normative Tradition of Political Theory, Post-
Behaviouralism, Liberalism, Conservatism, Socialism, Multiculturalism,
Postmodernism, Ecologism, Marxism, Feminism, Zionism, Philosophical
Anarchism, Communitarianism.

UNIT 2 – WESTERN POLITICAL THOUGHT ……….51

Confucius, Plato, Aristotle, Machiavelli, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Rousseau,
Hegel, Mary Wollstonecraft, J.S. Mill, Karl Marx, Antonio Gramsci,
Hannah Arendt, Frantz Fanon, Mao Zedong, John Rawls, V.I. Lenin,
-ALL BOOKS OF WPT THINKERS- in Chronological Order.

UNIT 3 – INDIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT …………..70

Dharmashastra, Kautilya, Aggannasutta, Barani, Kabir, Pandita Ramabai, Bal
Gangadhar Tilak, Swami Vivekananda, Rabindranath Tagore,
M.K. Gandhi, Sri Aurobindo, Periyar E.V. Ramasamy, Iqbal,
M.N. Roy, V.D. Savarkar, B.R. Ambedkar, J.L. Nehru, Ram Manohar Lohia,
J.P. Narayan, Deendayal Upadhyaya, Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Jyotiba Phule
-ALL BOOKS OF IPT THINKERS- in Chronological Order.

UNIT 4 – COMPARATIVE POLITICS ………………...96

Approaches to C.P. – Institutional Approach, Neo-Institutional Approach,
Political Economy Approach, Political Culture, David Easton Systems Approach,
Gabriel Almond Structural-Functionalism, Pressure Groups, Interest Groups,
3 Waves of Democratization by Huntington, Colonialism, Imperialism,
De-Colonization, Neo-Colonialism, Post-Colonialism, Nationalism,
Party Systems, Elite Theory, Old vs New Social Movements,
Political Development, Dependency School. USA Constitutional Development,
Mancur Olson - The Logic of Collective Action, Types of Welfare State Models
given by Richard Titmuss, Democratic Transition and Consolidation by Juan Linz
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and Alfred Stepan, Breakdowns of Modernisation by S.N. Eisenstadt, Role of

Representative by John Wahlke.

UNIT 5 – INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS ...………129

Theories of IR - Idealism, Realism, Liberalism, Social Constructivism,
Feminism in IR, Postmodernism in IR, Critical Theory in IR, English School,
Structural Marxism, Systems Theory, Game Theory IR, Decision Making Theory
Concepts of IR - Power, Security, Sovereignty, War, Human Rights,
Humanitarian Intervention, Major Nuclear Treaties in IR.
Organisations of IR - United Nations, ICC vs ICJ, Bretton Woods Agreement,
IMF, World Bank, WTO, G20, G7, G4, BRICS, ASEAN, EU, AU, SCO, QUAD.
Beijing Consensus, Humanitarian Interventions, Globalization, Just War, UN
Peacekeeping, SDGs and MDGs, Problem Solving Theory, Modern Global
Capitalism.

UNIT 6 – INDIA’S FOREIGN POLICY ………………161

India-Pakistan, India-Bangladesh, India-Afghanistan, India-Nepal, India-Bhutan,
India-Myanmar, India-Sri Lanka, India-Maldives, India-China, India-USA,
India-Russia, India-Japan, India-Israel, India-UAE, India-UK.
India-United Nations, India-ASEAN, India-SAARC, India-SCO, India-Africa
Relations, India-GCC, India-BRICS, India-QUAD, India-IOR, Sagar Panchayat,
India’s Extended Neighbourhood, INDIA-NAM, Nehruvianism, Alternative
Perspectives on IFP.

UNIT 7 – POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA ….190

Major Pre-Independence India Acts, Schedules, Parts of Constitution,
Constituent Assembly Debates, Major Amendments of Constitution,
Major Articles of Constitution, 5 Writs, 3 Types of Emergency Provisions,
Judicial Review, Judicial Activism, PIL, Parliamentary Committees,
Updated Landmark Judgements of India, Panchayati Raj Committees,
PRI Articles. Mayo’s Resolution 1870, Parliamentary Proceedings, Supreme
Court.

UNIT 8 – POLTICAL PROCESSES IN INDIA ………217

Civil Society Organisations, Interest Groups, Pressure Groups,
Social Action Groups, Electoral Politics in India – Important Terms,
National Parties of India, State Parties of India, Famous Commentators
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of Indian Politics, Social Movements in India, Tribal Movements,

Dalit Movements, Peasant Movements, Women's Movements,
ALL Reorganisation Order of States, Statehood Demands in India.

UNIT 9 – PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION ………………233

Evolution of Public Administration, Events/Conferences of Public
Administration, Taylor's Scientific Management Theory, Bureaucratic Theory,
MP Follet Conflict Theory in Orgs, Elton Mayo's Human Relations Theory,
Simon's Decision Making Theory, Bernard's Communication Theory,
Riggs' Ecological Approach, Public Choice Theory,
Drucker's Management by Objectives (MBO), Systems Theory in Pub Ad,
Theories of Leadership, Theories of Motivation, Comparative Public
Administration – Ferral Heady, Behavioural Approach, New Public
Administration, New Public Management, Harold Lasswell – Policy Cycle,
Robert Dahl - Cross-Cultural Studies

UNIT 10 - GOVERNANCE AND PUBLIC POLICY IN

INDIA …………………………………………………….252
Right to Information (RTI), Citizens Charter, Consumer Protection Act,
Lokpal & Lokayuktas, MNREGA, Right to Education (RTE),
NITI AAYOG, Jan Sunwai, e-Governance, National Health Mission (NHM),
National Food Security Act 2013, Administrative Reforms Commission,
Bhagidari Approach to Development, Social Audit Law, Good Governance
Index, Updated - ALL MAJOR GOVERNMENT SCHEMES - in Chronological
Order.
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UNIT 1 – POLITICAL THEORY

Political Concepts

Liberty
• Liberty is interpreted as the absence of all restraints on those actions of individual
which do not harm other individuals.

Liberty and Freedom

• Liberty is frequently assumed as synonymous to freedom.
• Atlantic Charter (1941), a declaration of 'Four Freedoms', which was drawn up during
the Second World War (1939— 45) by President Roosevelt of the United States and
Prime Minister Churchill of the United Kingdom to indicate their war aims.
• The four freedoms were: (DEC 2019)
i) Freedom of speech
ii) Freedom of worship
iii) Freedom from fear
iv) Freedom from want

Different views on Liberty :-

1 Liberal Individualist view of liberty:
▪ Negative Liberty (free from interference)
- The state was viewed as a necessary evil (Thomas Paine) (June 2020). Only to
maintain their liberty by protecting their person and property.
- Isaiah Berlin defined negative freedom as ‘an area within which a man can act
unobstructed by others’. He supported negative liberty. He views positive liberty
as a road to totalitarianism.
- Advocates of negative liberty prefers minimal state.
- Advocates: John Locke, Adam Smith, Jeremy Bentham (Dec 2021), James Mill,
Henry Sidgwick, Isaiah Berlin and Herbert Spencer.
▪ Positive Liberty (free to do something) (Shift 2 2022)
- Insisted on the positive role of the state in creating conditions under which men
could effectively exercise their moral freedom.
- John Stuart Mill introduced the conception of positive liberty and consequent
transition from negative liberalism to positive liberalism.
- According to Berlin, positive freedom means individual to be his own master.
- T.H. Green, One of the first modern liberals embrace ‘positive’ conception of
freedom and defined freedom as the ability of people ‘to make the most and
best of themselves’.
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- Advocates: J. S. Mill (some scholars categorized him under negative liberty), T.H.
Green, L.T. Hobhouse and H.J. Laski.
▪ Idealist Theory of freedom
-The theory of freedom chiefly advanced by G.W.F. Hegel.
-He views the state as embodiment of Reason and holds that individual's freedom lies
in accepting the dictates of the ideal state.
▪ Gerald MacCallum on Liberty
- Liberty is single concept and not two concept i.e. negative and positive liberty.
- All claims of liberty can be concluded with this formula:
- X is (is not) free from y to do (not do, become, not become) z.
▪ C. B Macpherson’s concept of Creative Freedom
- Real freedom can be exercised through developmental power.
- Developmental power requires development of one's human potentialities and
their application to one's self-appointed goals.

The Contemporary Debates

- Main advocates: Isaiah Berlin, F.A. Hayek, Milton Friedman and Robert Nozick
- Isaiah Berlin: showed, negative and positive liberty are not merely two distinct
kinds of liberty; they can be seen as rival of a single political ideal.
- Hayek: Liberty consists in 'absence of coercion' in the sphere of individual activity
by other individuals or the state.
- presents three other meanings of freedom:-
i) 'political freedom' (participation of men in the choice of their government)
ii) 'inner freedom' (extent to which a person is guided by his own considered
will in his actions)
i) 'freedom as power' (the extent of the choice of alternatives open to us)
- Milton Friedman: sought to identify a competitive market society as a necessary
condition of freedom.
- He defines freedom as 'the absence of coercion of a man by his fellow men'.
- Robert Nozick: the state comes into existence for the performance of limited
functions.
- All inequalities of wealth and power are based on individual differences in efforts
and that it would not be just to reduce these inequalities by redistributive transfers
by state.

2. Marxist view of liberty:-

- Marx in his Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts (1844) laid down the humanist
foundations of freedom.

- For Marx freedom means the ability to achieve the totality of :-

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o human goods
o satisfaction of aspirations
o rational control of the process of production
- Herbert Marcuse: presented the theme of alienation in contemporary Western
society (concept of One Dimensional Man).
- He has given a blueprint of society where alienation will be removed and freedom
will be restored.

Major works of Major Thinkers:-

- Adam Smith: An inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of Nation (1776)
- Jeremy Bentham: Principles of Legislation (1789)
- Marx: Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts (1844)
- Marx and Engels: Holy Family (1844), Communist Manifesto (1848)
- J.S. Mill: On Liberty (1859)
- Henry Sidgwick: Methods of Ethics (1874),Principles of Political
Economy (1883); The Elements of Politics (1891); The Development of European
Polity (1903).
- Herbert Spencer: The Man Versus the State (1884)
- Engels: Anti-Duhring (1878)
- T. H. Green: Prolegomena to Ethics (1883) and Lectures on the Principles of
Political Obligation (1885–88)
- L.T. Hobhouse: Elements of Social Justice (1922)
- Isaiah Berlin: Two Concepts of Liberty (1958), Four Essays on Liberty (1969) (June
2023 Shift 2)
- F.A. Hayek: Constitution of Liberty (1960)
- Milton Friedman: Capitalism and Freedom (1962)
- Herbert Marcuse: One-Dimensional Man (1964), Eros and Civilization (1966)
- Robert Nozick: Anarchy, State and Utopia (1974) (March 2023 Shift 1)

Equality
➢ Equality is a principle of correcting the unjust inequalities in society.

Dimensions of equality:-
1 LEGAL EQUALITY
- The principle of equality was first put forward as the demand for legal equality.
- J.J. Rousseau: observed that extension of legal equality to all citizens was the
primary characteristic of civil society. He had differentiated between natural and
conventional inequality. (Dec 2019)
i) Natural or physical inequality: inequalities based on differences of age,
health, bodily strength and qualities of mind and soul.
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ii) Conventional inequality: inequalities based on different privileges that

some men enjoy to the exclusion of others, such as inequalities of wealth,
prestige and power.
- Ernest Barker: The idea of legal equality thus emanates from moral considerations
and serves as the basis of equal rights of men.
2 POLITICAL EQUALITY
- Nobody will be barred from holding political office, right to be represented in
decision-making bodies etc.
- Alexis de Tocqueville: believed that equality was the great political and social
idea of his era.
- According to him in America the first phase of the democratic revolution was
political in nature, and the second phase would be social and economic.
- In his book A Grammar of Politics (1925) Harold J. Laski has said that “Political
equality, therefore, is never real unless it is accompanied by virtual economic
equality: political power”. (June 2023 Shift 1)
3 SOCIO-ECONOMIC EQUALITY
- Marxian ideology seeks to secure socio-economic equality by the replacement of
the capitalist system by the socialist system, through socialization.
- Liberal theory seeks to promote socio-economic equality by small and piecemeal
adjustments within the capitalist system itself.

OTHER IMPORATNT FACTS:-

➢ R.H. Tawney, Harold J. Laski and C.B. Macpherson regard liberty and equality as
complementary principles.
➢ Alexis de Tocqueville, Lord Acton, Isaiah Berlin, F.A. Hayek regard equality as
impediment to liberty.
➢ Reverse Discrimination: issue was raised in US. It means discrimination in favor of the
deprived sections results in discrimination against the general category.
➢ Affirmative Action: Public policy accords special concession in matters of admission
to education and training, appointments, promotions etc. to those who were
deprived.
➢ The concept of Meritocracy: introduced by Michael Young in his work The Rise of
Meritocracy (1961)
• Presented a hypothetical system of social organization in which the top
positions are assigned to the most talented and highly educated members of
a Society.
➢ The concept of Complex Equality: advocated by Michael Walzer in his work ‘Spheres
of Justice’ (1983).
• Concerned with the just distribution of different goods to different people
• Implies a system of distribution in which different goods should be distributed
for different reasons and in different quantities.
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➢ Equality: Thoughts of Amartya Sen (June 2023 Shift 2)

Amartya Sen, a renowned economist and philosopher, has made significant contributions to
the concept of equality. His thoughts on equality are primarily centered around the idea of
capabilities.

• Sen’s Capability Approach is defined by its focus on the moral significance of

individuals’ capability of achieving the kind of lives they have reason to value.

• A person’s capability to live a good life is defined in terms of the set of valuable ‘beings
and doings’ like being in good health or having loving relationships with others to
which they have real access.
He writes a chapter on ‘Equality of What?’ in his book “Choice, Welfare and Measurement
(1982)” where he gives his concept of - ‘Basic Capability Equality’. Here, Amartya Sen tries to
construct a Theory of Equality Rejecting the claims of Three Theories of Equality namely:
1) Utilitarian equality
2) Total Utility equality
3) Rawlsian concept of equality.
Amartya Sen's main thesis is none of these three is individually, nor is the combination of
three a sufficient basis for describing the Equality - Aspect of Morality. (June 2023)
• Amartya Sen argues that this gap can be narrowed by the idea of 'Basic Capability
Equality’. (June 2023)
• The focus on basic capabilities can be defined - as a natural extension of John Rawls's
concern with primary goods, shifting attention from "goods" to "what goods do to
human beings." (June 2023)
• Amartya Sen argues that Rawls's focus is limited to only the "goods" such as "income",
rather than "on what income does" to increase or decrease the capability of a person
to access resources. (June 2023)
• If human beings were all very much alike each other, this would not have mattered a
great deal, but there is evidence says Sen, that the conversion of goods to capabilities
varies from person to person substantially, and the equality of former may vary a lot
from the equality of latter.
In summary, Amartya Sen’s thoughts on equality revolve around the idea that equality should
be measured not just by material wealth, but by the capabilities and freedoms that individuals
have to lead the kind of lives they value.

Major works of Major Thinkers:-

- J.J. Rousseau: Discourse on the Origin of Inequality (1755), Social Contract (1762)
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- Alexis de Tocqueville: Democracy in America (1835)

- R.H. Tawney: Equality (1938)
- Harold J. Laski: State in Theory and Practice (1935), Parliamentary Government in
England (1938)
- Ernest Barker: Principles of Social and Political Theory (1951)
- C. B. Macpherson: The Political Theory of Possessive Individualism (1962)
(Dec 2021) , DEMOCRATIC THEORY: ESSAYS IN RETRIEVAL (1973), Life and Times
of Liberal Democracy (1977)

Justice
➢ The maintenance of what is just especially by the impartial adjustment of conflicting
claims or the assignment of merited rewards or punishments.
➢ Justice, in Plato's sense, is the power of individual concentration on duty.
➢ Procedural justice: it is necessary to determine a just procedure for the allocation of
social advantages, then its outcome will automatically be accepted as just.
- The exponents of procedural justice: Herbert Spencer, F.A. Hayek, Milton
Friedman and Robert Nozick.
➢ Substantive justice (Social or distributive justice): the allocation of social advantages
itself should be just—the procedure for making such allocation is a secondary issue.

Different Perspectives of Justice:-

1 Liberal Perspective (Individual Liberty):-
- John Rawls pointed out that Justice is the first virtue of a good society.
- The Idea of Justice flows from individual. (June 2019)
- The Veil of ignorance is his component of social contract theory, allows us to test
ideas for fairness. Justice as Fairness (June 2019)
- Rawls gave two Principles of Distribution
1. Principle of Equal Liberty (similar liberties for all)
2. Principle of Difference Principle (raise the level of the least advantaged in the
society)
2 Libertarian perspective (minimal role of the state):- (December 2023)
- Robert Nozick: Principles of Entitlement- entitlement to bits of the natural world
and the products of their labour should be based on the principles of justice.
- Nozick identifies three principles on which this entitlement would conform to
justice:
1. Initial Acquisition: whereby an individual comes to appropriate some previously
unowned bits of the natural world
2. Voluntary Transfer: if individual use others' labour and pay them as per market
rates, he become owner of the product of their labour
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3. Rectification: the area where the state will be justified to intervene in order to
restore justice
3 Democratic socialism perspective:-
- Harold J. Laski has attempt to combine the concept of liberal freedom with the
goal of socialist justice.
- Seeks to provide for democratic rights and civil liberties along with socio-economic
rights of citizens.
- It seeks to modify Marxian socialism.
4 Anarchist perspective:-
- William Godwin the first modern defender of anarchism argued that all inequality
among human beings is created by the condition of society.
- Other advocates: P.J. Proudhon, Mikhail Bakunin, Mahatma Gandhi, Leo Tolstoy,
George Sorel, Murray Bookchin.
5 Marxist Perspective:-
- Seeks to replace the capitalist system by the socialist system and a classless society
will come into existence.
- Private property is the source of exploitation and injustice in society.
6 Subaltern perspective:-
- Antonio Gramsci introduced the concept of the ‘subaltern’ in social theory.
- Subaltern perspective of justice believes that the subaltern groups are capable of
organizing themselves and shaping human history.
7 Feminist perspective:-
- Mary Wollstonecraft: woman was not only deprived of the right to vote, but was
deemed to be unfit for education, was debarred from many occupations, and
had no legal right to own property.
- John Stuart Mill: women were in no way inferior to men in their talents, and
pleaded to give them full legal and political rights.
8 Communitarian perspective:-
- Michael Walzer: The requirements of justice could only be identified in the
context of a particular community, its practices and institutions.
- Other advocates: Michael Sandel, Charles Taylor.
➢ David Miller identified three principles of Social Justice
1. To each according to his needs
2. To each according to his rights
3. To each according to his desire

➢ According to Aristotelian theory of Justice, there are three types of justice

1. Distributive justice
2. Retributive Justice
3. Commutative Justice
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Major works of Major Thinkers:-

- William Godwin: Enquiry Concerning Political Justice (1793)
- P.J. Proudhon: What is Property (1840)
- Leo Tolstoy: War and Peace (1868-69)
- Mikhail Bakunin: Statism and Anarchy (1873)
- Peter Kropotkin: Mutual Aid—a Factor of Evolution (1890-96)
- George Sorel: Reflections on Violence (1908)
- Harold J. Laski: Liberty in the Modern State (1930), State in Theory and Practice
(1935) and A Grammar of Politics (1938)
- Antonio Gramsci: Prison Notebooks (1948)
- John Rawls: A Theory of Justice (1971), Justice as Fairness (1985)
- Murray Bookchin: Post-Scarcity Anarchism (1974)
- Robert Nozick: Anarchy, State and Utopia (1974)
- Michael Sandel: Liberalism and the Limits of Justice (1982), July 2016In
Democracy's Discontent (1996)
- Michael Walzer: Spheres of Justice (1983) (March 2023 Shift 1)
- Charles Taylor: Philosophy and Human Sciences (1985) July 2016

Rights
➢ Rights are meant to safeguard the individual from the irresponsible and arbitrary use
of power by the ruling class.

➢ Negative rights: acts of the individual shall not be restricted by the state.

➢ Positive rights: prescribe the responsibility of the state in securing rights of

individuals.

Different theories of rights:-

1 Conventional theories:-

- NATURAL RIGHTS:

• These rights are not granted by the state, but they come from the very nature
of man.

• These rights are inalienable and cannot be separated or taken away from the
individual as they are inherent and prior to the society and state. (Shift 2 2022)

• This theory was broadly developed on two important bases: the contractual
basis (Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau) and the teleological basis (Thomas Paine, T.H.
Green).
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- THEORY OF LEGAL RIGHTS:

• The theory of legal rights holds that all rights of man depend on the state
for their existence.

• Jeremy Bentham is the greatest champion of this theory. He rejects the

doctrine of natural rights as unreal and ill founded.

• He dismissed the idea of natural rights as "rhetorical nonsense" because

he believed that rights are not inherent in human beings, but are instead
created by laws and governments. (June 2023 Shift 1)

- HISTORICAL THEORY OF RIGHTS:

• Rights are differing from state to state and from time to time because of
the different levels of historical development of society.

• Edmund Burke the greatest champion of historical theory of rights

criticized the French Revolution for it was provoked by a conception of
abstract rights of man.

• He glorified the English Revolution (1688) which sought to reassert the

customary rights.

- SOCIAL-WELFARE THEORY OF RIGHTS:

• Rights are, in essence, conditions of social welfare.

• Important advocates - Roscoe Pound and Zechariah Chafee.

2 Social-democratic perspective:

- Seeks to achieve the objectives of individual liberty and social justice together.

- Laski's theory of rights takes three essential aspects into consideration: interests
of the individual; interests of the various groups and interest of the community.

- Laski holds that rights are not concessions granted by the state. On the contrary,
they are superior to the state.

3 Marxist Perspective:

- Marx and Engels realized that the so-called 'rights of man' designed to serve the
interests of a particular class

- Perfect equality and justice are possible only under communist society.

Karel Vasak in 1979, has categorized human rights into three generations:
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• First Generation Rights – Civil & Political Rights

• Second Generation Rights – Social and Economic Rights
• Third Generation Rights – Cultural, Collective and Environmental Rights

Rights – Hobhouse
• Leonard Trelawny Hobhouse, an English liberal political theorist and sociologist, has
made significant contributions to the concept of rights.
• Hobhouse was one of the leading and earliest proponents of social liberalism. His
works, culminating in his famous book “Liberalism” (1911).
• L.T. Hobhouse says “Rights are what we may expect from others and others from us,
and all genuine rights are conditions of social welfare.” (March 2023 Shift 2)
• Hobhouse’s rights theories: Social liberalism, rational tests, and welfare rights. Focus
on solutions, not punishment.
• Hobhouse’s theories on rights are centered around the idea of social liberalism and
welfare rights. He believed that rational tests could be applied to values and that they could
be self-consistent and objective.
• He emphasized dealing with problems in society through rational means, highlighting
that rather than punishing people for their wrongdoings, society can help provide a solution
to make sure that no one’s rights are infringed upon.
• Hobhouse’s work presents a positive vision of liberalism in which the purpose of
liberty is to enable individuals to develop, not solely that freedom is good in itself.
• He distinguished between property held ‘for use’ and property held ‘for power’.
Governmental co-operation with trade unions could therefore be justified as helping to
counter the structural disadvantage of employees in terms of power.

Major works of Major Thinkers:-

- Thomas Paine: Rights Of Man (1791)
- T. H. Green: Prolegomena to Ethics (1883) and Lectures on the Principles of
Political Obligation(1885–88)
- Jeremy Bentham: Principles of Legislation (1789)
- Harold J. Laski: A Grammar of Politics (1925) (June 2023 Shift 2), The Dilemma of
Our Times (1952), Liberty in the Modern State (1930),Reflections on the
Revolution of Our Time (1943),State in Theory and Practice (1935)
- Roscoe Pound: Social Contract Through Law (1942), Rights, Interests, and
Values(1958)
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- Zechariah Chafee: Freedom of Speech (1919), Free Speech in the United States
(1941)

Democracy
➢ A system in which the government of a country is elected by the people.
➢ The essential conditions of democracy are Liberty, Equality and Independence of
Judiciary (Shift 1 2022)
➢ procedural aspects of democracy – political equality, effective institutions, free and
fair elections, legislative assemblies and constitutional governments, and good voter
turn outs;
➢ Substantive aspects of democracy – socio-economic equality of citizens, tolerance for
different opinions, ruler accountability, respect for the rules, and a strong political
engagement.

Different views of Democracy:-

1 Classical Concept of Democracy:
- Main Exponents: Plato, Aristotle, Dicey, James Bryce.
- Plato: decried democracy because the people were not properly equipped with
education 'to select the best rulers and the wisest courses'
- Aristotle: placed democracy among perverted forms since it signified the rule of
the mediocre seeking their selfish interests, not the interest of the state
- Dicey: treated democracy as a form of government under which majority opinion
determines legislation.
- James Bryce: finds the justification of democracy in the concept of relativity, by
comparing its merits and demerits with other forms of government.
2 Liberal democracy:
- Principles of liberal democracy include:
(a) Government by consent
(b) Public accountability
(c) Majority rule
(d) Recognition of minority rights
(e) Constitutional Government.
- Jean-Jacques Rousseau: the exponent of popular sovereignty, In his concept of
the 'social contract', sovereignty not only originates in the people, it continues to
stay with the people in the civil society.
- Jeremy Bentham: envisaged liberal democracy as a political apparatus that would
ensure the accountability of the governors to the governed.
- John Stuart Mill: declared the principle which will establish 'the nature and limits
of the power which can be legitimately exercised by society over the individual'.
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3 Contemporary theories of Democracy:-

➢ Elitist theory:
- Hold that every society consists two categories: (a) the elite or the minority within
a social collectivity and (b) the masses or the majority which is governed by the
elite.
- Main advocates: Vilfredo Pareto, Gaetano Mosca, Robert Michels, Karl
Mannheim, Joseph A. Schumpeter, Raymond Aron, Giovanni Sartori.
- Vilfredo Pareto: divided the elite class into two categories: governing elite and
non-governing elite. In a democratic system, there is a circulation process amongst
the members of the elite and non-elite where one elite replaces another. The role
of ordinary people in such transformation is not that of principal actors, but as
supporters of one elite or another.
- Gaetano Mosca: The ruling class controls most of the wealth, power and prestige
in society and exercises all power, whatever form of government might be
adopted.
- Robert Michels: (iron law of oligarchy) implied that every organization reduced to
an 'oligarchy', that is the rule of the chosen few.
- Karl Mannheim: 'In a democracy the governed can always act to remove their
leaders or force them to take decisions in the interests of the many.'
- Championed the reconciliation between the elite theory and the democratic
theory
- Joseph A. Schumpeter: democracy is not a government of the people, the role of
the people is reduced to choosing their rulers from the competing elites.
- Raymond Aron: the initiative remains in the hands of the elite; the masses are left
to play the passive role of choosing the ruling elite and to pressurize them in their
functioning.
- Giovanni Sartori: any notion of self-governing people is a delusion. Government is
necessarily the business of competent leaders; the people exercise their right to
govern only at elections.
➢ Pluralist Theory:
- A.F. Bentley and David Truman interpreted democracy as a political game played
by a great variety of groups.
- Robert Dahl: developed a model of the democratic process which he described as
polyarchy.
- Policy-making is actually done neither by the representatives, nor by elite, but is a
product of the interaction among the groups.
➢ Radical theory of democracy
- Expand the scope of democracy by combining the essential features of procedural
and substantive democracy.
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- C.B. Macpherson identifies three variants of democracy:-

• Liberal democracy, which needs a more humane touch.
• Communist countries might qualify as democracies
• Third World countries, could also conform to the ideals of some historical
theories of democracy.
➢ Deliberative democracy
- Concept of deliberative democracy embodies an attempt to reconcile two
different models of democratic thought: 'Democracy as a popular rule' and
'Democracy as the bulwark of personal freedom'. (November 2017) (December
2023)
- Exponents of deliberative democracy: Michael Walzer, J. Cohen (June Shift 2 2023)
and J. Rogers Bernard Manin, S.L. Hurley and J.S. Fishkin.
➢ Marxist theory of democracy
- V.I. Lenin: “Democracy for an insignificant minority, democracy for the rich—that
is the democracy of capitalist society”
- Lenin advanced the concept of 'democratic centralism' as a principle of
organization of the socialist state. This was designed to lend a democratic
character to the so-called dictatorship of the proletariat.
- 'concept of socialist democracy' denotes a state characterized by domination of
the proletariat, It is established by the proletariat after overthrowing the capitalist
order by a violent revolution
- Henri Lefebvre: "The dictatorship of the proletariat means concrete democracy,
i.e. the coercive power of a majority over a minority."

➢ Subaltern perspective
- Concerned with the exploited, oppressed and marginalized groups because of
division of society into the ruling and subaltern groups
- The concept of the 'subaltern' was introduced in social theory by Antonio Gramsci
- New Democracy as hegemony of the workers, peasants and other marginalized
sections of the society. (June 2019)
➢ Cosmopolitan Democracy
➢ Cosmopolitan democracy is an idea advanced by political theorists in the context of
globalisation.
➢ Cosmopolitan democracy is a form of democracy that operates at supranational levels
of governance and is based on the idea of transnational or global citizenship.
➢ Cosmopolitan democrats believe that the era of the sovereign state is coming to an
end, and there are transformative possibilities in globalization and regionalization
which can lead us towards greater and more substantive democratization
➢ The idea of cosmopolitan citizenship goes beyond traditional citizenship of a state
arguing for global citizenship.
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➢ Immanuel Kant (June Shift 2 2023) and David Held the one of the main proponents of
cosmopolitan democracy.
➢ At the core of Kant’s Cosmopolitan Democracy is the belief that the establishment of
a World Federation of Free Republics or Democracies would be the best means to
achieve Perpetual Peace.
➢ Kant argued that Democracies, where power is vested in the hands of the People, are
more inclined to pursue Peaceful Relations with other nations. He believed that
democracies, by their nature, would be less likely to engage in aggressive wars and
would prioritize diplomatic resolutions to conflicts.
➢ The three components of Kant’s hypothetical treaty for a Permanent Peace are –
➢ First Definitive Article: The Civil Constitution of Every State shall be Republican.
➢ Second Definitive Article: The Right of Nations shall be based on a Federation of Free
States.
➢ Third Definitive Article: Cosmopolitan Right shall be limited to Conditions of Universal
Hospitality.

Major works of Major Thinkers:-

- Gaetano Mosca: The Ruling Class (1896)
- James Bryce: The American Commonwealth (1893), Modern Democracies
(1921)Dec 2021
- Dicey: Law and Opinion in England (1905)
- Robert Michels: Political Parties (1911)
- Vilfredo Pareto: The Mind and Society (1915-19)
- Karl Mannheim: Ideology and Utopia (1929)
- Joseph A. Schumpeter: Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (1942)
- Raymond Aron: Social Structure and the Ruling Class (1950) (June 2023 Shift 1)
- Giovanni Sartori: Democratic Theory (1958) (July 2016)
- Robert Dahl: A Preface to Democratic Theory (1956)
- C.B. Macpherson: The Real World of Democracy (1966), Democratic Theory—
Essays in Retrieval (1973)
- Michael Walzer: Spheres of Justice (1983) (March 2023 Shift 1)
- J. Cohen and J. Rogers: On Democracy: Toward a Transformation of American
Society (1983)
- Bernard Manin: On Legitimacy and Political Deliberation', Political Theory (1987)
- S.L. Hurley: Natural Reasons: Personality and Polity (1989)
- J.S. Fishkin: Democracy and Deliberation (1991)

Power
➢ Possession of control, authority, or influence over others.
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➢ Power is an instrument of coercion and has a physical effect. (Shift 2 2022)

Different perspective of power:-

1 Class perspective:
- This theory recognized 'class' as the organizing category for exercising power in
society.
- Owners of the means of production are 'dominant class', and they forced the rest
of society to do hard work.
- This doctrine of class struggle was strongly endorsed by Lenin, Rosa Luxemburg,
Mao Zedong etc.
2 Elite theory of power:
- Vilfredo Pareto: used the term 'elite' to indicate a superior social group.
- Gaetano Mosca: Mosca's ruling class was distinguished by its capacity of
organization.
- Robert Michels: propounded 'Iron Law of Oligarchy'. This theory argued that every
Organization is eventually reduced to 'oligarchy', that is the rule of the chosen few.
- C. Wright Mills preferred the term 'power elite' to 'ruling class'(Dec 2015)
3 Gender Perspective:-
- Friedrich Engels observed that the transition to monogamy and the overthrow of
mother right was the world-historic defeat of the female sex.
4 Group perspective:-
- Alexis de Tocqueville observed that the absence of intermediary groups in France
was responsible for the French Revolution whereas the United States was able to
maintain democracy due the presence of such groups.
- Robert Dahl's model of democracy, described as 'polyarchy', postulated that
society is controlled by a set of competing interest groups.
5 Constructive view of power:-
- Main exponents: Hannah Arendt, C.B. Macpherson and Mahatma Gandhi
- Hannah Arendt: distinguished between 'violence' ‘authority’ and 'power
- 'violence': when rulers use force to fulfil their design against the wishes of the
people, ‘Authority’: Authority is linked with command-obedience relationship
based on violence
- ‘Power’: power essentially belongs to the people. Only power but never violence
can create legitimate authority, She suggests that power is 'not the property of an
individual'.

Other thinkers described power as:-

➢ Robert Dahl: Power as Decision Making
➢ Peter Bachrach and Mortan Baratz: Power as Agenda Setting
➢ Steven Lukes: Power as Thought Control
➢ Michel Foucault: Power is Everywhere
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➢ C.B. Macpherson: Development is Power

➢ Kenneth Boulding: three faces of power:-
1. Destructive Power
2. Productive Power
3. Integrative Power

Famous Quotes
▪ “A perpetual and restless desire for power after power, that ceaseth only in
death”- THOMAS HOBBES Dec 2021

Major works of Major Thinkers:-

- Friedrich Engels: The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State (1884)
- Gaetano Mosca: The Ruling Class (1896) (June 2023 Shift 1)
- Robert Michels: Political Parties (1911)
- Vilfredo Pareto: The Mind and Society (1915-19)
- Mahatma Gandhi: Young Italy (1925)
- C. Wright Mills: The Power Elite (1956) (June 2023 Shift 1)
- Robert Dahl: A Preface to Democratic Theory (1956) and Who Governs? (1961),
Dilemmas of Pluralist Democracy (1982)
- Hannah Arendt: On Violence (1969) (June 2023 Shift 2)
- C.B. Macpherson: Democratic Theory—Essays in Retrieval (1973)

Citizenship
➢ Relationship between an individual and a state to which the individual
owes allegiance and in turn is entitled to its protection. (Shift 1 2022)

Theories of Citizenship :-
1 LIBERAL THEORY: described as 'evolutionary theory of citizenship'.
- T.H. Marshall is regarded the chief exponent of this theory.
- Marshall has observed that citizenship prescribes equal rights and duties, liberties
and constraints, powers and responsibilities for different individuals.
- T.H. Marshall has given an analysis of citizenship in an evolutionary perspective:-
- First stage: civil rights were evolved in the eighteenth century.
- Second stage: political rights were evolved in the nineteenth century.
- Third stage: social rights were developed in the twentieth century.
2 LIBERTARIAN THEORY:
- Robert Nozick is the chief exponent of this theory.
- This theory regards citizenship as the product of free choice and contract among
individuals. It considers 'market society' as a suitable model of civic life.
3 COMMUNITARIAN THEORY (Republican theory):
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- A citizen should identify himself with the community of which he is a member, and
take active part in its political life.
- The exponents of this theory include Hannah Arendt, Michael Walzer and
Benjamin Barber.

4 MARXIST THEORY:
- Anthony Giddens is the chief exponent of this theory.
- According to him, it was no longer possible for the modern state to manage its
affairs by force alone. More opportunities were generated for subordinate groups
to influence their rulers. Giddens has termed this phenomenon as 'two-way'
expansion of power.
5 PLURALIST THEORY:
- Pluralist theory of citizenship treats the development of citizenship as a complex
and multi-dimensional process.
- B. S. Turner in his book ‘Citizenship and Social Theory’ elaborated pluralist theory
of Citizenship.(Dec 2019)
➢ CRITIQUES OF CITIZENSHIP:-
- Feminist critics: even after getting full citizenship in law, women continue to suffer
from subjection in their social life.
- The Subaltern Critique: Under capitalist system apparently equal rights were
granted to all citizens. But in actual practice capitalists performed the function of
ruling class and subordinate groups were denied access to 'hegemonic' power.
➢ Derek Heater termed ‘Multiple Citizenship’.
➢ Iris Marion Young championed the notion of ‘Differentiated Citizenship’.
➢ Will Kymlicka advanced the idea of Multicultural Citizenship and identified three
kinds of minority rights which are as follows-
1. Self-Government Rights
2. Polyethnic Rights
3. Representation Rights
➢ Yasemin Soysal argued that globalization has brought a ‘new and more universal’
concept of citizenship.
➢ “The concept of citizenship has gone out of fashion among political thinkers” - Herman
Van Gunsteren. (June 2023 Shift 2)

Major works of Major Thinkers:-

- T.H. Marshall: Citizenship and Social Class (1950)
- Hannah Arendt: The Human Condition (1958) (March 2023 Shift 1)
- Robert Nozick: Anarchy, State and Utopia (1974)
- Michael Walzer: Spheres of justice (1983) (March 2023 Shift 1)
- Anthony Giddens: A Contemporary Critique of Historical Materialism (1981),
Profiles Critiques of Social Theory (1982)
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- Benjamin Barber: Strong Democracy (1984)

- B. S. Turner: Citizenship and Social Theory (1993)

SOVEREIGNTY
- The term 'sovereignty' means supreme. Thus, sovereignty denotes supremacy or
supreme power of the state.
- Sovereignty is by nature an absolute, unlimited and perpetual power.

Classical Theory of Sovereignty

- According to Jean Bodin- Sovereignty as the 'supreme power over citizens and
subjects unrestrained by law'.
Thus, Bodin places the sovereign above law, because he himself is the source of
law.
- Hugo Grotius brought out the implications of sovereignty of the state in the
international sphere.
- Thomas Hobbes, places authority of the sovereign beyond challenge. He added an
element of legitimacy to authority of the sovereign, because be held:
(a) that the sovereign is the product of the will of the people
(b) that the sovereign enjoys his supreme authority for its functional value, that is
by virtue of providing order, peace and security in the place of anarchy and
oppression.
- John Locke did not concede absolute sovereignty of the state.
He thought that the supreme power in society was held by the people. Ruler or
government could not possess supreme power.
- Jean Jacques Rousseau introduced the doctrine of popular sovereignty. (March
2023 Shift 1)
Rousseau maintained that sovereignty is absolute and unlimited because the
supreme direction and control of the general will be accepted by the people
unconditionally in the interests of their freedom.
- John Austin: the theory of sovereignty as a legal concept was perfected by Austin.
He is regarded as the greatest exponent of the monistic theory of sovereignty.
Austin sought to define law as the command of the sovereign, obliging the subject
to do or refrain from doing, certain acts, failure to obey the law being visited by
penalty. (March 2023 Shift 1)
- CHARACTERISTICS OF SOVEREIGNTY
1. Absoluteness
2. Permanence
3. Universality
4. Inalienability
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5. Indivisibility
▪ Pluralist Theory of Sovereignty-
- Leon Duguit: 'public service' rather than sovereignty is the essential characteristic
of the state.
- Rejects the theory of absolute sovereignty and makes the state responsible to
society.
- Hugo Krabbe proceeds to distinguish between law and the state, and argues that
law is independent of and superior to the state.
- Thus, sovereignty is an attribute of law, not of the state.
- Harold j. Laski is the most ardent exponent of the pluralist theory of sovereignty.
- Laski insists that sovereignty in the state should be shared by many groups
according to the respective value of the functions of each group.
- The state should perform its coordinating function, but has no right to
omnipotence.

Major Works of Major Thinkers

- Harold J. Laski-
o A Grammar of Politics (1938)
o The State in Theory and Practice (1935)
o The Foundations of Sovereignty (1921)
o Reflections on the Revolution of Our Time (1943)
- Hugo Krabbe- The Idea of the Modern State (1922)
- Robert M. Maclver-
o Modern State (1926)
o The Web of Government (1947/1965)

STATE
➢ State embraces the whole of people in a specific territory and it has the special
function of maintaining social order. It performs this function through its agent, the
government 'which speaks with the voice of law'. (R.M. Maclver)
➢ Four elements of a state: population, territory, government and sovereignty
➢ modern state could be traced in the writings of Nicolo Machiavelli, who is credited
with first using the concept of the state—stato—to refer to a territorial sovereign
government
➢ Michel Foucault: the state is the result of the practices of the government. The state
flows from this modern practice of ordering life into structures.

Functions of State for Individualism

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• The principle of individualism, also known as Laissez Faire, advocates for minimum
interference by the government in the functions of the individual.

• It supports the idea that the state should only interfere when it feels that one
individual is unnecessarily interfering in the liberty of the other. Beyond these
protective functions, the individual should be left completely free.

• In the context of Individualism, the state is seen as a necessary entity, but its functions
should be kept to a minimum.
The main functions of the state, according to individualistic theory, are:
1. Protection of the state and individuals against foreign aggression. (June 2023 Shift
1)
2. Protection of individual against individual, in matters of physical harm (injury,
aggression, and killing), slander, personal restraint, etc. (June 2023 Shift 1)
3. Protection of property (theft, dacoity, and other types of protection of property).
(June 2023 Shift 1)
4. Protection of individuals against false contracts or breach of contracts
5. Protection of individual against epidemics (June 2023 Shift 1)

Theories of State
(a) Organic theory of the state
- It regards the state as a natural institution and the individuals with its organs.
- It also views the state as an ethical institution.
- Exponents-
- Aristotle, “State is prior to man”.
- Edmund Burke, “Compared state with living organism”.
- G.W.F. Hegel, “State is march of God on Earth”.

(b) Theory of Social Contract

- It treats the state as the product of the mutual agreement of men, created
with a definite purpose, to serve certain social needs.
- Main Exponents
- Thomas Hobbes postulates a single contract by which men abandon the state
of nature and establish society and state together
- Locke believes that society and state were created in different steps: creation
of society is the primary step; setting up of the government is a secondary
step. So, if the government is dissolved, society does not disintegrate. Order
will be restored by setting up another government in its place
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- Rousseau postulates a single contract, and thereby creates absolute,

indivisible and inalienable sovereignty.

(c) Welfare State perspective

- Emphasis is on positive role of the state in securing welfare of its citizens,
particularly of their vulnerable sections.
- Main Exponents:-
- J.S. Mill: supporter of constitutional and representative government, and laid
the foundations of the 'welfare state'.
- L.T. Hobhouse, idea of social origin of property and its corresponding
responsibility toward society.
- Thomas Hill Green, Concept of Moral Freedom.
- Harold J. Laski, proceeded to identify certain positive characteristics and
tendencies of the 'modern state' which held some promise for the
underprivileged sections.
- Robert M MacIver, State is an effective organ of attaining social unity and
solidarity, and this particular function distinguishes it from all other human
associations.

(d) Class perspective

- Class perspective on the state is associated with Marxism.
- It treats the state neither as a 'natural institution' nor as an 'ethical institution'
but it, treats the state as an artificial device.
- Exponents: Karl Marx, Fredrich Engels and Lenin have made it amply clear that
the state is but an instrument of class rule and exploitation.

(e) Pluralist Theory of State

- State is among many associations i.e. state is associations of associations.
- Unlike Marxism, this theory holds that state is a neutral referee managing
interests of many associations or groups.
- Exponents: Robert Dahl, Harold Laski, R.M. MacIver, Martin Lipset.

Famous Quotes on State

- State is the highest form of political association aiming at the highest of
goods- Aristotle
- State is an individual writ large- Plato
- State is march of God on Earth- Hegel
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- State is a political association set up as a result of social contract to preserve

life and maintain peace and order-Hobbes
- State represents General Will of the body politic set up as a result of the
social contract- Rousseau
- State is the instrument to protect and further the interest of the whole
Bourgeoisie class- Karl Marx
- State is the human community that claims the monopoly of the legitimate
use of physical force/violence within a given territory- Max Weber

Major works of major thinkers

- T. Skocpol – Bringing the State Back In(1985)
- R.M. Maclver – The Modern State (1926)
- Harold J. Laski – An Introduction to Politics (1931)
- Friedrich Engels – Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State (1884)
- R.M. Maclver – The Web of Government (1965)
- Hobbes – Leviathan (1651) (June 2023 Shift 1)
- Locke – Two Treatises of Civil Government (1690)
- Robert Nozick – Anarchy, State and Utopia (1974)

Normative tradition of political theory

• The Normative tradition of political theory is an approach that seeks to identify
and evaluate the values and ideals that should guide political action and decision-
making.
• It is concerned with questions such as what is just, what is fair, and what is good.
• The Normative tradition of Political Theory focuses on prescribing how political
systems ought to be based on moral and ethical principles.
The following thinkers are associated with the Normative tradition of Political Theory: (June
2023 Shift 1)
A. Bertrand de Jouvenal: Bertrand de Jouvenal was a French political philosopher who
explored normative aspects of political theory. He focused on issues such as the nature of
power, the role of the state, and the relationship between individual liberty and authority.
Book - The Pure Theory of Politics, (1963).
B. Eric Voegelin: Eric Voegelin was a prominent political philosopher who discussed
normative concepts in his work. He examined the nature of political order, the role of
ideology, and the search for transcendent meaning in political life.
Book – The New Science of Politics (1952). (June 2023 Shift 1)
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D. Yves Simon: Yves Simon was a French American political philosopher who contributed to
the normative tradition of Political Theory. He delved into topics such as natural law, ethics,
and the moral foundations of political authority.
Book – A General Theory of Authority (1948) (June 2023 Shift 1)

Post-Behaviouralism
• Post-Behaviouralism, also known as Neo-Behaviouralism, emerged as a reaction
against the dominance of behaviouralist methods in the study of politics.
• David Easton had earlier drawn up a list of 8 characteristic features of Behaviouralism
and called them the “Intellectual foundation stones” of the Behavioural movement.
• In 1969, Easton accepted the demerits of Behaviouralism and himself came out with
7 major characteristics of Post- Behaviouralism.
• He described them as the “Credo of Relevance” or “a distillation of the maximal
image.”
• Techniques and Quantification are two most important points for Behaviouralism.
These 7 points are as follows:
1. In Political Science Substance must come before Techniques. (June 2023 Shift 1)
2. Political Science should place its main emphasis upon Social Change and not on social
conservatism as behaviouralists seem to be doing. (June 2023 Shift 1)
3. Political scientists should always concern themselves with the realities of political life,
including the social stress, social strains, social conflict and crises. They should study and take
into account all Facts/Realities of Politics.
4. Protection of Human Value as the Major Role or Intellectuals.
5. Values cannot be totally eliminated from Political Science. Post-Behaviouralists advocate a
rejection of complete value neutralism, as advocated by the behaviouralists. (June 2023 Shift
1)
6. Political Science is to be developed as an Action Science and Contemplative Science.
7. The professional associations and the universities themselves cannot stand apart from the
struggles of the day. Politicalisation of the Professions is inescapable as well as desirable.
(June 2023 Shift 1)
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Political Ideologies
LIBERALISM
• It came into being since 17th Century in the west. But popularised in 19th century.
• The core principle of liberalism is on 'liberty' of individual.
• Individual should have the right to develop his own personality. (Shift 2 2022)
• It is against restraints imposed by an authoritarian state.
• Michael Walzer – Liberalism is a self-subverting doctrine. (December 2018)
• Basic tenets of Liberalism-
✓ Man is a rational creature, believes in the primacy of procedure over the end-
product, promotes civil liberties and treats market society as the model of
social organization where role of the state is a necessary evil (that is;
protection of life and property).
✓ Liberalism upholds the following-
1. The Individual
2. Freedom
3. Reason
4. Justice
5. Toleration and Diversity
• Liberalism is categorised into three of following categories-
1. Classical Liberalism
2. Modern Liberalism
3. Neo-Liberalism

• Classical Liberalism-
✓ It advocates laissez-faire individualism or egoistic individualism
✓ It is also known as “Negative Liberalism” because it emphasized on negative
freedom.
✓ It flourished in the 19th Century.
Exponents-
John Locke (1632-1704) -
✓ Father of Liberalism
✓ Concept of Natural Rights (the rights to life, liberty and property)
✓ A Letter Concerning Toleration (1689)
✓ Two Treatises of Government (1689)
Adam Smith (1723-90) -
✓ Father of Economics
✓ Concept of Economic Liberalism
✓ Concept of the Invisible Hand
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✓ The Wealth of Nations (1776)

✓ The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759)

Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) -

✓ Founder of Utilitarianism
✓ An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation published in 1789.
✓ Anarchical Fallacies published in 1791
✓ Discourse on Civil and Penal Legislation published in 1802

• Modern Liberalism-
✓ It sought to modify the principle of laissez-faire individualism and advocated for a
Welfare state.
✓ It is also known as ‘Positive Liberalism’
✓ It flourished in the first half of the 20th century.
✓ It does not believe in the concept of minimal state. (Shift 1 2021)
Exponents-
John Stuart Mill (1806-73) -
✓ His ideas are known as ‘heart of liberalism’
✓ On Liberty (1859)
✓ Considerations on Representative Government (1861)
✓ The Subjection of Women (1869).
T.H. Green (1836-82) -
✓ His ideas described as ‘Social Liberalism’
✓ Lectures on the Principles of Political Obligation (1895)
✓ Prolegomena to Ethics (1883)
Harold J. Laski (1893-1950) -
✓ He attacked the notion of an all-powerful sovereign state, arguing instead for
political pluralism.
✓ Developed theory of pluralistic sovereignty.
✓ Grammar of Politics (1925)
• Neo-Liberalism-
✓ It seeks to restore laissez faire individualism.
✓ It denounces the welfare state, opposes state intervention and control of
economic activities.
✓ It flourished in the second half of the 20th century.
Exponents-
F.A. Hayek (1899-1992) (December 2019)
✓ Best known for his defence of classical liberalism.
✓ The Road to Serfdom (1944)
✓ Individual and Economic Order (1948)
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✓ The Constitution of Liberty (1960) (June 2023 Shift 2)

Milton Friedman (1912-2006) (December 2019)
✓ American- Economist and Noble Laureate.
✓ Capitalism and Freedom (1962)
Robert Nozick (1938-2002) (December 2019)
✓ Best known for his rigorous defense of libertarianism
✓ Advocated minimal state
✓ Anarchy, State, and Utopia (1974)

CONSERVATISM
• Conservatism is referred to a life-style that is conventional, a refusal to change, that
is, particularly denoted by the verb ‘to conserve’.
• It was first used in the early 19th century.
• A central theme of conservatism is its defence of tradition – values, practices and
institutions. (Shift 1 2021)
• Conservatism is, a ‘philosophy of human imperfection’ and reject those who say that
human beings can be made ‘good’ if their social circumstances are improved.
• Conservatives regard the family as the most basic institution of society.
• Conservatives held that Property is an asset that has a range of psychological and
social advantages. For example, it provides security.

Major Exponents-

Edmund Burke (1729-1797) (2020)

✓ Edmund Burke was the father of the Anglo-American Conservative Political
Tradition.
✓ A Vindication of Natural Society (1756)
✓ Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790)

Alexis de Tocqueville (1805–59)

✓ Democracy in America (1954)

Michael Oakeshott (1901-1990) (2020) (Shift 1 2022)

✓ Michael Oakeshott advocated for limited province of politics.
✓ Rationalism in Politics and Other Essays (1962)
✓ On Human Conduct (1975) (December 2023)
✓ Experience and its modes (1933)
✓ Introduction to Leviathan (1991)

Irving Kristol (1920-2009)

✓ He is the leading exponents of American neo-conservatism.
✓ Known as God-Father of Neoconservatism
✓ Two Cheers for Capitalism (1978)
✓ Reflections of a Neo-Conservative (1983).
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SOCIALISM

• It emerged at the beginning of the 19th Century.

• According to socialism, human beings are social beings
• It held that natural relationship between human beings is one of cooperation.
• Socialists believed in social equality or equality of outcome because it upholds
justice, fairness and cooperation. (Shift 2 2022)
• Ramsay Muir defined socialism as a chameleon, which changes its colour according
to its environments. (Shift 1 2022)
• Under Socialism, the means of social production, distribution and exchange are
placed under social ownership and control.
• Evolutionary socialism
✓ It is also known as 'liberal socialism’.
✓ It relies on the democratic method, parliamentary reform and economic
planning to suit the interests of the underprivileged sections.
✓ It is, therefore, coterminous with 'democratic socialism'.

• Revolutionary socialism
✓ It is also known as ‘Marxian Socialism’.
✓ It insists on organizing the working classes for fighting against capitalism.
✓ It establishes complete socialization of the instruments of production and
distribution by means of revolution.
• Socialism is a cluster of ideas, values and theories which are as following:
1. Community
2. Cooperation
3. Equality
4. Social class
5. Common ownership

Socialism - Syndicalism
• The socialist movement developed in France and Latin countries in the form of
Syndicalism. (June Shift 2 2023)
• Syndicalism is a form of revolutionary trade unionism that is based on a crude notion
of class war and emphasizes the use of direct action and the general strike.
• It advocates for the organization of workers into industrial unions (syndicates) with
the ultimate goal of achieving workers' control of the means of production
• It insists on the complete independence of labour unions from political parties.
• Syndicalism, a labor movement, gained significant traction in France from 1899 to
1937.
• Initially, it advocated for the sole right of workers to control industry. However, post
World War I, it broadened its perspective, acknowledging the equal rights of
consumers in industrial control.
Features of Syndicalism:
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(a) Syndicalism accepted the class-struggle theory of Marx; (June 2023)

(b) it preached abolition of the political state;
(c) it urged industrial action as the only effective means of bringing about a
revolutionary change in society and treated the 'general strike' as a means of
securing workers' control over industry;
it visualized a social order in which all power would be given to the producer; trade
and industrial unions would serve as the economic framework of society.

Major Exponents-
Joseph Schumpeter (1883–1950)
✓ Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (1976)
Eduard Bernstein (1850-1932)
✓ Evolutionary Socialism (1962)
Richard Henry Tawney (1880–1962)
✓ The Acquisitive Society (1921),
✓ Equality (1969)
✓ The Radical Tradition (1964).
Anthony Crosland (1918–77)
✓ The Future of Socialism (1956)
✓ Socialism Now (1974).

Socialism can be further categorised into the following –

• Fabian Socialism (June 2019)
o Fabian Socialism is based on the Ricardian Law of Rent.
o Fabian Socialism exclusively rely on the middle class with the socialist
message leading to social change.
• German Social Democracy
o German social democracy was developed by Ferdinand Lassalle.
o It is an important version of evolutionary socialism.
o It held that the working class should organize itself into a political party to
make its power legally effective.
• Revisionism
o Revisionist School of evolutionary socialism in Germany was led by Edward
Bernstein (1850-1932).
o Instead of class struggle and class rule, Bernstein preferred democracy.
o According to him, Liberal democracy is the very substance of socialism.
• Syndicalism (June 2019)
o Syndicalism was a socialist movement that was developed in France in the
period between 1899 and 1937.
o It sought to consider labour unions and their federations as future of socialist
order.
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o Syndicalism insisted on the complete independence of the labour unions

from political parties.
• Guild Socialism (June 2019)
o It was first appeared in England which tried to combine the positive points of
socialism with those of the ancient guild system.
o It sought to upheld the Marxian emphasis on class struggle
o It also advocated for the abolition of the wage system.
o It was propagated during 1916 to 1926.

MULTICULTURALISM
• The term was first used in 1965 in Canada to describe a distinctive approach to
tackling the issue of cultural diversity
• But as a theory it was emerged first through the activities of the black consciousness
movement of the 1960s, primarily in the USA.
• Multiculturalism upholds communal diversity, racial, ethnic and language difference.
• It recommends the policies which promotes accommodation of cultural diversity in a
social structure.
• Multiculturalism advocates for the cultural development of minorities.
• Multiculturalism is associated with a collective notion of identity based on ethnicity,
race, language.
• It seeks for system of voluntary, mutually beneficial and harmonious exchange.
• Multiculturalism implies a positive endorsement of communal diversity, based upon
the right of different cultural groups to recognition and respect.

• Multiculturalism - Internal restriction and external restriction

Will Kymlicka, in his “Multicultural Citizenship” introduces a distinction between internal
restrictions and external protections, where he integrates the view of minority rights into
liberal theory. (March 2023 Shift 1)
He has used the terms internal restriction and external restriction to describe the challenges
faced by minority cultures in a multicultural society. He uses these distinctions to
strengthen and clarify the conception of minority rights.
In the context of multiculturalism, the terms “internal restriction” and “external restriction”
are used to describe different aspects of how cultural groups interact with their members
and with society at large.
1. Internal Restrictions: These refer to rules and practices enforced within a minority group
to maintain its cultural identity and cohesion. They are the limitations imposed by the
minority culture on its own members. This concept concerns the rights of a group against
dissenting members of the same group.
2. External Protections: These are measures taken by the state or majority society to
safeguard the cultural rights of minority groups. They refer to the limitations imposed by the
dominant culture on the minority culture. This concept concerns the rights of a group
against the society at large.
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In summary, Internal restrictions refer to the limitations imposed by the minority culture on
its own members, while external restrictions refer to the limitations imposed by the
dominant culture on the minority culture.

Major Exponents-
Will Kymlicka
✓ According to Will Kymlicka, it is Within the framework of differentiated
citizenship that multiculturalism has sanctioned three kinds of special rights
which are as follows:
1. Cultural Rights/ Polyethnic rights
2. Self-Government Rights
3. Special-Representation Rights (June 2023 Shift 2)
✓ Liberalism, Community and Culture (1989)
✓ Multicultural Citizenship (1995).
Edward Said
✓ founding figure of postcolonial theory.
✓ Orientalism (1978)
✓ Culture and Imperialism (1993)
Charles Taylor
✓ Taylor drew on communitarian thinking to construct a theory of
multiculturalism as ‘the politics of recognition’.
✓ Sources of the Self (1989)
✓ The Politics of Recognition (1994).
Bhikhu Parekh
✓ Parekh’s multiculturalism held that human beings are culturally constituted in
the sense that their attitudes, behaviour and ways of life are shaped by the
groups to which they belong.
✓ The complexity of human nature is thus reflected in the diversity of cultures
✓ Rethinking Multiculturalism (2000)

POSTMODERNISM

• It emerged during 1970s in the Continental Europe.

• It is an intellectual movement that rejects the idea of absolute and universal truth,
and usually emphasizes discourse, debate and democracy. (Shift 2 2022)
• Its basis lies in the following-
• 1. Perceived social shift – from modernity to postmodernity
• 2. Related cultural and intellectual shift – from modernism to postmodernism.

Major Arguments

(1) there is no objective reality;

(2) there is no scientific or historical truth (objective truth);
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(3) science and technology (and even reason and logic) are not vehicles of human progress
but suspect instruments of established power;
(4) reason and logic are not universally valid.
(5) There is such a thing as human nature. Human nature is socially constructed.

Exponents-

• Friedrich Nietzsche
✓ Most important precursor of postmodernism.
✓ His work stresses the importance of will, especially the ‘will to power’, and
emphasizes that people create their own world and make their own values.
✓ Beyond Good and Evil (1886)
• Martin Heidegger (1889–1976)
✓ Being and Time (1927)
• Jean-Francois Lyotard (June 2019)
✓ Lyotard was primarily responsible for popularizing the term postmodern
✓ He gave the briefest definition of Post-Modernism: ‘incredulity (disbelief)
towards meta-narratives.’
✓ The Postmodern Condition (1979). (March 2023 Shift 2)
• Michel Foucault (June 2019)
✓ Madness and Civilization (1961)
✓ The Birth of the Clinic (1963)
✓ The Order of Things (1966)
✓ Discipline and Punish (1975)
✓ The History of Sexuality (1976)
• Jacques Derrida (June 2019)
✓ Writing and Difference (1967)
✓ Margins of Philosophy (1972)
✓ Spectres of Marx (1993).
• Richard Rorty
✓ Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (1979)
✓ Consequences of Pragmatism (1982)
✓ Contingency, Irony and Solidarity (1989).

ECOLOGISM

• The term ecology was coined by the German zoologist Ernst Haeckel in 1866.
(Shift 1 2022) (March 2023 Shift 1)
• The word ‘ecology’ was derived from Greek word oikos, meaning household or
habitat. (Shift 2 2022) (March 2023 Shift 1)
• Modern ecologism emerged during the 1960s due to the damage done to
environment.
• Central feature is that it regards nature as an interconnected whole by which means
it embraces humans and non-humans as well as the inanimate world.
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• Ecologism is a reaction against the process of industrialization.

• It held that Human beings shall practise humility, moderation and gentleness, and to
abandon the misguided dream that science and technology can solve all their
problems
• Ecofeminism which is combination of Ecology and Feminism is a particular form of
Social Ecology.
• The term ecofeminism was coined by Francoise d’Eaubonne in 1974.
(Shift 2 2022)
• According to Ecofeminists, Ecological Destruction has its origin in Patriarchy, nature
is under threat not from humankind but from men and institutions of male power.
• Vandana Shiva is a popular Ecofeminist of India. (December 2019)

1. Ecology
o Ecologism provides a radically different vision of nature and the place of
human beings that is ‘eco-centric’ or nature-centred rather than
anthropocentric.
2. Holism
o The term ‘holism’ was coined in 1926 by Jan Smuts.
o Holism describe the idea that the natural world could only be understood as
a whole and not through its individual parts.
3. Sustainability
o It held that for living in a planet requires an understanding of the ecological
processes that sustain life.
o Policies and actions must therefore be judged by the principle of
‘sustainability’, to maintain its health and continue in existence.
4. Environmental ethics
o It involves applying moral standards in relation to human beings to other
species and organisms. For example- Animal rights.
o It upheld the integrity, stability and beauty of the biotic community.
5. Self-actualization
o It is an alternate philosophy to a rejection of human self-interestedness and
material greed.
o It is based upon Abraham Maslow's ‘hierarchy of needs’, which places the
need for esteem and self-actualization above material or economic needs.

• Deep Ecologism (March 2023 Shift 2)

✓ It rejects the belief that the human species are superior than nature and held
that the purpose of human life is to help sustain nature.
• Shallow Ecologism (2020) (Shift 2 2021)
✓ It accepts the lessons of ecology but at the same time also harnesses them to
human needs and ends.

Major Exponents-

• Ernst Friedrich Schumacher

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✓ He championed the cause of human-scale production and helped to develop

an ecological philosophy.
✓ Small is Beautiful (1973) (Shift 1 2021)
• James Lovelock
✓ He is best known for the Gaia hypothesis which portrays the Earth’s
biosphere as a complex, self-regulating, living ‘being’, called Gaia.
(2020) (Shift 2 2021)
✓ Gaia (1979) (Shift 1 2021)
✓ The Ages of Gaia (1989).
• Murray Bookchin
✓ He is the leading proponent of ‘social ecology’.
✓ Post-Scarcity Anarchism (1971)
✓ The Ecology of Freedom (1982)
✓ Remaking Society (1989)
• Rachel Carson
✓ Critique of the damage done to wildlife and the human world by the increased
use of pesticides and other agricultural chemicals
✓ The Silent Spring (1962) (Shift 1 2021) (March 2023 Shift 2)
• Caroline Merchant
✓ She has highlighted links between gender oppression and the “death of
nature”.
✓ Merchant developed a feminist critique of a scientific revolution that
explained environmental degradation ultimately in terms of the application
by men of a mechanistic view of nature.
✓ The Death of Nature (1980)
✓ Radical Ecology (1991).
• Rudolph Bahro
✓ Best known for his attempts to reconcile socialism with ecological theories.
✓ Socialism and Survival (1982)
✓ From Red to Green (1984)
✓ Building the Green Movement (1986)
• Arne Naess
✓ The Norwegian philosopher Arne Naess in 1973 was the first to make the
distinction between the deep ecologists and the shallow or humanist
ecologists. (Shift 2 2022)
• Ernst Haeckel:

• Ernst Haeckel was a German zoologist, naturalist, eugenicist, philosopher,

physician, professor, marine biologist, and artist.
• He coined the term “ecology” in 1866. (March 2023)
• His concept of ecology was part of a theoretical system embracing development,
evolution, and environment.
• Haeckel promoted and popularised Charles Darwin’s work in Germany.
• He developed the influential but no longer widely held recapitulation theory
“ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny”.
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• Andrew Dobson:

• Andrew Dobson is known for his work in green political thought.

• Andrew Dobson makes a distinction between environmentalism and ecologism.
(March 2023)
• He describes and assesses the political ideology of ‘ecologism’, and compares this
radical view of remedies for the environmental crisis with the ‘environmentalism’ of
mainstream politics.
• He examines the relationship between ecologism and other political ideologies, the
philosophical basis of ecological thinking, the potential shape of a sustainable
society, and the means at hand for achieving it.
• His work is considered a starting point for all students, academics, and activists who
want an introduction to green political theory.

MARXISM

• Marxism derives its name from that of Karl Marx and drew inspiration from, the
writings of Karl Marx.
• It emerged in the 19th century.
• Marxism came into being by the collaborated efforts of Engels, Karl Kautsky and
Georgi Plekhanov.
• Marxism appeared in the response to the oppressive conditions created by the
capitalist system.
• Marxism seeks to lay scientific foundations of socialism.
• The cornerstone of Marxist philosophy is what Engels called the ‘materialist
conception of history’.
• Main tenets of Classical Marxism include:
1. Dialectical Materialism
2. Historical Materialism
3. Doctrine of Class Conflict
4. Theory of Surplus Value.
• Classical Marxism
o It held that private property divides society into dominant and dependent
classes with irreconcilable class interests.
o It is held together only by the ideological power of the dominant class.
o Human history moves towards its goal of human freedom through the
revolutionary destruction leading to the emergence of a classless society.
o Exponents-
Karl Marx
✓ The German Ideology (1846)
✓ The Poverty of Philosophy (1847)
✓ Manifesto of the Communist Party or the Communist Manifesto
(1848).
✓ A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (1859)
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Friedrich Engels
✓ Anti- Duhring (1877)
✓ The Origins of the Family, Private Property and the State (1884)
✓ Dialectics of Nature (1925).
VI. Lenin (1870-1924)
✓ What Is to Be Done? (1902)
✓ Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism (1916)
✓ The State and Revolution (1917).
Leon Trotsky (1879–1940)
✓ Results and Prospects (1906)
✓ History of the Russian Revolution (1931)
✓ The Revolution Betrayed (1936).
Mao Zedong
✓ On the People’s Democratic Dictatorship (1949)
✓ On the Ten Major Relationships (1956)
✓ On the Correct Handling of Contradictions Among People (1957).

• Neo-Marxism
o criticized determinism and scientistic tendencies in orthodox Marxism
o It does not believe in Marx’s prediction of inevitable collapse of capitalism
o It more focus on ideology rather than upon economics
o It no longer treats working class as the revolutionary agent
o It attempts to criticize social practices and wants to change the society
o It seeks to analyse dominance and dependence, distortions in the
contemporary civilization and the possible ways to human emancipation.
o This school is also known as the Frankfurt school or the critical school.
o Exponents-
Theodor Adorno
✓ The Authoritarian Personality (1950)
✓ The Pattern of the Fascist Propaganda (1951)
✓ The Meaning of the Working through the Past (1959)
Max Horkheimer
✓ Eclipse of Reason (1947)
✓ Between Philosophy and Social Science (1938)
✓ Dialectic of Enlightenment (1947)
Herbert Marcuse
✓ Reason and Revolution (1941) (June 2023 Shift 2)
✓ One-Dimensional Man (1964)

FEMINISM

• It stands for the concern with the status and role of women in society in relation to
men.
• It implies a voice of protest against the inferior status accorded to women in society,
which is the product of the institution of 'patriarchy, and not based on reason.
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• Feminist political thought has primarily been concerned with two issues.
1. It analyses the institutions, processes and practices through which women have
been subordinated to mem.
2. It explores the most appropriate and effective ways in which this subordination
can be challenged.

Basic Themes

• redefining ‘the political’

• patriarchy
• sex and gender
• equality and difference.

• Waves of Feminism –
First Wave
✓ The ‘first wave’ of feminism was associated with the women’s suffrage
movement. (Shift 1 2021)
✓ It emerged in the 1840s and 1850s.
✓ ‘First-wave’ feminism ended with the achievement of female suffrage,
introduced first in New Zealand in 1893.
✓ Proponents- Mary Wollstonecraft, J.S. Mill, Susan B. Anthony.

Second Wave
✓ The ‘second wave’ of feminism arose during the 1960s.
✓ It expressed, in addition to the established concern with equal rights, the
more radical and sometimes revolutionary demands of the growing Women’s
Liberation Movement. (Shift 1 2021)
✓ The most famous slogan of second-wave feminism being “The personal is the
political”.
✓ Proponents- Betty Friedan, Kate Millet, Germaine Greer, Shulamith
Firestone, Simone de Beauvoir, Susan Brownmiller.

Third Wave

✓ It emerged during 1990s.

✓ Third-wave feminism also became more conscious of race.
Kimberle Crenshaw, a gender and critical-race scholar, coined the phrase
“intersectionality” in 1989.
✓ The phrase “third-wave feminism” was coined in 1992 by Rebecca Walker.
✓ The third wave was made possible by the greater economic and professional
power and status achieved by women of the second wave.
✓ Proponents- Eve Ensler, Kimberle Crenshaw, Jennifer Baumgardner and Amy
Richards.

Fourth Wave
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✓ It began in 2012.
✓ It focuses on sexual harassment, body shaming and rape culture among other
issue.
✓ The most important feature of this wave is the use of social media to
highlight the issues.
✓ Proponents- Rebecca Solnit, Jessica Valenti, Laura Bates.

Post-Colonial Feminism

• Postcolonial feminism emerged in the 1980s as a critique of mainstream feminism.

• It addresses the experiences of women in both Western cultures and former
colonies, challenging universalizing assumptions.
• Postcolonial feminism seeks to account for the way that racism and the long-lasting
political, economic, and cultural effects of colonialism affect non-white, non-
Western women in the postcolonial world.
• There are differences not only between men and women but also between women
from different parts of the world. (June 2023 Shift 1)
• Factors such as culture, ethnicity, and geographic location are important for
understanding the marginalization of women. (June 2023 Shift 1)
• Postcolonial feminism situates historical knowledge of colonialism with regard to
cultural, economic, and political oppression. (June 2023 Shift 1)
• Postcolonial feminism centers on the experiences of individuals facing gender
discrimination in the Global South.

Key themes:

• Challenges Universalizing Assumptions

• Culture, Ethnicity, and Location
• Differences between women

Core Goal:

• Empowerment in the Global South

Prominent thinkers: Toni Morrison, Audre Lorde, Gayatri Spivak, Chandra Mohanty, Trinh T.
Minh-ha, Leela Gandhi, Uma Narayan.

Black Feminism

• Black feminism is a political and social movement that emphasizes the

multidimensional aspects of the oppression of Black women.
• It seeks to understand the injustices affecting the daily lives of Black women and
highlights the intersectionality of racism and sexism.
• Black feminists have rejected the claim of Universal Sisterhood. (June 2023 Shift 1)
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• Black feminism challenges conventional feminism by highlighting racial disparities

and recognizing that women’s experiences of oppression vary based on their racial
and ethnic identities.
• Black feminism emphasizes the intersectionality of sexism and racism, portraying
them as interconnected systems of oppression.
• This perspective underscores the unique and multifaceted challenges faced by
women of colour, who often grapple with a complex interplay of gender, racial, and
economic disadvantages.

Key themes:

• Racism
• Multiple oppressions
• Differences between women

Core goal: Counter interconnected racial, gender and class structures.

Prominent thinkers: Sojourner Truth, bell hooks, Audre Lorde, Alice Walker, Angela Davis,
Patricia Hill Collins.

Major Exponents-

Mary Wollstonecraft
✓ A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792) (March 2023 Shift 1)
✓ It is usually regarded as the first text of modern feminism.

Simone de Beauvoir (1906–86)

✓ The Second Sex (1949). (Shift 1 2022)

Kate Millett (1934)

✓ Sexual Politics (1970) (Shift 1 2022) (June 2023 Shift 2)

Juliet Mitchell
✓ Women’s Estate (1971)
✓ Psychoanalysis and Feminism (1974)
✓ Feminine Sexuality (1985).

Shulamith Firestone
✓ The Dialectic of Sex (1970) (Shift 1 2022)

Catherine A. MacKinnon
✓ Sexual Harassment and Working Women (1979)
✓ Towards a Feminist Theory of the State (1989)
✓ Only Words (1993)

Germaine Greer
✓ The Female Eunuch (1970)
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Susan Brownmiller

✓ Against Our Will (1975)

Eve Ensler

✓ The Vagina Monologues (1966)

✓ The Guerrilla Girls (1998)

Jennifer Baumgardner and Amy Richards

✓ Manifesta: Young Women, Feminism, and the Future (2000)

Rebecca Solnit

✓ Men Explain Things to Me (2014)

Jessica Valenti

✓ Sex Object: A Memoir (2016)

Laura Bates

✓ Everyday Sexism (2016)

Betty Friedan

✓ The Feminine Mystique (1963) (Shift 1 2022)

Hélène Cixous

✓ The Laugh of the Medusa (1975) (June 2023 Shift 2)

Julia Kristeva

✓ "The Powers of Horror" (1980) (June 2023 Shift 2)

Carol Gilligan

✓ In a Different Voice (1982) (March 2023 Shift 2)

Zionism
• Zionism is a nationalist movement that originated in eastern and central Europe in the
latter part of the 19th century.
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• Its goal is the creation and support of a Jewish national state in Palestine, the ancient
homeland of the Jews.
• The term “Zion” refers to Jerusalem, and throughout history, certain areas in Israel
have been considered sacred by Jews, as well as Christians and Muslims.
• The movement was formally established as a political organization by Theodor Herzl
in 1897.
• In 1917, the British government expressed its support for the establishment of a
Jewish home in Palestine in the Balfour Declaration.
• Zionist movement successfully established a Jewish homeland with the creation of the
modern state of Israel in 1948.
Zionist movement and Zionist congress
• The Zionist movement and the Zionist Congress were both established by Theodor
Herzl. (June 2023 Shift 1) Herzl is often considered the father of modern political
Zionism.
• In 1897, Herzl convened the First Zionist Congress in Basel, Switzerland. This congress
shaped the policies of the World Zionist Organization and the Jewish Agency, meeting
periodically in Jerusalem.
• Herzl’s vision was the creation and support of a Jewish national state in Palestine, the
ancient homeland of the Jews.
• His ideas attracted international attention and rapidly established Herzl as a major
figure in the Jewish world.
• Herzl’s vision, though he passed away in 1904, came true when Israel was established
in 1948.
• Zionism persists, supporting Israel, combating antisemitism, aiding persecuted Jews,
and encouraging diaspora Jews to relocate there.

Philosophical Anarchism
• Anarchism is an ideology which talks about absence of formal authority in both individual
and social matters.

• Anarchists believe in state-less society (June2023) in which individuals are free to manage
their affairs by voluntary agreement, without compulsion or coercion.

• Anarchists consider state as unnecessary evil, because they don't want state to control the
lives of individuals through coercive law and regulations. Believes in moral authority of
collective decision.
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• Anarchists believe that people can live together peacefully without the need for strong
governments telling them what to do. They trust that individuals can get along well without
being forced or controlled by powerful nations.

• Anarchists generally accept rational authority, like experts such as scientists and doctors,
as well as moral authority from democratic decisions.

• They oppose hierarchical authority, like in churches, armies, capitalist enterprises, and
bureaucracies.

• William Godwin (1756- 1836) is regarded as father of anarchism. Book: Enquiry Concerning
Political Justice (1793) is regarded to be the first systematic defence of anarchism, where
he urged for a stateless society in his work.

• P. J. Proudhon (1809-19565), a French philosopher was the first to call himself as an

Anarchist.

• In What is Property? (1840), Proudhon came up with the famous statement that ‘Property
is theft’ and condemned a system of economic exploitation based on the accumulation of
capital.
Core Theme:
• Anti-Statism
• Utopianism
• Anti-Clericalism
• Economic Freedom
Aim of anarchism
• Anarchist thinkers have one common aim: abolition of the state.
• But they widely differ as to how the state should be abolished, and what type of
organization should be evolved to replace it.
Thinkers:
1. William Godwin (1756–1836): Philosophical Anarchism;
Book: An Enquiry Concerning Political Justice (1773)
2. Josiah Warren (1798–1874): Warren advocated a system of ‘equitable commerce’.
Books: Equitable Commerce (1852) and True Civilization (1863)
3. Max Stirner (1806–56): Stirner developed an extreme form of individualism, based on
egoism, which condemned all checks on personal autonomy.
Book: The Ego and his Own (1845)
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4. Pierre Joseph Proudhon (1809–65): Called himself first Anarchist gave concept of
Mutualism. Books: What is Property? (1840) and The Federal Principle (1863)
5. Mikhail Bakunin (1814–76): Revolutionary Anarchist, Bakunin proposed that freedom
could only be achieved through ‘collectivism’.
6. Henry David Thoreau (1817–62): In ‘Civil Disobedience’ (1849), he defended the
validity of conscientious objection to unjust laws, emphasizing that government
should never conflict with individual conscience, but he stopped short of explicitly
advocating anarchy.
7. Peter Kropotkin (1842–1921): Based on a theory of evolution that he proposed as an
alternative to Darwin’s. Gave principal of ‘mutual aid’. Books: Mutual Aid (1902), The
Conquest of Bread (1892) and Fields, Factories and Workshops (1898)
8. Leo Tolstoy: Pacificist Anarchist
9. Mahatma Gandhi: Enlightened Anarchism

Types of Anarchism
1. Philosophical Anarchism: It is also known as anarcho-individualism. No individual
obligation or duty to obey state, Individuals as free soul not obliged to offer political obligation
to state/govt. It argues that no state in fact has authority over individual. (Dec 2023).
Prominent thinker associated: Godwin, Gandhi also Called himself philosophical Anarchist.
2. Revolutionary Anarchism: Mikhail Bakunin (1814 - 76), a Russian revolutionary is regarded
as chief exponent of revolutionary Anarchism. Bakunin projected the vision of a socialist
society which would be organized from below upwards, not from above downwards.
Revolutionary anarchists opposed the authoritarian element in Marx's communism.

3. Socialist Anarchism: P. J. Proudhon (1809 - 65), a French philosopher is the chief exponent
of socialist anarchism. Socio-economic equality and justice, Rejects private property and
capitalism. He postulated concept of Mutualism. Peter Kropotkin wrote “Mutual Aid: A Factor
of Evolution”. His vision of Anarchism is also known as “communist Anarchism”.
4. Anarchic Socialism: It is also known as syndicalism, proposed for Trade and labour union-
based society. Its chief exponent was George Sorel (1847 -1922) and wrote Reflection on
violence (1908). He gave concept of “general strike”.
5. Pacific Anarchism: Anarchism on moral grounds. State as organised violence, social order
based on peace, love, non-violence. Its chief exponent was Leo Tolstoy (1828 -1910) - law of
love, a Russian Novelist.
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6. Libertarian Anarchism: It is contemporary version of individualism anarchism. It’s a form

of extreme individualism. Its beginning may be traced to Herbert Spenser (1820 - 1903). F. A.
Hayek (1899 - 1992, an Austrian) & Robert Nozick (1938 – 2002) are also related to it.
Some Other strands:, social- Anarchists , Eco-Anarchists, Anarcho-feminism, religious,
national, analytical, Anarcho-Primitivism, etc.
Books Related to Anarchism
• Enquiry concerning political justice (1793) - Godwin.
• The Ego and his own (1844) - Max Stirner
• Civil Disobedience (1849) - Henry David Thoreau
• In Defence of Anarchism (1970) - R. P. Wolff
• The Conquest of Bread (1892)- Peter Kropotkin
• Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution (1902)- Peter Kropotkin
• Statism and Anarchy (1873)- Mikhail Bakunin
• God and the State (1882)- Mikhail Bakunin
• Reflections on Violence (1908)- George Sorel
Extra Points:
• Who made the comment 'dictatorship of the proletariat' will become dictatorship on
the proletariat? : Bakunin
• Karl Marx wrote "Poverty of Philosophy”, in response to "philosophy of poverty" of
Proudhon and Feuerbach.
• Prominent Anarchist Thinkers: William Godwin, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, Mikhail
Bakunin, Leo Tolstoy (pacific anarchism), F.A. Hayek (libertarian anarchism), Gandhiji
(Enlightened Anarchism.

Communitarianism
Communitarianism is a political and social philosophy that emphasizes the importance of
community in the functioning of political life, in the analysis and evaluation of political
institutions, and in understanding human identity and well-being.
In the sense Communitarian believe, individuals are shaped by the communities to which they
belong and thus owe them a debt of respect and consideration – there are no ‘unencumbered
selves’.
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The term communitarian was coined in 1841 by John Goodwyn Barmby, who used it to refer
to utopian socialists and others who experimented with unusual communal lifestyles.
It arose in the 1980s as a critique of two prominent philosophical schools:
• Contemporary liberalism, which seeks to protect and enhance personal autonomy and
individual rights in part through the activity of government.
• Libertarianism, a form of liberalism that aims to protect individual rights—especially
the rights to liberty and property—through strict limits on governmental power.
Communitarianism values the needs or “common good” of society over the needs and rights
of individuals.
In placing the interests of the society over those of the individual citizens, communitarianism
is considered the opposite of liberalism.
Its overriding philosophy is based on the belief that a person’s social identity and personality
are largely moulded by community relationships. Shared understanding and common
meaning, based on shared history, culture or worldview (Dec 2023)
In essence, communitarianism is a socio-political ideology that aims to counter the
individualism underlying Western societies by emphasizing a balance between individual and
collective goals and values.
Prominent Communitarian Thinkers
1. Michael Sandel:
• Democracy’s Discontent: America in Search of a Public Philosophy (1996)
• Liberalism and the Limits of Justice (1998)
• The Case against Perfection: Ethics in the Age of Genetic Engineering (2007)
• Justice: What’s the Right Thing to Do? (2009)
• What Money Can’t Buy: The Moral Limits of Markets (2012)
• The Tyranny of Merit: What’s Become of the Common Good? (2020) (March 2023 Shift
1)

2. Alsdair MacIntyrte:
• Three Rival Versions of Moral Inquiry: Encyclopedia, Genealogy, and Tradition (1990)
• Whose Justice? Which Rationality? (1988)
• After Virtue (1981) (March 2023 Shift 1)
• A Short History of Ethics: A History of Moral Philosophy from the Homeric Age to the
Twentieth Century (1986)
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• Dependent Rational Animals: Why Human Beings Need the Virtues (1999)

3. Charles Taylor
• Sources of the Self: The Making of the Modern Identity (1989)
• The Ethics of Authenticity (1992)
• Modern Social Imaginaries (2003)
• A Secular Age (2007)

4. Michael Walzer
• Just and Unjust Wars: A Moral Argument with Historical Illustrations (1977)
• Spheres of Justice: A Défense of Pluralism and Equality (1983)
• Exodus and Revolution (1985)
• Arguing About War (2004)
• The Paradox of Liberation: Secular Revolutions and Religious Counterrevolutions
(2015)

Different Strands of communitarians:

• Left-wing communitarianism holds that community demands unrestricted freedom
and social equality (for example, anarchism).
• Centrist communitarianism holds that community is grounded in an
acknowledgement of reciprocal rights and responsibilities (for example, social
democracy/Tory paternalism).
• Right-wing communitarianism holds that community requires respect for authority
and established values (for example, neoconservatism)
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UNIT 2 – Western Political Thought

Confucius (551BCE- 479BCE): A Chinese Philosopher KEYWORDS :-

• Confucius (Kong Fuzi/Master Kong) is known as the first teacher in China ▪ Zen / Ren.
and founder of the Ru School of Chinese thought. ▪ Filial Piety.
• He also established ethical, moral, and social standards that formed the
▪ Morals.
basis of a way of life known as Confucianism.
• He talks about zen/ren which reflects the behaviour of human being. ▪ Analects.
• Confucius advocated Filial Piety which means a set of moral norms,
values, and practices of respect and caring for one’s parents.
• Within Confucianism there are five constant - virtues, benevolence,
righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity.
• He suggested three ways to wisdom: 1. Reflection (noblest way)
2. Imitation (easiest way) 3. Experience (bitterest way)
Confucius’s Main works:
● Analects (collection of his teachings preserved by his pupils) (March 2023 Shift 1)
●Book of Changes
● Book of Songs (Shift 2 2021)

Plato (472 BCE- 347 BCE): An Athenian Philosopher KEYWORDS :-

• Considered as the founder of Western political philosophy. ▪ Myth of Metals.

• He is known as father of Idealism. ▪ Allegory of
• He talks about metaphysics; the world which is beyond this physical Cave.
world. ▪ Knowledge is
• Plato was the first to use dialectic method Virtue.
in Political philosophy. (June 2019)
▪ Metaphysics.
• Plato was a Statist thinker, he in his theory gave
greater importance to the state than to the rights ▪ Ideas as Forms.
of the people living in that state. ▪ Immovable
• For Plato State is the End and Individuals are the Means. Class Structure.
• In Plato’s Tripartite Theory of the Soul where he talk about three types ▪ Nocturnal
of soul : (a) The Appetites : Pleasures and Comfort Council
(b) The Spirited : Justice Seeker
▪ Appetite.
(c) The Mind : Conscious Awareness
▪ Normative.
• He in his famous work ‘Republic’ gave a Utopian concept of Ideal state.
• He favors Monarchy and gave the idea of Philosopher King. ▪ Ideal.
• Plato maintains a virtue-based conception of ethics. ▪ Class based
justice.
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• According to him Knowledge is the only virtue.

• Happiness or well-being is the highest aim of moral thought and
conduct, and the virtues are the requisite skills and dispositions
needed to attain it.
• Plato’s idea of justice based on ordered society which will work
on “one man, one work, one class, one duty” (December 2019)
• He was famous for his ideas on Communism of wives and property
which can abolish private family and property for the soldier class
because it encourages nepotism, favoritism and factionalism.
• He believes in Class based justice that every class has their own work to do and their
categories are quite rigid that they can not move from their class; that is why it is
Immovable class structure.
• In his famous book The Laws there was a discussion of “nocturnal council” which is
an elite group of elder citizens who have proven their worth by winning honors and
have traveled abroad to learn from other states.
• In 387 BCE Plato founded a school named Academy.
• In The Republic Plato talks about Myth of Metals which means that Mother Nature
invented all human beings by different metals inside them according to there social
standings; like Gold, Silver and Bronze.
• He also gave theory of “allegory of the caves” in which, an allegory presented in his
work Republic to compare "the effect of education and the lack of it on our nature".
(December 2019)
• Ascetic Communism (June 2023 Shift 2)

• An "ascetic" lifestyle means living simply and showing self-discipline by avoiding

luxury and excess. Asceticism is about staying away from things like fancy
possessions and comforts in life.
• In his book ‘The Republic,’ Plato talked a lot about justice and how important it is for
everyone to have balance and not want too much.
• Plato thought that if people had too much stuff and money, they might get greedy
and cause problems in society.
• He believed that if people didn't care so much about having lots of things, they could
focus on being good and helping others.
• Plato's idea of sharing everything equally was mainly for the leaders, not for
everyone. Regular people like artisans could still own things and have families.
• Plato's ascetic communism was mainly about getting rid of desire for things, not
about making sure everyone had the same amount.

• Socratic dialogues: Apology, Crito, Enthypro, Laches, Lysis, Charmides, Protagoras

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• Other works: Symposium, Phelibus, Timaeus, Meno, Gorgias, Enthydemus, Cratylus,

Lesser Hippias, Greater Hippias, Ion and Menexenus, Phaedo, Phaedrus.
Plato’s Main works:-

• The Republic (375 BC)

• Statesman (between 367-361 BC)
• The laws (347 BC) (Shift 2 2021)
• Apology (399 BC) (Shift 2 2022)

Aristotle (384 BC-322 BC): A Greek philosopher

• He is known as father of Political science.

• Contributed to the foundation of logic
and scientific thinking in Western philosophy.
• His work is inductive and empirical in nature unlike Plato whose work is
deductive in nature.
• He also made advances in the branch of philosophy KEYWORDS :-
known as metaphysics.
▪ Telos.
• Aristotle in 335 BC founded an Athenian school, Lyceum.
• He attempted to convert the utopian ideas of Plato into rational theory. ▪ Distributive
• His ideas on state: State was natural and prior to the family and Justice.
the individual. State should be large enough to guarantee ▪ Eudaimonia.
self-sufficiency and small enough to ensure good government.
▪ Revolution.
State is highest and comprehensive of human associations. (2020)
• Best form of government is constitutional government, ▪ Theory of
Causes.
which will be ruled by middle- class.
• According to Aristotle if any change occurs in the existing system or ▪ Inductive &
constitution of the state; it is known as Revolution. Empirical Thinker.

• Aristotle believe in the Organic Theory of State which means state ▪ Golden Mean.
is like an individual and it has a body which is made of certain organs ▪ Slavery is
like head, arms, legs and face etc. natural
• He also talks about the Golden Mean which advocates that institution.
Moral behavior is the mean between two extremes – ▪ Organic Theory
at the one end is excess and at the other deficiency. of State.
• Aristotle believed that “Distributive Justice is mainly
concerned with the distribution of honors or wealth.” (December 2019)
• He defended slavery system by saying that Slavery is natural institution.
• There were two kinds of slaves:
Conventional (Prisoner of war) and Natural (lacked reason)(Shift 1 2022)
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• He did not want to give citizenship to: slaves, old, young, women and
working class members. (December 2018)

• Aristotle is also famous for his “four causes (the material cause, the formal cause,
the efficient cause, and final cause {telos} )” which explain the nature of change in an
object.
• He talks about Eudaimonia which means the highest human good.
• He criticized Plato for his ideas and said ‘Plato was a friend but truth was a greater
friend’
• G.H. Sabine said that “Aristotle’s ideal state is always Plato’s second best” (2020)
• Aristotle said that "A state exists for the sake of good life and not for the sake of life
only, if life only were the object, slaves, and brute animals might form a state." (June
2023 Shift 2)

Aristotle’s Main works:

• Politics (350 BC) (Shift 1 2022) (March 2023 Shift 1)

• The Nicomachean Ethics (around 340 BC) (March 2023 Shift 1)
• The Eudemian Ethics (March 2023 Shift 1)
• The Constitution of Athens (between 328 BC-322 BC)

Machiavelli (1469 –1527): An Italian diplomat KEYWORDS :-

• Called the father of modern political philosophy. ▪ Father of
• He was the first theorist to decisively divorce politics from ethics. Modern Western
Political
• Human Nature: Individual is wicked, selfish and egoistic
Philosophy.
‘Individual would readily forgive the murder of his father,
but never the seizure of property’ ▪ He is
Anti-CHURCH,
• Human mind tended to glorify the past, decry the present
not anti-religion.
and hope for better future.
• Machiavelli creates a separation between State and Church, but he is ▪ Fortuna –
Moody Woman.
not against religion.
• According to him, the prince has the absolute authority ▪ Lion & Fox.
over its subject. Prince is not obligated to any kind of moral principle. ▪ Dual Morality of
• In Machiavellian thought end justifies the means. King.
Because the key objective of the Prince was to bring unity
▪ Flexible nature
and integrity of the State. Hence, achieving this end justifies of King (to
all the wrong measures taken by the prince. (June 2019) Change according
• Prince should have both virtues of Lion (Courageous) and Fox (cunning) to changing
• He have set double standard of morality. (March 2023 Shift 1) circumstances).
• According to him Prince should stay away from Fortuna which has ▪ Degeneration of
Italy.

▪ Florence.

▪ Human Nature
(egoism).
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Compared with a Moody Woman that can ruin a Prince.

• In private sphere, individual or ruler should have virtues like truthful,
simplicity, purity, loyalty and trust.
• In public sphere, rulers need not to follow any moral values
to conduct state affairs.
• That is why nature of Prince is flexible and he work according to the
situation.
• According to him, “Republican government” is the best form
of government.
Machiavelli’s Main works:- (Shift 2 2022)

• Art of War (1521) (Shift 1 2021)

• History of Florence (1525)
• Discourses on Livy (1531)
• The Prince (1532)

Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679): An English philosopher KEYWORDS :-

• He witnessed the period of Civil war in 1641 so that ▪ Absolute

he said ‘Fear and I was born twins’ Sovereignty.
• According to him, the state of nature was one in which ▪ 19 Articles of
there were no enforceable criteria of right and wrong. Peace.
• Human life was “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short.” (June 2019)
▪ “Fear & I are
• Social Contract: All individual surrendered his or her all power
Twins”.
through a contract to third party (Leviathan),
who was not party to the contract. (Shift 2 2021) ▪ Philosophical
Radical.
• He believes in Absolute Sovereignty.
• The thirds party i.e., State will have undivided, unlimited, ▪ Felicity.
inalienable and permanent power. ▪ Mechanical
• The contract was perpetual and irrevocable. Materialism.
• He believes in the Mechanical Materialism.
• He has also gave the 19 Articles of Peace.
• He also talks about Felicity which means the continuous fulfillment of one’s desires.
• He claimed that the “science of politics was no longer than himself.” (June 2023 Shift
1)
• In his book De Cive (1642) he made a statement "Law is the command of that person
whose percept contains in the reason of obedience". (June 2023 Shift 1)
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Hobbes’ Main works:-

• De Corpore (1640)
• De Cive (1642)
• Elements of Law (1650)
• Leviathan (1651) (June 2023 Shift 1) (June 2023 Shift 2)
• Behemoth (1670)

John Locke (1632 –1704): An English philosopher KEYWORDS :-

• He is known as father of liberalism. ▪ On Consent.

• He wrote mainly during the times ▪ On Toleration.
of Glorious Revolution of 1688 in England.
• According to him, the State of Nature ▪ Constitutional
is a state of perfect and complete liberty, Monarchy.
free from the interference of others. ▪ Natural Rights.
• The State of Nature is pre-political, but it is not pre-moral. ▪ Property.
• Problem with state of Nature:
▪ Civil Society.
(i) there was no established law
(ii) an impartial judge, and ▪ Limited
(iii) problem of implementation of law Government.
• In his Social contract, people transfer some of their rights (March 2023
to the government in order to ensure comfortable enjoyment Shift 1)
of their lives, liberty, and property {estate} (natural rights).
• People would agree to a limit on their property: it can be passed on only to those
▪ Estate.
who consent to obey the state. Then, each generation will tacitly consent to obey
the state as its members acquire property that is in the state’s “dominion.”
• If governments fail to do their work properly, people have right to revolution.
John Locke’s Main works:-

• Letter on toleration, 1689 (Shift 2 2022)

• Two treaties on government 1690 (Shift 2 2021) (June 2023 Shift 1)
• Essay concerning human understanding 1690 (March 2023 Shift 1)
• Second letter on toleration 1690
• Third letter on toleration 1692
• Fourth letter on toleration 1692
• The fundamentals of constitution of Caroline 1692

Rousseau: (1712- 1778): A Swiss philosopher KEYWORDS :-

▪ Popular
Sovereignty.

▪ Direct
Democracy.

▪ Romanticism.
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• He was seen as spiritual father of French Revolution of 1789.

• He called ‘a thinking man is depraved animal’ which means
he was against intelligence, science and reason and known as
Romanticist by nature.
• State of Nature was a peaceful and quixotic time.
People lived solitary, uncomplicated lives.
• As time passed, humanity faced certain changes.
The invention of private property, constituted the pure state
into one characterized by greed, competition, vanity,
and inequality, dependent and vice.
• Rousseau in his work ‘Discourse on Inequality’ comprehensively
discussed the differences among :-
Moral Inequality (difference in wealth, nobility, power and merit
and Natural Inequality (differences in age, health, or other
physical characteristics). (December 2019) (Shift 1 2022)
(June 2023 Shift 1)
• In order to become free and equal, every individual must give up all
his rights to the entire community, creating the same conditions for all
and thus equality
• Men are thus all subject to what Rousseau names “the general will”.
(December 2018)
Rousseau’s Main works:-

• Discourses on the science & Arts (1750) (Shift 1 2022)

• Discourses on the origin of inequality (1755)
• An introduction to political economy (1758)
• Social contract (1762) (June 2023 Shift 1)
• The Emile (1762) (Shift 2 2021)

Hegel (1770–1831): A German philosopher KEYWORDS :-

• He was the founder of modern idealism. ▪ Bureaucratic

• Developed a dialectical scheme that emphasized Class is Universal
Class.
the progress of history and of ideas
from thesis to antithesis and thence to a synthesis. ▪ Civil Society is a
• “Dialectical” method relies on a contradictory process System of Needs.
between opposing sides. ▪ State is
Universal
Altruism.

▪ World History.

▪ Dialectics.

▪ Contemporary
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• He said idea can never be understood

without understanding its contradiction.
• The development of human history, was about progress,
and it resulted in which humankind would eventually reach
“the great idea.”
• According to him State is Universal Altruism.
• Civil Society is a System of Needs.
• Bureaucratic Class is Universal Class.
• According to him State as an organism having,
“ the highest right over the individual, whose highest duty in is
to be a member of the state” (December 2018)
• State is march of God on earth. (December 2018) (Shift 1 2021)
• According to Hegel War is not regarded as an evil but a virtue; it effectively displays
the “irony of the divine area” and destroys the selfish egoism of the individual. (Shift
2 2022)
• Absolute Consciousness (March 2023 Shift 2)
• According to Hegel, the absolute consciousness which is considered as the God;
reveals itself in the following order:
1) Simple Consciousness – It is the starting point, which represents the initial state of
human consciousness.
2) Self-Consciousness – Under this individual become aware of their own existence as
separate beings.
3) Reason – It is where individuals use rational thinking to understand the world
around them.
4) Spirit – It represents the highest stage of human consciousness, where individuals
understand their place in the world and their connection to the Absolute.

• For Hegel “The rational is the real and the real is the rational”. (June 2023 Shift 1)

Hegel’s Main works:-

• The Phenomenology of Spirit (1807)

• Science of Logic (1812–18)
• Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences (1817)
• Elements of the Philosophy of Right (1821) (Shift 1 2022)
• Philosophy of History (1831)

Mary Wollstonecraft (1759 –1797): An English writer

• Regarded as one of the founding feminist philosophers KEYWORDS :-

▪ 1st Liberal Feminist
Thinker.

▪ Critique of Edmund Burke.

(-negative influence)

▪ Critique of Rousseau.
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• Women like men are endowed with reason enabling them

to make rational choices and were entitled to natural rights
(Shift 2 2021)
• She called for the betterment of women's status through
such political change as the radical reform of
national educational systems.
• ‘All the causes of female weakness as well as
depravity because of one grand cause- want of chastity in men’
• She criticized Edmund Burke and Rousseau.
• And got inspiration from John Locke.

Wollstonecraft’s Main works:- (Shift 2 2022)

• A vindication of the rights of men (1790)

• A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792) (December 2019)
• A historical and moral view of the origin & progress of the French Revolution (1794)
• The Wrongs of Woman (1798)

John Stuart Mill (1806 –1873): An English philosopher KEYWORDS :-

• A liberal classical economist. ▪ Reluctant

• Mill was an advocate of individual rights, progressive social policies, Democrat.
and utilitarianism (which promotes actions that do ▪ Positive Liberty.
"the greatest good for the greatest number"). (Shift 1 2021)
▪ Transitional
• He introduced a concept of Harm principle which says Thinker.
that “the only purpose for which power can be rightfully
▪ Focus on Quality
exercised over any member of civilized community
in Utilitarianism.
against his will , is to prevent harm to others”.
• His ideas work as a bridge between laissez faire state and welfare state, ▪ Plural Voting
- on the basis of
negative liberty and positive liberty that is why he is
Educational
known as transitional thinker. Qualification).
• According to him, “the ideal type of a perfect government”
▪ Representative
would be both democratic and representative.
Democracy.
• He prescribed for ‘plural votes’ to educated
and single vote to uneducated for balancing.
• That is why he is also known as Reluctant Democrat.
• Inspired from Tocqueville’s idea of ‘tyranny of majority’,
he recommended limited power of elected majority.
• According to Mill, ‘placing restrictions on freedom of expressions of human beings is
like robbing off the present and the future races.’ (June 2019)
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• “All mankind minus one, were of one opinion, and only one person were of the
contrary opinion, mankind would be no more justified in silencing that one person,
than he, if he had the power, would be justified in silencing mankind.”
• For Mill “Men as well as women, do not need political rights in order that they may
govern, but in order that they may not be misgoverned”. (June 2023 Shift 1)

J.S. Mill’s Main works:-

• Principles of Political Economy (1848)

• On Liberty (1859)
• Considerations on Representative Government (1861) (2020) (Shift 2 2022)
• Utilitarianism (1863)
• The Subjection of Women (1869)

Karl Marx (1818 –1883): A German philosopher KEYWORDS :-

• An Important figure in the development of socialism and communism. ▪ Asiatic Mode of

Production.
• He converted Hegel’s Dialectical theory of idea into materialism.
• Material is responsible for any kind of social change instead of idea. ▪ Dialectical
(December 2018) Materialism -
Matter is Active.
• Human societies develop through class conflict between the bourgeoisie
(owners of means of production) and the proletariat (laboures) ▪ Communism –
• Capitalism is a system which runs on profit they pays worker only State-less &
Class-less.
that much amount which is sufficient for him to live and come back
to work capitalist do not share their profits or surplus with workers. ▪ Petty
(Shift 1 2021) Bourgeoise.
• The moment worker will realize that they are being exploited ▪ Proletariat Class
i.e. when they develop class-consciousness they will start revolution. Struggle.
• Also gave concept of Alienation: the problematic separation of a subject ▪ Alienation.
and object that properly belong together.
▪ Class Struggle.
Like Alienation from the process of production,
Alienation from the product of his labour, Alienation from society. ▪ Class
(2020) (Shift 1 2021) Consciousness.
• According to Karl Marx’s theory of historical materialism; societies pass ▪ Surplus Value.
through six stages – primitive communism, slave society, feudalism,
▪ VIOLENT in
capitalism, socialism and finally stateless communism. nature of
(Shift 2 2022) Revolution.
• He talks about Asiatic Mode of Production; which is a type of pre-capitalist society.
• According to Marx; Religion is the opium of the people.(December 2018).
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Karl Marx’s Main works:-

• Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right (1843)

• Paris Manuscripts (1844) (2020)
• Theses on Feuerbach (1845)
• The Poverty of Philosophy (1847) (March 2023 Shift 2)
• The Class Struggle in France (1850)
• The 18th Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte (1852)
• Critique of Political Economy – 1859 (March 2023 Shift 2)
• "Value, Price and Profit" (1865) (March 2023 Shift 2)
• Das Kapital, also known as Capital: A Critique of Political Economy (1867) (2020)
• The Critique of the Gotha Programme (1875) (2020)
• Capital (Das Capital) vol 2 (1885)
• Capital (Das Capital) vol 3 (1894)
Joint work of Marx and Engels:-
• The Holy Family (1845) (March 2023 Shift 2)
• The German Ideology (1845-46) (Shift 2 2022)
• The Communist Manifesto (1848) (2020)

Antonio Gramsci (1891 –1937): An Italian Philosopher KEYWORDS :-

• Founder of the Italian Communist Party. ▪ Focus on

• Mussolini had put him behind the bars for Superstructure.
his revolutionary activities and he remained in prison ▪ Intellectuals –
throughout his life. 1. Organic &
• Antonio Gramsci’s “hegemony” acquired a Marxist character in its use 2. Traditional.
• Gramsci defines hegemony as a form of control ▪ Prison
exercised by the Dominant Class. Notebooks.
• He rejected scientific determinism and advocated political ▪ Rule by Consent
and intellectual struggle known as counter hegemony. (2020) is – Hegemony.
• To establish counter-hegemony Gramsci suggested a two-level strategy: ▪ Cultural
1. War of Position (need of having ‘organic intellectuals’ means Hegemony.
intellectual belonging to subaltern section to control civil society)
▪ Praxis -
2. War of Manoeuvre/ movement (Once war of position is won,
Knowledge in
revolutionary classes can go for direct action to capture the state) Practice.
(June 2023 Shift 1)
▪ Concept of
• Gramsci developed the term passive revolution to describe Fascism.
Historical Bloc.
• Difference between Progress and Becoming (June 2023 Shift 2)
• ▪ War of Position.
These sentences are from Antonio Gramsci's Prison Notebooks, where he wrote
while he was in prison under the Italian Fascist regime. ▪ War of
Manoeuvre.
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• In this part, Gramsci talks about the difference between "Progress" and "Becoming"
and how they relate to ideas and philosophy.
• Gramsci says that "Progress" is like a set of beliefs influenced by history and culture,
while "Becoming" is a deeper idea about change and growth.
• He explains that "Progress" is about moving forward and getting better, based on
certain historical and cultural factors.
• But "Becoming" is a bigger idea about change that isn't limited to specific times or
places. He says that "Progress" and "Becoming" became important ideas around the
same time.
• He compares it to how politics started in France and philosophy grew in Germany
and Italy. So, just like those ideas, "Progress" and "Becoming" became popular
around the same time.
• Gramsci wants to show that "Progress" is tied to specific times and places, while
"Becoming" is a broader idea about change and growth.
Gramsci’s Main works:-

• A Great and Terrible world: The pre-prison letters (1926) (June 2019)
• Prison’s notebook (1948) (December 2019) (December 2023)
• The Modern Prince (1949)

Hannah Arendt (1906–1975): German-born American political theorist

• Known for her critical writing on Jewish affairs KEYWORDS :-

and her study of totalitarianism. ▪ On Violence.
• According to her, Modernity is the age where individuals,
having lost their traditional standards and values, ▪ On Revolution.
must search for new grounds of human community as such. ▪ On Constructive
• She has written a Thesis on St. Augustine. Power.
• Modernity and Capitalism give rise to Totalitarianism.
• There are twin horrors of the twentieth century – Nazism and Stalinism. ▪ Vita Activa.
• While negating Totalitarianism she mentioned the importance of Public ▪ Totalitarianism.
Speech.
▪ Public Speech.
• She went on to develop a new set of philosophical categories
that could illuminate the Human Condition and provide ▪ Two Friends –
Martin Heidegger
a fresh perspective on the nature of political life.
& Jaspers.
• In her idea of revolutionary leadership expressed
that the success of a revolution occurs when it is limited ▪ Thesis on St.
Augustine
to the political and not extending to social.
• She appreciates Marx for establishing Primacy of Action over Thinking.
• She talks about two kinds of human actions: 1. Vita Activa (Action) and
Vita Contemplativa (Contemplation/ thinking). Hierarchy of Actions: -
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Labour - Work - Action

• She has compared the concept of power with other related concepts like force,
strength and violence and concluded that power is neither a force, nor strength, or
violence.
• Power belongs to public sphere. When people come together, they experience
power.
• Hannah Arendt said that "It is better to suffer wrong than to do wrong." (June 2023
Shift 1)
Arendt’s Main works:- (Shift 1 2021)

• The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951)

• The Human Condition (1958) (2020) (March 2023 Shift 1)
• On Revolution (1963)
• Eichmann in Jerusalem: A report on the Banality of Evil (1963)
• On Violence (1970)
• The Life of the Mind (1977)

Frantz Fanon (1925 – 1961): West Indian psychoanalyst and philosopher

• One of a few thinkers supporting the decolonization struggles KEYWORDS :-

• Fanon supported Algeria's War of independence from France
▪ Algiers
and was a member of the Algerian National Liberation Front.
Revolution.
• His writings were based on the existential challenges faced
by black human beings in a social world that is constituted / ▪ Role in - A N L F.
by white human beings. ▪ Decolonization.
• He explores how these people are encouraged by a racist society
▪ Racism.
to want to become white, but then experience serious
psychological problems because they are not able to do so. ▪ Mental Disease.
• He focus on psychological problems which no one ever done in ▪ Psycho-analysis.
the study of colonization as he was Psychiatrist by profession and
▪ Ghana
called colonialism as Mental Disease. Ambassador.
• Fanon introduces the colonial world as one that is divided
▪ Martinique.
into the colonist and the colonized.
• The colonist creates these identities in order to assert his own ▪ Manichaeism.
superiority. Because colonialism is established and maintained ▪ Psychiatrist.
by violence, only through violence colonialism can be ended.
Fanon’s Main works:-
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• Black Skin, White Masks (1952) (June 2019) (Shift 1 2022) (June 2023 Shift 2)
• A Dying Colonialism (1959)
• The Wretched of the Earth (1961) (December 2019) (2020) (Shift 2 2022) (June 2023
Shift 1)
• Towards the African Revolution (1964)

Mao Zedong (1893 –1976): Principal Chinese Marxist theorist

KEYWORDS :-
• Communist Party of China was founded in 1921 and Mao was
also a founding member of it. ▪ Antagonistic &
• Founder of the People's Republic of China (1st Oct 1949). Non Antagonistic.
• His philosophy was based on modified version of Marx’s communism ▪ Revolution on
where peasants are in the role of leaders for communist revolution. the Shoulder of
• He talks about two types of contradiction; PEASANTS.
(a) Antagonistic : The class contradictions of exploiter and exploited inside▪ Focus On –
Peasantry.
class society.
▪ Cultural
(b) Non Antagonistic : The contradiction between the working class and
Revolution.
the peasantry. ▪ Red Army.
• Important policies of Mao- ▪ New
- Long March, (1934–35), the 6,000-mile (10,000-km) historic Democracy.
trek of the Chinese communists, After the communist breach
▪ Guerrilla
with the KMT (Kuomintang Party of China). Warfare.
- Hundred Flowers Campaign, (1956) Mao invited criticism
▪ New China.
of the Chinese Communist Party’s policies, even by noncommunist
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intellectuals, with a famous slogan from Chinese classical history,

“Let a hundred flowers bloom, and a hundred schools of thought
contend.”
- The great leap forward (1958-1962): The promulgation was the
result of the failure of the Soviet model of industrialization in China.
The campaign has undertaken to meet China’s industrial and
agricultural problems.
- Cultural Revolution (1966–76) a decade-long period of political and social chaos
caused by Mao Zedong’s bid to use the Chinese masses to reassert his control
over the Communist party.

• Mao Zedong said that ‘Political work is the life-blood of all economic work.’ (June
2019)
• Mao said “Political power grows out of the barrel of a gun”. (Shift 2 2021)
• “Politics is war without bloodshed, while war is politics with bloodshed.” (March
2023 Shift 2)

Mao Zedong’s Main works:-

• On Practice (1937)
• On Contradiction (1937)
• On Guerilla Warfare (1937)
• On Protracted War (1938)
• On New Democracy (1940)
• On Coalition Government (1945)
• On People’s Democratic rule (1949)
• On Correct Handling of Contradiction Among People (1957)
• Where Do Correct Ideas (1963)

John Rawls (1921- 2002): An American political philosopher

Influenced by the egalitarian liberal tradition. KEYWORDS :-
▪ Egalitarianism
• He has pointed out that a good society is characterized
by a number of virtues. ▪ Least Advantaged
• He is a thinker of Social Justice. ▪ Difference Principle
• He believes in Liberal Theory of State.
▪ Distributive Justice
• Justice is the first virtue of a good society and social institutions.
(March 2023 Shift 2) ▪ Revival of Pol Theory

▪ Liberal Theory of
State

▪ Social Justice’s
Thinker

▪ Veil of Ignorance
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• The Idea of Justice flows from individual. Rawls never

wished to compromise with the individual liberty.
(June 2019) (Shift 1 2022)
• According to Rawls, the problem of justice consists
in ensuring a just distribution of 'primary goods’.
(June 2023 Shift 1) (December 2023)
• His theory of justice describes a society of free citizens
holding equal basic rights and cooperating within
an egalitarian economic system. (December 2019)
• The Veil of ignorance is a component of social contract theory,
allows us to test ideas for fairness. (December 2018) (June 2023 Shift 1) (December
2023)
• Behind the veil, no one knows about his or her special psychological propensities and
it is known as Original Position.
• His theory of justice is mainly based upon two principles- equality principle and
difference principle (Shift 2 2021)
• Rawls states “society is a cooperative venture for mutual advantage”.
• Rawls in his famous work ‘The Theory of Justice’ wrote about the weaknesses of
Utilitarianism and said “Utilitarianism wrongly defines the “right”. (December 2019)
Main works:-

• A Theory of Justice (1971) (December 2019)

• Political Liberalism (1993) (December 2019)
• The Law of Peoples (1999)
• Justice as Fairness (2001)

V. I. Lenin (1870-1924) : Father of Russian Revolution KEYWORDS :-

• Founder of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks), leader ▪ Revolution

of the Bolshevik Revolution (1917). ▪ Party as
• The architect, builder and first head of the Soviet State (1917-24). Vanguard of
• He was also the founder of organization known as Proletariat
Comintern (Communist International). ▪ Focus on PARTY
• In his first major work “Development of Capitalism in Russia” (1899)
▪ Imperialism
he described how capitalism was growing in Russia during its initial phase.
Highest Stage of
• In 1900 Lenin migrated to Geneva and started editing a paper Capitalism
named “Iskara” in which he launched an anti-Tsarist campaign.
▪ Bolsheviks
• In 1902 he wrote his second most popular work “What is to be done” which deals
with party organization.
• In this work he argued that conditions which were prevailing in Russia there was a
need of a Communist Party which could act as a Vanguard of the Proletariat.
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• In 1916 during WWI, he wrote “Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism”

wherein he analysed the phenomenon of imperialism.
• In this work he mentioned that Capitalism had reached its highest stage
(imperialism) hence, exhausted the historical missions of creating conditions for a
proletarian revolution.
• Finally in 1917 he assumed power in Russia and become first successful Marxist
revolutionary in a country where feudalism was deeply entrenched.

Main works:- (December 2018)

• Development of Capitalism in Russia (1899)

• What is to be done (1902) (March 2023 Shift 2)
• Materialism and Empirio-Criticism (1909)
• Socialism and War (1915)
• The State and Revolution (1917) (March 2023 Shift 2)
• Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism (1916) (Shift 2 2021)

- ALL BOOKS AND AUTHORS OF WPT-

CONFUCIUS – ROUSSEAU –
▪ Book of Changes ▪ Discourses on the science & Arts (1750)
▪ Book of Songs ▪ Discourses on the origin of inequality (1755)
▪ An introduction to political economy (1758)
▪ Social contract (1762)
▪ The Emile (1762)
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PLATO –
▪ The Republic (375 BC)
▪ Statesman (between 367-361 BC)
HEGEL –
▪ The laws (347 BC) (Shift 2 2021)
▪ Apology (399 BC) ▪ The Phenomenology of Spirit (1807)
▪ Science of Logic (1812–18)
▪ Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences
ARISTOTLE –
(1817)
▪ Politics (350 BC) ▪ Elements of the Philosophy of Right (1821)
▪ The Nicomachean Ethics (around 340 BC) ▪ Philosophy of History (1831)
▪ The Eudemian Ethics
▪ The Constitution of Athens MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT –
(between 328 BC-322 BC) ▪ A vindication of the rights of men (1790)
▪ A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792)
MACHIAVELLI – ▪ A historical and moral view of the origin &
progress of the French Revolution (1794)
▪ Art of War (1521)
▪ The Wrongs of Woman (1798)
▪ History of Florence (1525)
▪ Discourses on Livy (1531)
JS MILL –
▪ The Prince (1532)
▪ Principles of Political Economy (1848)
▪ On Liberty (1859)
HOBBES –
▪ On Representative Government (1861)
▪ De Corpore (1640) ▪ Utilitarianism (1863)
▪ De Cive (1642) ▪ The Subjection of Women (1869)
▪ Elements of Law (1650)
▪ Leviathan (1651) KARL MARX –
▪ Behemoth (1670) ▪ Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right(1843)
▪ Paris Manuscripts (1844)
LOCKE – ▪ Theses on Feuerbach (1845)
▪ The Poverty of Philosophy (1847)
▪ Letter On Toleration (1689)
▪ The Class Struggle in France (1850)
▪ Two Treaties on government (1690)
▪ The 18th Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte(1852)
▪ Essay concerning Human Understanding
▪ "Value, Price and Profit" (1865)
(1690)
▪ Das Kapital, also known as Capital:
▪ Second letter on toleration (1690)
A Critique of Political Economy (1867)
▪ Third letter on toleration (1692)
▪ The Critique of the Gotha Programme(1875)
▪ Fourth letter on toleration (1692)
▪ Capital (Das Capital) vol 2 (1885)
▪ The fundamentals of constitution of
▪ Capital (Das Capital) vol 3 (1894)
Caroline (1692)
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- ALL BOOKS AND AUTHORS OF WPT-

JOINT WORKS OF MARX & ENGELS – MAO ZEDONG –
▪ The Holy Family (1845) ▪ On Practice (1937)
▪ The German Ideology (1845-46) ▪ On Contradiction (1937)
▪ The Communist Manifesto (1848) ▪ On Guerilla Warfare (1937)
▪ On Protracted War (1938)
▪ On New Democracy (1940)
GRAMSCI – ▪ On Coalition Government (1945)
▪ On People’s Democratic rule (1949)
▪ A Great and Terrible world: The pre-prison ▪ On Correct Handling of Contradiction
letters (1926) Among People (1957)
▪ Prison’s notebook (1948) ▪ Where Do Correct Ideas (1963)
▪ The Modern Prince (1949)

HANNAH ARENDT – JOHN RAWLS –

▪ The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951) ▪ A Theory of Justice (1971)

▪ The Human Condition (1958) ▪ Political Liberalism (1993)
▪ On Revolution (1963) ▪ The Law of Peoples (1999)
▪ Eichmann in Jerusalem: A report on the ▪ Justice as Fairness (2001)
Banality of Evil (1963)
▪ On Violence (1970)
▪ The Life of the Mind (1977)
LENIN –

FRANTZ FANON – ▪ Development of Capitalism in Russia (1899)

▪ What is to be done (1902)
▪ Black Skin, White Masks (1952)
▪ Materialism and Empirio-Criticism (1909)
▪ A Dying Colonialism (1959)
▪ Socialism and War (1915)
▪ The Wretched of the Earth (1961)
▪ Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism
▪ Towards the African Revolution ( 1964)
(1916)
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UNIT 3 – Indian Political Thought

Dharamshastra KEYWORDS :-
• Dharmaśāstra is a genre of Sanskrit theological texts, ▪ Manusmriti
and refers to the treatises of early Hinduism on dharma.
▪ Shantiparva
• Manusmriti is the part of Dharmshastra,
which consist of 2,685 verses. ▪ Total = 12
• There are total 12 Chapters in Manusmtiti. Chapters in
Manusmriti
• Manu, the author of Manusmriti, is the first teacher,
first king and the first law giver.
• Manu is regarded as the mythological ancestor of the human race,
the Indian version of Adam.
• Sir William Jones was the first to translate the text into English.
• Russian. J. Duncan M. Derett calls the book
‘India’s greatest achievement in the field of jurisprudence’.
• There are four goals of life (Purushartha):
- dharma (moral duties)
- artha (wealth)
- kama (desire or satisfaction)
- moksha (total liberation or ‘salvation’).
• There are four social classes or varnas:
- priests (Brahmins)
- rulers and warriors (Kshatriyas),
- commoners (Vaishyas)
- servants (Shudras).
• There are four stages of life:
- Brahmacharya (birth- 25)
- Grahstha (25-50)
- Vanprastha (50-75)
- Sanyasa (75-100)
• There are 16 rituals to be followed by Hindus, called Sanskar. (starting with
Garbhadhan sanskar ending with Antyeshthi)
• There are five sources of Dharma:
- Veda
- Samriti
- Sajjano ke Acharan (behavior of gentlemen)
- Anta: Karan
- Rajagya (order of king)
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• The seventh chapter of Manusmriti dwells at length on various aspects of Rajdharma

or statecraft.
• Manu was an ardent supporter of the ‘divine right theory’ of the origin of state.

Kautilya (375 BCE-283BCE) KEYWORDS :-

• Kautilya is also known as Chanakya and Vishnugupta.
▪ Realist.
• He wrote famous book Arthashastra.
• He is also known as Indian Machiavelli. ▪ Mandala.
• Kautilya studied and taught at the Takshila University. ▪Saptanga.
(March 2023 Shift 2)
▪ Spy, Espionage.
• Max Webber said “Kautilya’s Arthashastra exemplified
radical Machiavellianism, compared to it, ▪ Flexible rule.
Machiavelli’s Prince is harmless ”. (November 2017)*
▪Benevolent & Kind King
• The Arthashastra is also a Nitishastra text. (December 2019)
• Shamasastry had discovered the text from a pandit in Tanjore ▪ Just King.
in 1904, translated it into English first and published it in 1915. ▪ Dharma.
• There were two kinds of Brahmins or the priestly class:
▪ Danda.
Srotriya and Brahmins in general.
• He was aware of the possibility of anarchy; hence he ▪ 40 types of Corruption.
recommended a strong state ruled by virtuous monarch. ▪ Formula :-
(January 2017) King – Subjects =
• There is a mention of over 120 occupations and 40 types of Father – Children
occupation in Arthashastra. (similar relationship)
• Multiple sources of revenue are indicated in the text:
from the durgam (fortified towns),
from the rashtram (the countryside),
from khani (mines), setu (irrigation work),
from ayamukham (accounting),
from warehouses,
saving from expenditure,
from ayudhiyam (supply of soldiers in lieu of tax barter, confiscation) and so on.
• As the saptang (seven-organ) theory of state suggests, the state was a corporate
entity comprising (1) swami (2) amatya (3) janpada (4) durga (5) kosa (6) danda and
(7) mitra. (March 2023 Shift 1)
• It mentions 34 different departments of government. (Shift 1 2022)
• The Theory of Rajamandala (The Circle of States) Kautilya formulated a detailed
theory of foreign policy and inter-state relations based on the maxim that a friend’s
friend is likely to be a friend and an enemy’s friend an enemy. (Shift 1 2022)
• The mandala, as comprising 12 types of kings/states.
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• 72 Prakrities of Mandal Theory of State are enumerated by Kautilya.(June 2019)

• Kautilya laid down six basic principles of foreign policy, as follows: 1. Pursuit of
resources by the vijigsu for campaigns of victory 2. Elimination of enemies 3.
Cultivation of allies and providing help to them 4. Prudence rather than foolhardy
valour 5. Preference of peace to war 6. Justice in victory as well as in defeat. (June
2023 Shift 2)

Aggannasutta KEYWORDS :-
• Aggannasutta is 27th sutta of Digha Nikaya (Long Discourses).
▪ Digha Nikaya.
(June 2019)
• Digha Nikaya is a collection of dialogues of mostly of Buddha himself. ▪ 27th Sutta.
There are 180 dialogues. ▪ 2 Brahmins
• Digha Nikaya is part of Sutta Pitaka. Bharadvaja
• Agganna Sutta challenges Vedic ideas of maintaining social order & Vasettha.
based on Varna Ashrama Dharma.
▪ Origin of State
• Agganna Sutta clearly explains the origin of life on earth,
social order and its structure, and caste system. ▪ No caste
• The sutta describes a discourse imparted from the Buddha system.
to two brahmins, Bharadvaja and Vasettha, who left their family ▪ Ascetics.
and caste to become monks.
• Social contract theory: people appointed someone to rectify what is right and what
is wrong. People bestowed him the title : “Maha Sammata” (people’s choice), 2 nd
title : “Khattiya” (lord of the rice field) and “Raja”(who gladdens people with
dhamma or truth)
• There were two types of Brahmins: 1. Jhayanti or Jhayaka (who meditates in forests)
2. Ajhayaka (who compiled books, viewed higher in status than the Jhayakas)
• Ascetics: This is the origin of fifth caste formed from all the four caste’s people who
left their lay life and became an ascetic.

Barani (1283–1359) KEYWORDS :-

• The most important political thinker of the Delhi Sultanate,
▪ Muslim King
particularly during the reigns of Alauddin Khilji,
Muhammad bin Tughlaq and Firoz Tughlaq. ▪ Non-Secular
• His Fatwa-i-Jahandari, written advices for the Muslim kings ▪ Hindu Tax – Jizya
in order to earn religious merit and the gratitude of the subject
(June 2020), is a classic work on statecraft which can be compared ▪ Delhi Sultanate
with Arthashastra and Machiavelli’s Prince. ▪ Tarikh-e-
• Barani categorized laws into two kinds: the Shariat and the Zawabit. Ferozshahi
▪ Fatwa-e-
Jahandari
▪ Ideal (Plato se
inspired)
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• Shariat: teachings and practices of the Prophets.

• Zawabit: the state laws formulated in the changed circumstances,
where the Shariat was unable to fulfil. (March 2023 Shift 1)
• Barani made a distinction between the personal life of the Sultan
and his political role.
• He advised the kings to follow the Shariat in personal and political
domain.
• But conceded flexibility in not following the Shariat in their private spheres.
• Army was divided into four parts: infantry (foot soldiers or payaks), cavalry
(horsemen), war-elephants, auxiliary, viz., boats, spies, etc.
• The bureaucracy was another necessary component of the Sultanate working at
three levels: center, province and villages, whose basic function was to measure the
land, fix and collect the taxes.

Main works:-

• Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi (1357 AD) (Shift 2 2022) (June 2023 Shift 1)

• Fatwa-i-Jahandari (1358-59 AD) (March 2023 Shift 2)
• Salvat-i-Kabir (The Great Prayer)
• Sana-i-Muhammadi (Praises of Prophet Mohammad)
• Hasratnama (Book of Regrets)
• Tarikh-i-Barmaki
• Inayat Nama-i-Ilahi (Book of Gods Gifts)
• Maasìr Saadat (Good Deeds of the Sayyids)
• Lubbatul Tarikh.
• Fatawa-i-Dindari

Kabir KEYWORDS :-
• Kabir (15th century), a contemporary of Sikander Lodi (1489–1517)
▪ Nirgun.
and a resident of Banaras.
• He is one of the main figures of Bhakti Movement. ▪ Bhakti
• His works are compiled and referred to in Movement.
Adi Granth, Panchvani, Sarvangi, Bijak and Granthavali. ▪ Dohas.
• His works are mainly in the form of Dohas.
▪ Equality.
• Kabir, himself a weaver.
• According to him God is One. ▪ God is one.
• Kabir was more critical of the zamindari system.
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• Kabir constantly challenged the ideological dominance

of the Brahminism, and was very much secular.
• He rejected the four stages of life (ashramas)
and six systems of philosophy.

KEYWORDS :-
Pandita Ramabai (1858 –1922)
• Pandita Ramabai Saraswati was born as Ramabai Dongre. ▪ Saraswati.
• Women’s rights & education activist, a pioneer in the education ▪ Sharda Sadan.
and emancipation of women in India, and a social reformer.
▪ Mukti Mission.
(June 2020)
• She was the first woman to be awarded the titles of Pandita ▪ 1st Female
as a Sanskrit scholar (June 2019) and Saraswati after being examined feminist of India.
by the faculty of the University of Calcutta in 1878. ▪ Conversion to
• He is also known as First Female Feminist of India. Christianity.
• In 1882, She founded the Arya Mahila Samaj, in Pune a society
of high-caste Hindu women working for the education of girls
and against child marriage. (March 2023 Shift 1)
• She also testified before the Hunter Commission on
Education in India; an enquiry set up by the British government.
• Ramabai travelled to Britain in 1883, to seek British support for her widows’ home.
• In England, On 25 September 1883, Ramabai converted to Christianity and began
signing her name as Mary Rama, Her daughter Manorama also was converted to
Christianity.
• in 1886 she travelled to the USA to attend the graduation from the Women’s
Medical College in Philadelphia of Anandibai Joshee, the first Indian woman to
become a medical doctor,
• In the late 1890s, she founded Mukti Mission at Kedgaon village. The mission was
later named Pandita Ramabai Mukti Mission.
• In 1889 she opened her Sharada Sadan (or Home for Learning) in Chowpatty,
Mumbai. (Shift 2 2022) (December 2023)
• In 1919, Ramabai was awarded the Kaiser-i-Hind Medal by the British government.
(June 2023 Shift 1)

Main works:-

• Stri Dharm Niti (1882)

• The cry of Indian Women (1883) (June 2023 Shift 1)
• The High Caste Hindu Women (1887) (June 2023 Shift 1)
• The People Of United States (1889)
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• Mukti Prayer Bell – Newspaper (1901) (June 2023 Shift 1)

Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1856–1920) KEYWORDS :-

• Born in Ratnagiri, Maharashtra. ▪ Extremist Leader.

• He was also conferred with the title of "Lokmanya". ▪ Boycott.
• The British colonial authorities called him
▪ Swaraj.
"The father of the Indian unrest."
(Shift 1 2021)
▪ Youth Festivals.
• Mahatma Gandhi called him "The Maker of Modern India".
• In 1881, he founded two newspaper named Kesari (Marathi) ▪ ‘Father of Indian
and The Mahratta (English). unrest’
• In 1884, Bal Gangadhar Tilak founded Deccan education society. ▪ Home Rule League
• He organized two important festivals, Ganpati festival in 1893
▪ Deccan Education
and Shivaji festival in 1895 to widen the popularity of
Society
the nationalist movement among youth.
• In 1914, he founded and served as president of the Indian Home Rule League.
• In 1916, he concluded the Lucknow Pact with Mohammed Ali Jinnah, which
provided for Hindu-Muslim unity in the nationalist struggle.
• According to Tilak, swadeshi, boycott, national education and passive resistance
were the means of protest. (June 2020)
• Tilak was one of the first and strongest advocates of Swaraj ("self-rule") and a strong
radical in Indian consciousness.
• Tilak had a deep understanding of the concept of "Swaraj." According to him, Swaraj
had multiple dimensions and carried different meanings.
• Tilak viewed Swaraj not only as a political objective but also as a moral necessity.
• He believed that it was the inherent right of every individual and society to govern
themselves, free from external domination. (June 2023 Shift 1)
• He is known for his quote in Marathi: "Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it!"
Main works:-
• The Orion (1893)
• The Arctic Home in Vedas (1903)
• Geeta Rahashya (1915)
• Vedic Chronology And Vedanga Jyotisha (1925)
• The Hindu Philosophy of Life, Ethics and Religion (1965)
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Swami Vivekanand (1863–1902)

• Born into an upper-middle-class family in Bengal Original KEYWORDS :-
name Narendranath Datta. ▪ Neo-Vedanta.
• In 1880, he joined Keshab Chandra Sen's Nava Vidhan
and also became a member of Brahmo Samaj. ▪ Ramakrishna
Mission.
• There are three important principles of
Neo- Vedanta Philosophy of Vivekananda:- ▪ Youth pe Focus.
- Oneness between God and man and the solidarity of the universe.
▪ Chicago Speech in
- Stood for the selfless action in the service of humanity. 1893.
- Propagates the principle of universal tolerance KEYWORDS :-
and believes that different religions are different ▪ Return of the
▪ Varnashrama
paths to reach the goal of liberation. Shudras.
(revised version).
• In 1893, he appeared in Chicago as a spokesman
▪ Soul.
for Hinduism at the World’s Parliament of Religions
and a newspaper account described him as ▪ Spirituality.
“an orator by divine right and undoubtedly ▪ Daridra Narayan.
the greatest figure at the Parliament.” (Shift 2 2022)
• On his return to India in 1897, Vivekananda founded
the Ramakrishna Mission at the monastery of Belur Math, near Calcutta. (March
2023 Shift 2) (December 2023)
• In 12 January 1994, Government of India decided to observe the birthday of
Vivekananda as National Youth day. (December 2019)
Main works:-

• Raja yoga (1896)

• Karma yoga (1896)
• Lectures from Colombo to Almora (1897)
• Jnana yoga (1899)
• My Master (1901)

Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941) KEYWORDS :-

• Born in Calcutta.
▪ Freedom
• He was highly influential in introducing Indian culture
of Individual.
to the West and vice versa.
• In 1901, Tagore founded an experimental school in rural ▪ Critique of 1905
West Bengal at Shantiniketan, Bengal Partition.
which became Visva-Bharati University in 1921. ▪ Swadeshi Swaraj.
• He criticized Bengal Partition of 1905.
▪ Critique of
Nationalism.
▪ Support of
Universalism.
▪ Support of
Cosmopolitanism.
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• In 1913, he became the first non-European

to receive the Nobel Prize for Literature.
• Tagore was awarded a knighthood in 1915,
but he returned it in 1919 as a protest against
the Amritsar (Jallianwala Bagh) Massacre. (December 2019)
• True Freedom: there are four stages of true freedom:-
- Realization of freedom at the individual level
- Realization of freedom at the community level
- From community to universe
- From universe to infinity (March 2023 Shift 1) (June 2023 Shift 2)

• Nationalism:-
• Tagore was against the European idea of nationalism which gives birth to war,
weapons and violence. (March 2023 Shift 1)
• But he supports the nationalist freedom movement of his time which was mainly
focused on freeing the soul of India from British colonialism.
• He criticized Gandhi for his parochial nationalism, traditional egoism and
instrumental anarchism.
• Tagore talked about ‘Synthetic Universalism’ which knew no geographical
boundaries and believed in universalism. (Shift 1 2022)
• Rabindranath Tagore said, “The truth is that the spirit of conflict and conquest is at
the origin and in the center of the Western Nationalism.” (June 2023 Shift 2)
Main works:-

• Chokher Bali, 1903

• Gitanjali (devotion of God), 1910 (June 2020)
• Gora (multifarious social life)1910 (June 2020)
• The Post Office (1912)
• Sadhna (realization of life), 1913 (June 2020)
• Ghare Baire (deeper meaning of life),1916 (June 2020)
• Stay Birds (1916)
• Nationalism (1917)

M.K Gandhi (1869-1948) KEYWORDS :-

• Full name: Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi,
▪ Non-Violence.
was born in Porbandar, Gujrat.
• He came to be considered the father of India. ▪ Two Concepts of
• In 1888, he went to London for studying Law Violence.
and in 1891, he returned to India after finishing study of law. ▪ Hind Swaraj.
▪ Gram Swaraj.
▪ Ends & Means are
integral and
connected.
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• In 1893, Gandhi went to South Africa

to practice law under a one-year contract.
Settling in Natal (fight the case of a Muslim Merchant’s cousin).
• In 1894, he formed the Natal Indian Congress in order
to fight discrimination against Indian traders in Natal.
• In 1906, the Transvaal (province of South Africa) government
sought to restrict the rights of Indians,
and Gandhi organized his first campaign of Satyagraha,
or mass Civil Disobedience. (March 2023 Shift 1)
• In 1915, Gandhi returned to India.
• Movements led by Mahatma Gandhi:- (Shift 2 2021) (Shift 1 2022)
- Champaran Satyagraha (1917)
- Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918)
- Kheda Satyagraha (1918)
- Non- cooperation Movement (1920) (March 2023 Shift 1)
- Civil disobedience movement (1930)
- Quit India movement (1942) also known as August movement. (March 2023 Shift
1)
• In 1919, he started English journal Young India.
• The Second Round Table Conference (Sep 1931-Dec 1931): Mahatma Gandhi and
Indian National Congress participated in it.
- This was one of the results of the Gandhi Irwin pact (March 1931).
- The British decided to grant communal award by providing separate electorates
for minorities.
- Gandhi was against this, but Ambedkar supported this.
- This issue was resolved through Poona Pact 1932.
• In 1933 Gandhiji started publishing a weekly newspaper, Harijan, in English.
• According to him Ends and Means are integral and connected to each other. (June
2023 Shift 1)
• He believes in the concept of Sarvodaya which means upliftment of all.
• Idea of Swaraj:
- Swaraj was defined in the following ways: national independence, political,
economics, spiritual freedom of individual.
- He severely criticized modern industrial civilization; it can destroy deeper human
values. (November 2017)
• Concept of RamRajya (ideal state): Gandhi said that for him a true Ram Rajya would
ensure “equal rights to both prince and pauper”.
• Panchayat model:
- Mahatma Gandhi advocated panchayat raj as the foundation of India's political
system.
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- The term for such a vision was Gram Swaraj.

- Every panchayat would have five men and women from the village committed to
development of the village.
- From the group of one hundred such panchayats, fifty leaders were to be
elected.
• E.M.S. Namboodiripad’s book “Mahatma and ism” is an analysis of Mahatma Gandhi
from the Marxism point of view. (January 2017)
• Mahatma Gandhi believed that Religion should be integral to politics and quoted
that “For me morals, ethics, and religion are convertible terms. A moral life without
reference to religion is like a house built upon sand.” (January 2017)

• Satyagraha as a dialogue (June 2023 Shift 2)

• Gandhi believed in using dialogue and Satyagraha to solve problems by

understanding each other, not by making enemies.
• Instead of seeing people in a conflict as enemies, he saw them as fellow humans
trying to solve a problem together.
• He thought that if people talked openly and respectfully, even if they disagreed, they
could find solutions together.
• Gandhi also believed that when people talk to each other, they might change their
own ideas and see the value in what the other person says.
• Truth is something that is shared by all people, and it can only be found through
dialogue and discussion.
• When people engage in dialogue, they are opening themselves up to the possibility
of learning from each other and of seeing the world from different perspectives.
• When people engage in dialogue, they are acknowledging each other's equality and
their shared humanity. This can help to break down misunderstandings and to build trust.

• Institutions founded by Gandhi; (December 2019)

- Phoenix Settlement (South Africa) – 1904
- Tolstoy Farm (South Africa) – 1910 (December 2023)
- Kochrab Ashram (Ahmedabad) – 1915 (Shift 2 2022)
- Sabarmati Ashram(Ahmedabad) - 1915
- Sevagram Ashram (Wardha) – 1936

Main works:-
• Hind Swaraj or Indian Home Rule (1909) (March 2023 Shift 1) (December 2023)
• The story of my experiments with truth (1929)
• Key to health (1948)
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Sri Aurobindo (1872-1950)

• Original name Aurobindo Ghose, Born in Calcutta. KEYWORDS :-
• He helped establish the Anushilan Samiti of Calcutta in 1902. ▪ Militant Nationalism
• In 1905, He developed his critique against moderates (Early Stage of his Life)
in the congress in a weekly paper “Bande Matram”.
▪ Karmayoga.
• He was charged with sedition for his articles in Bande Matram.
• In 1907, Surat spilt of congress. Aurobindo led the extremist group ▪ Passive Resistance.
▪ Integral Yoga.
• along with Bal Gangadhar Tilak.
• In 1908, in connection with Alipore Bomb Case, he was imprisoned. ▪ Mazzini se inspired.
• In 1909, Sri Aurobindo launched Karmayogin, ▪ Puducherry Ashram.
a weekly English journal
▪ Spiritual Nationalism
and Dharma, a weekly Bengali journal.(July 2018)
( this is in Later Stage
• Lord Minto said about Aurobindo – of his Life).
“Most dangerous person we have to reckon with.”
• In 1914, he started publishing a magazine, Arya.
• In 1926, he founded a community Sri Aurobindo Ashram in Pondicherry.
• His spiritual collaborator was Mirra Alfassa, who was called “the Mother” in the
ashram.
• Idea of passive resistance: His concept concerning passive resistance has a social
boycott, economic boycott, educational boycott, administration boycott, judicial
boycott of Britishers and adoption of Swadesism.
• Cultural Nationalism: for Aurobindo, Nationalism was not a mere political
movement for political ends but a religious act in itself, because it amounted to
working for the will of God. (Shift 2 2022) (June 2023 Shift 1)
• He condemned the caste system but did not approve the idea of separate
representation for the lower castes in the political institutions as a solution.

Main works:-

• The Ideal Human Unity (1918)

• The Life Divine (1919) (January 2017: books in chronological order)
• The Renaissance in India (1920)
• Essays on The Gita (1922)
• "The Mother" (1928)
• Savitri: A Legend and a Symbol (1940)
• The Synthesis of Yoga (1948)
• Love and Death (1948)
• The Human Cycle (1949)
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• Hymns of Mystic Fire (1952)

• the Future Poetry (1953)
• The Upanishads (1981)
• Letters on yoga (letters written in 1930s, collected in three volumes)
• The Integral Yoga

Periyar E. V. Ramasamy (1879-1973) KEYWORDS :-

• PERIYAR E.V. RAMASAMY was born at Erode town
▪ Rationalism
in Tamil Nadu State.
• In 1904, E.V. Ramasamy went on a pilgrimage to Kasi, ▪ Women
he witnessed disgrace inflicted by the Brahmins made Emancipation
a deep wound in his heart what he called Brahminic exploitation. ▪ Vaikom Satyagraha
This incident made him atheist. (December 2019)
▪ Self Respect
• He believed the conversion of Dalits to Islam and Christianity
Movement
was the only way to escape the institutionalized and
religious casteism of Brahminical oppression. ▪ Dravidian Movement
• He criticized Gandhi for not actively cracking down on the ▪ Boycotted Priests
Brahminical structure and privileges.
• In 1919, he joined Congress.(June 2020) ▪ Gurukullam
Controversy
• In 1924, he led the Vaikom Satyagraha –
for the Rights of Dalits to enter temples in Kerala. ▪ Kashi Pilgrimage
• The first Self-respect movement was held at Chengalpattu
in Feb 1929.
• In 1925, he launched the Self-Respect Movement
which was a dynamic social movement aimed
at destroying the Hindu social order. (Shift 1 2022) (March 2023 Shift 1 and 2)
(December 2023)
• In 1938, he headed Justice party and in 1944, this party was converted into non-
political social party Dravidian Kazhgam formed by Periyar.
• In 1949, Periyar’s close associate C. N. Annadurai, established a separate association
called Dravidian Munnetra Kazhgam (DMK).
Main works:-
• Kudi Arasu (Tamil weekly), 1925
• Revolt (English journal), 1928
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Muhammad Iqbal (1877–1938) KEYWORDS :-

• Muhammad Iqbal also known as Allama Iqbal,
▪ Islamic Nationalism
was a Muslim philosopher, poet and politician
of early 20th-century, born in Sailkot, Pakistan. ▪ Resolving Muslim
• Iqbal’s doctoral thesis was entitled Identity.
“The Development of Metaphysics in Persia”. ▪ Shariat Laws
• After returning to India in 1908, he associated
▪ Khudi
with All India Muslim League.
• He was a critique of mainstream Indian National Congress,
which he regarded as dominated by Hindus.
• Idea of Khudi:
- Iqbal rejected the idea of possessive individualism.
- On the one hand we have to retain the autonomy of individual and on the other
hand we also have commitment to our community.
• Self God Dimension:
- Human has to access three layers to accessing the self: 1. Physical existence (self)
2. Relational existence (others) 3. Universal existence (God)
- Iqbal used here concept of “Superman” given by Nietzsche. He used here as
“Insan i Kalim”.
• Idea of democracy:
- His idea of democracy is based on ethical democracy which foundation is in Khudi.
- Khudi is all about that all humans are equal.
• Known for his influential efforts to direct toward the establishment of a separate
Muslim state (Pakistan).
• He was knighted in 1923 by British government.
Main works:-

• Ilm ul Iqtisad (Urdu), 1903

Prose books in English:-
• The Development of Metaphysics in Persia (1908)
• The Reconstruction of Religious thought in Islam (1930) (December 2019)
Poetic books in Persian:-
• Asrar-i-Khudi (1915)
• Rumuz-i-Bekhudi (1917)
• Payam-i-Mashriq (1923)
• Zabur-i-Ajam (1927)
• Javid Nama (1932)
• Pas ched bayed kard ai aqwam-e-sharq (1936)
• Armughan-e-Hijaz (1938)
Books in urdu:-
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• Bang-i-Dara (1924) (June 2019)

• Bal-i-JIbril (1935)
• Zarb-i-Kalim (1936)

M.N. Roy (1887–1954) KEYWORDS :-

• Original name Narendranath Bhattacharya,
▪ Radical Humanism
born in Arbelia, West Bengal.
• Leader of India’s communists until the independence of India. ▪ New Humanism
• In 1916 he reached San Francisco, ▪ Militant Nationalism
where he changed his name to Manabendra Nath Roy.
▪ International
• In 1919, Roy helped found the Mexican Communist Party.
Comintern
• by the end of 1926, he was put on the executive committee
of the Communist International (Comintern) Vladimir Lenin . ▪ Critique of
• In September 1929, he was expelled Dialectical
from the Communist International. Materialism
• In 1936, joined Indian National Congress. ▪ Inspired by Savarkar,
• Roy left congress on December 1940. Borodin, and
• In 1939, Roy formed the Radical Democratic Party. Bentham.
(March 2023 Shift 1) ▪ Roy - Lenin Debate
• M.N Roy’s Constitution of Free India: On Colonial Question
A Draft was published in 1944.
It was endorsed and released for public discussion ▪ Debate vs Lenin.
▪ Conflict vs Stalin.
by the Radical Democratic Party.
• In 1947, Roy published New Humanism – A Manifesto. ▪ Founded CPI party
• Humanist Interpretation of History: Roy gives an important ▪ Father of Indian
place to human will as a determining factor in history, Communism
and emphasizes role of ideas in the process of social evolution.
• According to Roy, the materialism of Marx was dogmatic ▪ Radical Democratic
Party.
and unscientific and neglected the creative role of
the human subject. (July 2018)
• Radical Democracy: The ideal of radical democracy
will be attained, through the collective efforts
of mentally free men united and determined
for creating a world of freedom. (Shift 1 2022)
• He applies Marxist analysis on Indian history in his work
“India in Transition”. (It was the first systematic Marxist analysis on Indian history)
• Roy founded four classes in India:
the bourgeoisie, the petty bourgeoisie, the peasantry, the proletariat.
• Radical Humanism (March 2023 Shift 1)
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• Radical Humanism, a philosophical movement that emphasizes human rights and

individual freedom, was developed in the mid-20th century.
• M.N. Roy said, “Radicalism thinks in terms neither of nation nor class, its concern is
man; it concerns freedom as freedom of the individual.” (June 2023 Shift 2)
• In his last years he formulated this as an alternative philosophy and wrote about this
in his work Reason, Romanticism and Revolution (1952).
• This concept is also known as ‘New Humanism’ which generated a scientific
temperament and it is different from liberalism and the Vedantic philosophy.
• New Humanism rejected Marxism, Gandhism, Fascism, Vedantic Philosophy and
Parliamentary Democracy.
• M.N. Roy said "The function of science is to describe and that of philosophy is to
explain. Therefore, philosophy is called the science of science". (June 2023 Shift 1)

Main works:-
• India in transition (1922)
• The future of Indian Politics (1929)
• Historical Role of Islam (1939)
• From Savagery to Civilization (1940)
• Poverty and Plenty (1944)
• Revolution and Counter Revolution in China (1946)
• New Orientation (1946)
• Beyond Communism (1947)
• New Humanism-A Manifesto (1947)
• Reason Romanticism and Revolution (1952)

V D Savarkar (1883-1966) KEYWORDS :-

• Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, by name Vir or Veer
▪ Hindutva. (June 2023
born in Bhagur, Maharashtra.
Shift 1)
• He endorsed the idea of India as a Hindu Rashtra. (June 2020)
(June 2023 Shift 2) ▪ Cultural Nationalism
• He called 1857 Revolt, as the first war of Independence. ▪ Abhinav Bharat.
(June 2020)
▪ Revolt of 1857 -
• In 1900, founded Mitra Mela a secret revolutionary society.
India's First War of
• In 1904, proposed new name for this society and
Independence.
that is Abhinav Bharat, which was inspired by
Mazzini’s Young Italy. (Shift 2 2021) (December 2023) ▪ Nasik Conspiracy
• He translated Mazzini’s biography into Marathi. Case.
▪ Hindu Nation
▪ Indian State
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• He was given double life imprisonment and thus,

he became the first person amounting to fifty years
of incarceration in the Andaman jails.
• Savarkar criticized Mahatma Gandhi for supporting Khilafat Movement in 1920.
• On Dec 1937, he was elected as President of Hindu Mahasabha and he remained on
this position for next 7 years. (June 2023 Shift 1)
• Two nation theory: in 19th session of Mahasabha he declared “there are two
antagonistic nations living side by side in India……….. there are two nations in the
main: the Hindus and the Muslims”
• In 1937, the theory first proposed in ‘Essentials of Hindutva’, was passed as a
resolution of the Mahasabha.
• He wrote a letter on 1941 and popularized a slogan “Hindu-ise All Politics and
Militarize Hinduism”
• In 1942, Hindu Mahasabha and Muslim League ran coalition Government in Sind and
Bengal.
Main works:-

• The Indian War of Independence: 1857 (1909)

• Essentials Of Hindutva (1923)
• Hindu-pad-Padshahi or, A review of the Hindu empire of Maharashtra (1925)
• Hindu Rashtra Darshan (1949)
• Six Glorious Epochs of Indian History (1963) (Shift 2 2022)

Dr. B.R.Ambedkar (1891-1956) KEYWORDS :-

• Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar, born in Mhow, Madhya Pradesh.
▪ Democratic
• Leader of the Dalits, the principal architect of Indian Constitution
Socialism
and independent India’s first law minister.
• In 1924, he founded “Bahishkrit Hitkarini Sabha”. ▪ Temple Entry
(December 2023) Satyagraha
• In 1927, He founded “Samaj Sainik Dal” and “Samaj Samta Sangh” ▪ Mahad Satyagraha
• In 1927, he started Satyagraha in Mahad to draw water
▪ Poona Pact –
from the Chowder Tank of the town for Dalits.
Separate Electorate
• In 1930, arranged symbolic demonstrations to enter issue
the Kalaram Temple in Nashik.
• Launched movement against Dalit discrimination ▪ All 3 Round Table
Conferences attended
through his writings in several periodicals such as
Mook Nayak (1920), Bahishkrit Bharat (1927), ▪ Independent Labour
and Equality Janta (1930). Party.
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• He was a delegate at the Round Table Conference in London,

where he asked for separate electorate for Dalits.
• In 1932, the Poona Pact was signed between Dr. Ambedkar
and Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya to ensure reservation of seats
for the untouchable class in the Provincial legislatures,
within the general electorate.
• Lothian Committee (June 2023 Shift 1)
• Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was a member of Lothian Committee (1932) also known as The
Indian Franchise Committee.
• It was one of the expert committees set up at the conclusion of the Second Round
Table Conference in London.
• The purpose of the committee was to suggest an electoral roadmap for India which
would help in deciding India’s constitutional future.
• The committee said it was aided by all political factions in India except the Gandhi
nationalists.
• In 1936, Ambedkar founded the Independent Labor Party
which later transformed into the All India Scheduled Castes Federation.
• In 1942, he was appointed labour member in the Viceroy’s Executive Council.
• He strongly opposed to the idea of Panchayati Raj System in India. (June 2020)
• In 1955, he founded the “Bhartiya Buddha Mahasabha”.
• He converted to Buddhism on 14th Oct 1956 at Deekshabhoomi, Nagpur.

Main Works:-
• Castes in India: Their Mechanism, Genesis and Development (1916) (Shift 2 2022)
• The Problem of the Rupee: its origin and its solution (1923)
(Shift 1 2021) (Shift 2 2022)
• The Annihilation of Caste (1936) (Shift 2 2022) (June 2023 Shift 2)
• Federation Versus Freedom (1939) (June 2023 Shift 2)
• Thoughts on Pakistan (1940) (Shift 2 2022)
• Ranade, Gandhi and Jinnah (1943)
• Mr. Gandhi and Emancipation of Untouchables (1943)
• What Congress and Gandhi have done to the Untouchables (1945)
• Pakistan Or Partition Of India (1945)
• State and Minorities (1947)
• Who were the Shudras (1948) (June 2023 Shift 2) (March 2023 Shift 2)
• Maharashtra as a Linguistic Province (1948)
• The Untouchables (1948) (June 2023 Shift 2)
• Future of Parliamentary Democracy (1951) (June 2023 Shift 2)
• Buddha Or Karl Marx (1956)
• The Buddha and his Dhamma (1957) (Shift 1 2021)
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• Gandhi and Gandhism (1970) (June 2019) (Shift 1 2021)

• Riddles in Hinduism (2008)
• Manu and the Shudras

J L Nehru (1889- 1964) KEYWORDS :-

• Born in Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh.
▪ Secularism.
• First prime minister of independent India (1947–64),
became noted for his nonaligned policies in foreign affairs. ▪ Scientific
• Nehru’s close association with the Congress Party dates from 1919. Determinism.
• National Unity: “we must give the topmost priority to the ▪ Scientific Temper.
development of a sense of unity in India”.
▪ International
• Nehru’s Nationalism : It was based on cultural pluralism,
Outlook.
self-determination and influenced by
Synthetic Universalism of Tagore. (Shift 2 2021) ▪ Internationalism.
- He was strongly against the demand for linguistic reorganization. ▪ Supported
• Parliamentary Democracy: it was the second national goal of Nehru. Fabian Socialism.
- India needed a democratic form of govt. it would help a diverse,
▪ Mixed Economy
vast and divided country to held together.
• Industrialization: it was the third component of national ideology. ▪ Industrialisation
- Cottage and small-scale industries were helpful in tackling the
problems of poverty and unemployment.
- If technology demands the big machine, then it must be accepted.
- He was inspired by the Fabianism
• Socialism: according to Nehru socialism has two forms:-
- Scientific method of social analysis: economic interests shape the political views
of groups and classes.
- Normative doctrine: socialism is not only limited to end capitalism; It is directed
towards the satisfaction of human needs rather than accumulation of profit.

Main works:-

• Letters from a Father to His Daughter (a collection of letters written by Jawaharlal

Nehru to his daughter Indira), 1929
• Glimpses of the World History (1934)
• An Autobiography (1936)
• India and the World (1936)
• China, Spain and the War; essays and writings (1940)
• The unity of India (1941)
• The Discovery of India (1946) (March 2023 Shift 2)
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• India Rediscovered (1946)

• Letters for a Nation (1947)
• Independence and After: A Collection of Speeches, 1946-1949 (1949)
• Nehru on world history (1960)

Ram Manohar Lohia (1910-1967) KEYWORDS :-

• Born in Akbarpur, Uttar Pradesh.
▪ Seven Revolutions
• Prominent figure in socialist politics and in the
movement toward Indian independence. ▪ New-Socialism
• In 1932, he earned his PhD degree from Berlin University ▪ A Bridge btwn
on the subject “Salt and Taxation.” (December 2019) Marxism and
• In 1934, Lohia became involved in the Congress Socialist Party Gandhism.
(left-wing group within the INC);
▪ Chaukhamba
and became an editor of weekly Congress Socialist.
• In 1936, he was selected by Jawaharlal Nehru ▪ Saptkranti
as the first secretary of the Foreign Department of the Congress. ▪ Permanent
• In 1946, led a remarkable struggle for the freedom and civil liberty Revolution concept -
of the people of Goa. (Trotsky se inspired)
• Lohia and other CSP members left the Congress in 1948.
▪ Thesis name –
• In 1952, He became a member of the Praja Socialist Party
- Salt and
and served as general secretary for a brief period, Satyagraha.
but internal conflicts led to his resignation in 1955.
• In 1956, he established a Socialist Party (Lohia), for which he became chairman as
well as the editor of its journal, Mankind.
• In 1965, he merged the Socialist Party (Lohia) into the ranks of the Samyukta
Socialist Party.
• In 1967, Lohia played an instrumental role in formation of the first non-Congress
government in Uttar Pradesh. This alliance was formed by Lohia and Bharatiya Jan
Sangh leader Nanaji Deshmukh
• He was opposed to capitalism, socialism and communism: (December 2019)
- These are based on centralized power which is not capable of bringing about a
radical alteration in society.

• Lohia’s Socialism: (Shift 2 2022)

- His conception of New socialism (1956) was founded on the six fundamental
elements.
- Lohia’s notion of socialism: 1. Small machines 2. Cooperative labour 3. Village
Govt 4. Decentralized planning.
• Idea of Saptkranti: the ideal of socialism. (December 2023)
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- Lohia identified five kinds of inequalities: based on gender, skin colour, caste,
colonial rule, economic
- Struggle against these inequalities and ensure civil liberties and Armament
control he constituted seven revolutions.
• Idea of Chaukhamba: Lohia’s concept of the four-pillar state is the manifestation of
decentralization of political and administrative power in the village, district, province
and the center level. (June 2023 Shift 2)
Main works:-

• Fragments of World Mind, 1949

• Wheel of History, 1955
• Guilty Men of India’s Partition, 1960
• Marx, Gandhi and Socialism, 1963 (June 2019) (Shift 2 2022) (December 2023)
• India, China and Northern Frontiers, 1963
• The Caste System, 1964

Jaya Prakash Narayan (1902 –1979)

• Born in Sitabdiara, Bihar.
• Popularly referred to as JP or Lok Nayak,
• JP was a Sarvodayi leader. (Shift 1 2022) KEYWORDS :-
• His biography, Jayaprakash, was written by his nationalist friend ▪ Total Revolution
and the writer of Hindi literature, Rambriksh Benipuri. (June 2019)
▪ Partyless
• In 1999, he was posthumously awarded the Bharat Ratna,
Democracy
in recognition of his social service. (December 2019)
• In 1965, awarded with the Magsaysay award for Public Service. ▪ Communitarian
• In 1929, he joined the Indian National Congress. Democracy
• In 1934, he took a leading part in the formation of the Congress ▪ Patna Speech 1974
Socialist Party between 1947 and 1953, he was the president of
▪ Sarvodaya.
All India Railwaymen's Federation (AIRF).
• In 1948, he together with most of the Congress Socialists, ▪ Antyodaya.
left the Congress Party.
• In 1952, formed the Praja Socialist Party.
• He announced in 1954 that he would thenceforth devote his life exclusively to
the Bhoodan Yajna Movement, founded by Vinoba Bhave in 1951.
• He believed in Cooperative farms run by Village Panchayats. (Shift 1 2022)
• In 1959, he argued for a “reconstruction of Indian polity” by means of a four-
tier hierarchy of village, district, state, and union councils.
• In 1974, the Nav Nirman Andolan of Gujrat asked Jayaprakash Narayan to lead a
peaceful agitation.
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• In 1974, Narayan led the Bihar Movement which was initiated by students. JP in his
famous speech demanded “Total Revolution” and later the Bihar Movement came
to be known as “Total Revolution”. (Shift 2 2021) (Shift 1 2022) (June 2023 Shift 1
and 2) (March 2023 Shift 1)
• On 25th June, 1975 Jayaprakash Narayan organized a rally as a mark of protest
against autocratic rule of Indira Gandhi at Ramlila ground and recited Ramdhari
Singh Dinkar's poetry: Singhasan Khaali Karo Ke Janata Aaati Hai.
• On 25th June, 1975 at midnight Prime Minister Indira Gandhi had a state of
emergency declared across the country.
• In 1977, the Janata Party (formed under JP's guidance), defeated congress in 1977
general election.
• Idea of Socialism: in 1946, in the article “My picture of Socialism” he emphasized
State’s role to be limited and to be democratized.
• Total revolution: he was against parliamentary system, electoral system, party
politics which led the concentration of power in one person’s hand.
- advocated mixed economy system and gave idea of “Sampattidan”.

• Plan of reconstruction of Indian Polity (June 2023 Shift 2)

• Politically, Sarvodaya sought to establish a truly decentralized democracy that went
beyond the democratic elitism of the West and ensured what JP called Panchayati
Raj or ‘Swaraj from below’.
• In Jayaprakash Narayan’s vision for Panchayati democracy under the idea of
Sarvodaya, the way local governance would work organically - is like this:
1. The basic unit is the Gram Sabha or Nagar Sabha, which is a gathering of all
adults in a village, town, or neighbourhood.
2. From this Gram/Nagar Sabha, two different systems of government are
formed at higher levels.
3. The first system is a three-tier local self-government. The Gram Sabha
indirectly chooses the Panchayat Samitis, which are assemblies representing
a group of villages. And these Panchayat Samitis indirectly choose the Zila
Parishads, which are district-level assemblies.
4. The second system of legislative institutions that comes from the
Gram/Nagar Sabha includes the Vidhan Sabha (state assembly) and Lok
Sabha (national parliament). These are elected through a three-step process.

Main works:-

• A Plea for reconstruction of Indian Polity (1959) (Shift 2 2022) (December 2023)
• Why Socialism (1963) (December 2019)
• Communitarian Society and Panchayati Raj (1970)
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• Prison Diary (1975-77)

• Towards Total Revolution (1978)

KEYWORDS :-
Deendayal Upadhyaya (1916-1968)
▪ Integral Humanism
• Born in Nagla Chandrabhan village in Mathura.
• He joined Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) in 1937. ▪ Cooperative
• In 1967, became the president of Jan Sangh. Federalism.
• His thesis on Integral Humanism, ▪ Rashtra Dharma.
given in a series of speeches in Bombay
▪ Chitti as (the Soul
from 22rd to 25th April, 1965.
of the Nation).
This was adopted in 1965 as the official doctrine of the Jan Sangh
and later on in the BJP. ▪ Jan Sangh.
• Integral humanism: (Shift 1 2022) (Shift 2 2022)
- Humankind had four attributes of body, mind, intellect and soul
which corresponded to four universal objectives, artha, kama, dharma, moksha.
- Capitalist and socialist ideologies only consider the needs of body and mind, but
dharma is the ‘basic’, and moksha the ‘ultimate’ objective of humankind and
society.
- Society was born as a natural living organism with a definitive ‘national soul’
(Chitti) and its needs of the social organism paralleled those of the individual.
• Idea of Economic Democracy: he says, “If a vote for everyone is the touch-stone of
political democracy, work for everyone is a measure of economic democracy.”
(Shift 2 2022)
• Idea of Hindu nation: according to him in India there exist only one culture and that
is Hindu.
Main works:-

• Rashtriya Jeevan ki Samasyaen or the Problem of National Life (1960)

• Ekatma Manavavad or Integral Humanism (1965)
• Rashtra Jeevan ki Disha or The direction of National Life (1971)
• Political Diary (1968)

Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833) KEYWORDS :-

• Born in an orthodox Brahman family at Radhanagar in Bengal. ▪ Monotheism

• Raja Ram Mohan Roy generally hailed as ▪ Universal Religion
“the father of Modern India” as he was
one of the makers of modern India. ▪ Sambad Kaumudi
▪ Brahmo Sabha
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• Roy in his modernist approach always tried to link

modernity with tradition as he was influenced by Upanishads
and also some features of Christianity. (Shift 1 2021)
• He believes in the concept of Universal Religion in which he talks about combining
the best features of the religions of the world as he believes in monotheism.
(Shift 1 2021)
• He tried to create the unique combination of secularism and spirituality of Western
and Eastern philosophy.
• From his comparative study of religions, he concluded three basic tenets of religions:
(i) belief in Supreme Being; (ii) belief in the existence of the soul; (iii) belief in life
after death.
• At the age of 16, he wrote a book challenging the validity of practice of ideo-worship;
which according to him was the root cause of many social evils.
• He fought against the superstitions of Hindu religion which had resulted in evolving
many inhuman and cruel customs and traditions in society.
• He also broke the superstition of travelling across the ocean which was considered
to be sin by Orthodox Hindus as he was first Hindu to travel across the ocean.
• Roy mainly started his public life in 1815 with the establishment of Atmiya Sabha in
Kolkata.
• This Sabha was a precursor to socio-religious reforms in Bengal; the members used
to debate and discuss on philosophical topics.
• In 1871, he founded Mahapathshala (Hindu College) at Kolkata along with
Radhakanta Deb and others.
• In 1821, he launched a Bengali weekly newspaper Sambad Kaumudi; which was the
first newspaper edited, published and managed by Indians.
• In 1822, he published a Persian news magazine titles Mirat-ul-Akbar.
• In 1828, he launched Brahmo Sabha with Devendranath Tagore, which was later
renamed as Brahmo Samaj.

Main works:-

• Brief Remarks Regarding Modern Encroachments on the Ancient Right of Females

(1822)
• The Percepts of Jesus- The Guide to Peace and Happiness (1820)
• The Universal Religion (1829)
• An Exposition of Revenue and Judicial System in India (1832)
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Jyotiba Phule (1827-1890) KEYWORDS :-

▪ Satyashodhak
• Jyotiba Phule an Indian Social Reformer and writer.
Samaj
• He was a champion of equal rights for all people.
• He fought for poor peasants and women. ▪ Gulamgiri
• In 1848 Phule was reportedly humiliated at the wedding of his friend. ▪ Widow
• His friend was Brahman so he was ordered to leave the wedding. Remarriage
• As he belonged to a Shudra caste.
• This incident is said to have helped open his eyes to the injustices of the caste
system.
• He was a strong critic of the Hindu caste system and deplored the discrimination
suffered by members of the so - called lower castes.
• He led a movement that called for the creation of a new social order in India, in
which no one would be subordinate to the upper-caste Brahmans.
• Phule also fought for women’s rights and believed that education was essential to
bringing about social change.
• He established schools for girls and for children of lower castes.
• Phule opened a pioneering school for lower-caste girls in Pune in 1848, a time when
it was extremely rare for girls of any caste in India to receive an education.
• He had educated his wife, Savitribai Phule, at home, and she became the teacher of
the girls’ school.
• Over the next few years, the Phules opened a series of schools in the Pune area for
girls and for lower-caste boys and girls.
• Their work met with great hostility from orthodox Brahmans.
• The Satyashodhak Samaj was founded by Jyotiba Phule in the Pune district of
Maharashtra, in 1873. (December 2023)
• Its objective was to improve the conditions of the depressed classes in Maharashtra
and to prevent their economic and social exploitation.

• This society also encouraged people to conduct weddings without Brahman priests.
• Phule did not believe that the Brahmans were naturally superior or that the division
of society into castes was a God-given system.
• He argued that the caste system was alien to India, having been introduced by the
Aryans to strengthen their dominance.
• Phule opposed child marriage and supported widow remarriage, which was
prohibited particularly among high-caste Hindus.
• He opened a home for widows, especially Brahmans, who had become pregnant and
an orphanage for their children.
• His best-known work is the book Gulamagiri (Slavery), published in 1873.
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• This work was an attack on India’s caste system, it compares the position of the
lower castes with those of black slaves in the United States.
• In 1888 Phule was honored with the title Mahatma, which means “Great Soul” in
Sanskrit. He died on November 28, 1890.
• Phule’s work and writings inspired later movements for caste reform in India,
including that of Dalit leader Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar.

• Main works:
• Gulamgiri (1873)
• Shetkaryacha Asud (1881)

- ALL BOOKS AND AUTHORS OF IPT-

PANDITA RAMABAI – TAGORE –
▪ Stri Dharm Niti (1882) ▪ Chokher Bali, 1903
▪ The cry of Indian Women (1883) ▪ Gitanjali (devotion of God), 1910
▪ The High Caste Hindu Women (1887) ▪ Gora (multifarious social life)1910
▪ The People Of United States (1889) ▪ The Post Office (1912)
▪ Sadhna (realization of life), 1913
BAL GANGADHAR TILAK – ▪ Ghare Baire (deeper meaning of life),1916
▪ Stay Birds (1916)
▪ The Orion (1893) ▪ Nationalism (1917)
▪ The Arctic Home in Vedas (1903)
▪ Geeta Rahashya (1915) AUROBINDO –
▪ Vedic Chronology And Vedanga Jyotisha
▪ The Ideal Human Unity (1918)
(1925)
▪ The Life Divine (1919)
▪ The Hindu Philosophy of Life, Ethics and
▪ The Renaissance in India (1920)
Religion (1965)
▪ Essays on The Gita (1922)
▪ "The Mother" (1928)
NEHRU – –
VIVEKANADA
▪ Savitri: A Legend and a Symbol (1940)
▪▪ Raja yoga (1896) ▪ The Synthesis of Yoga (1948)
Letters from a Father to His Daughter(1929)
▪▪ Karma yoga (1896) ▪ Love and Death (1948)
Glimpses of the World History (1934) MN ROY –
▪▪ Lectures from Colombo ▪ The Human Cycle (1949)
An Autobiography (1936)to Almora (1897)
▪▪ Jnana yogathe
(1899) ▪ Hymns
India inof Mystic Fire
transition (1952)
(1922)
India and World (1936)
▪▪ My Master (1901) ▪ The Future Poetry (1953)
future of Indian Politics (1929)
China, Spain and the War; essays and
▪ The Upanishads
Historical Role of(1981)
Islam (1939)
writings (1940)
▪ Letters on yoga (letters written
From Savagery to Civilization in 1930s,
(1940)
▪ The unity of India (1941)
collected
▪ Poverty in three
and volumes)
Plenty (1944)
▪ The Discovery of India (1946)
(1946) –
MK GANDHI ▪ The Integraland
Revolution YogaCounter Revolution in China
▪ India Rediscovered
▪▪ Letters for a or
Nation (1947) ▪ New OrientationPERIYAR(1946) –
Hind Swaraj Indian Home Rule (1909)
▪▪ Independence and After: A Collection of ▪ Beyond Communism (1947)
The story of my experiments with truth ▪▪ Kudi
Speeches, 1946-1949 (1949) New Arasu (Tamil weekly),
Humanism-A 1925
Manifesto (1947)
(1929) ▪▪ Revolt (English journal), 1928
Reason Romanticism and Revolution (1952)
▪▪ Key
Nehru
to on world
health history (1960)
(1948)
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- ALL BOOKS AND AUTHORS OF IPT-

IQBAL – Dr. BR AMBEDKAR –

Prose books in English:- ▪ Castes in India: Their Mechanism, Genesis and
▪ The Development of Metaphysics in Persia Development (1916)
(1908) ▪ The Problem of the Rupee: its origin and its
▪ The Reconstruction of Religious thought in solution (1923)
Islam (1930) ▪ The Annihilation of Caste (1936)
Poetic books in Persian:- ▪ Federation Versus Freedom (1939)
▪ Asrar-i-Khudi (1915) ▪ Thoughts on Pakistan (1940)
▪ Rumuz-i-Bekhudi (1917) ▪ Ranade, Gandhi and Jinnah (1943)
▪ Payam-i-Mashriq (1923) ▪ Mr. Gandhi and Emancipation of
▪ Zabur-i-Ajam (1927) Untouchables (1943)
▪ Javid Nama (1932) ▪ What Congress and Gandhi have done to the
▪ Pas ched bayed kard ai aqwam-e-sharq Untouchables (1945)
(1936) ▪ Pakistan Or Partition Of India (1945)
Armughan-e-Hijaz (1938) ▪ State and Minorities (1947)
Books in urdu:- ▪ Who were the Shudras (1948)
▪ Ilm ul Iqtisad (Urdu), (1903) ▪ Maharashtra as a Linguistic Province (1948)
▪ Bang-i-Dara (1924) ▪ The Untouchables (1948)
▪ Bal-i-JIbril (1935) ▪ Buddha Or Karl Marx (1956)
▪ Zarb-i-Kalim (1936) ▪ The Buddha and his Dhamma (1957)
▪ Gandhi and Gandhism (1970)
VD SAVARKAR – ▪ Riddles in Hinduism (2008)
▪ Manu and the Shudras
▪ The Indian War of Independence: 1857
(1909) RAM MANOHAR LOHIA –
▪ Essentials Of Hindutva (1923) ▪ Fragments of World Mind, 1949
▪ Hindu-pad-Padshahi : A review of the Hindu ▪ Wheel of History, 1955
empire of Maharashtra (1925) ▪ Guilty Men of India’s Partition, 1960
▪ Hindu Rashtra Darshan (1949) ▪ Marx, Gandhi and Socialism, 1963
▪ Six Glorious Epochs of Indian History (1963) ▪ India, China and Northern Frontiers, 1963
▪ The Caste System, 1964
DD UPADHYAYA –
JP NARAYAN –
▪ Rashtriya Jeevan ki Samasyaen or the
Problem of National Life (1960) ▪ A Plea for reconstruction of Indian Polity
▪ Ekatma Manavavad or Integral Humanism ▪ Why Socialism (1963)
(1965) ▪ Communitarian Society and Panchayati Raj
▪ Rashtra Jeevan ki Disha (1971) (1970)
▪ Political Diary (1968) ▪ Prison Diary (1975-77)
▪ Towards Total Revolution (1978)

RAJA RAMMOHAN ROY –

▪ Brief Remarks Regarding Modern Encroachments on the Ancient Right of Females (1822)
▪ The Percepts of Jesus- The Guide to Peace and Happiness (1820)
▪ The Universal Religion (1829) ▪ An Exposition of Revenue and Judicial System in India (1832)
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UNIT 4 – COMPARATIVE POLITICS

Approaches To Comparative Politics

o (i) Institutional Approach –

o Definition – It is an approach to the study of Comparative politics and
government that focuses on the structure and dynamics of the working
Institutions.
• Early Period :- Origins of Institutional Approach
o Aristotle was first who conducted the oldest comparative study of
governments.
o Aristotle compared Constitutions and Practices in Greek city-states vs the
politics in the so-called ‘Barbarian’ states.
o Aristotle compared total = 158 constitutions.
• 19th and 20th Century :- Comparative Government Approach
o In the late 19th century and early 20th century – thinkers like Bryce, Lowell and
Ostrogorski’s works changed the scope and approach of Institutional
approach.
o Jean Blondel said, Bryce and Lowell were the True founders of Comparative
Government Approach.
o Main Points – Comparative Govt. approach focused on – Study of Formal
Institutional structures with emphasis on their legal powers and functions.
o Main Thinkers of Comparative Government Approach –
Thinker Books

Bryce The American Commonwealth (1888)

Modern Democracies (1921) (PYQ
2019)

Lowell Governments and Parties in

Continental Europe (1896)
Public Opinion and Popular
Government (1913) (PYQ 2019)

Ostrogorski Democracy and The Organisation of

Political Parties (1902)

Herman Finer Theory and Practice of Modern

Government (1932)
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Carl Friedrich Constitutional Government and

Democracy (1932) (PYQ 2019)

o Criticism of Institutional Approach –

o (i) It is Ethnocentric (concentrated on European democracies)
o (ii) It is Prescriptive and Normative in nature
o (iii) It is Historical without being analytical

o (ii) Neo-institutionalism –
o Definition – It is a revival of institutionalism that goes beyond the limits of
previous theory.
o Focus on – Neo-institutionalism goes beyond the formal study of institutions
and government – it focuses on how both Institutions and Individual actors
shape political decisions
o When and Where did Neo-institutionalism originate from?
▪ In the 1980s from USA.
o Who are the thinkers of Neo-institutional approach?
▪ James G March and Johann P Olsen
o What are the Books written by March and Olsen?
▪ 1. The New Institutionalism: Organizational Factors in Political Life
(1984)
▪ 2. Rediscovering Institutions: The Organizational Basis of Politics
(1989)
▪ 3. Democratic Governance (1995)

o How many branches of Neo-institutionalism is there?

▪ Three Branches :-
▪ 1. Historical Institutionalism
▪ 2. Sociological Institutionalism
▪ 3. Rational Choice Approach (PYQ 2022)

New Institutionalism
• New Institutionalism is an approach in comparative politics that emphasizes the
constraining and enabling effects of formal and informal rules on the behaviour of
individuals and groups.
• It emerged in the 1980s, reinforcing the focus on institutions and their practices across
states. The approach examines how institutions vary between states and the effect
that different institutional practices have on the outcomes of political processes in
different societies.
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• New Institutionalism traditionally encompasses various major strands: sociological

institutionalism, rational choice institutionalism, Discursive Institutionalism and
historical institutionalism.
FOUR TYPES OF NEW – INSTITUTIONALISM
1. Rational Choice Institutionalism: Assumes that individuals are rational actors who
make decisions based on cost-benefit analyses within the constraints of institutional
rules. Can Explain How Rational Actors pursue their preferences in institutions through
‘Logic of Calculation’.
Thinkers- Olsen, North, Levi, Rothstein
2. Historical Institutionalism: Emphasizes the role of historical processes and events in
shaping institutions and their effects on political behaviour. Can Explain how Regular
Patterns and Routines are formed from intentional decisions and specific historical
circumstances through ‘Logic of Path-dependency’.
Thinkers- Blyth, Vargwese, Kathleen Thelen, Wolfgang Streeck
3. Sociological Institutionalism: Focuses on the role of norms, values, and culture in
shaping institutional practices. Can Explain how Political institutions are shaped by
Cultural Norms and Frames Through ‘Logic of Appropriateness’
Thinkers- James March, Johan Olsen, Katzenstein, Meyer, Rowan, DiMaggio, Powell.
4. Discursive Institutionalism: Explain how Ideas and Discourse shape Political Action in
institutional context through ‘Logic of Communication’.
Thinkers- John L. Campbell, Ove K. Pedersen, Vivien A. Schmidt, Peter Kjaer

Thoughts of various thinkers. (June 2023 Shift 2)

A. “Critique of Rational Choice Institutionalism’s Advocacy of Universal Generalization”
(2004) – by Fritz W. Scharpf.
What is F.W. Scharpf’s criticism against Rational Choice Institutionalism?
While Rational Choice theory is effective at capturing typical reasons for behaviour, it
struggles in two aspects-
• Firstly, it fails to explain exceptions or irregularities in situations that deviate
significantly from interest-driven actions.
• Secondly, over-generalization is also an issue with Rational Choice Institutionalism
because it aims for giving universal explanations.
What is the Solution that F.W. Scharpf gives?
On the other hand, Scharpf gives us the ‘Actor-Cantered institutionalism’ approach. This
theory avoids these “universal generalizing” problems by employing 'bounded
generalizations' to explain policy outcomes through factors like problems, policy legacies,
actors' attributes, and institutional interactions in specific cases, not universalizing all cases.
B. “Study of institutional change in skill regimes in Britain, Germany, Japan and the US”
(2004) – by Kathleen Thelen.
Critics of Historical Institutionalism school such argue that -
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(1) Historical Institutionalism may seem too focused on Historical determinism or Mechanistic
thinking because it emphasizes continuities and assumes that change happens only in sudden
bursts, with periods of little to no change in between.
(2) Historical Institutionalism give a lot of emphasis to structures, and they fail to take into
account the factor of human agency in institutions.
What is the Solution to these 2 problems?
1. To Correct the first problem, scholars like Kathleen Thelen and Wolfgang Streeck have
focused on the process of Incremental changes in institutions. They suggest that
gradual changes can be more transformative than abrupt ones in institutions.
2. To Correct the second problem, Kathleen Thelen conducts a mixed research study –
where she combines elements of Historical institutionalism with Rational choice
institutionalism (How Historical Structures + shape Actors’ Interests)
• Kathleen Thelen explores how skills systems changed in countries like Britain,
Germany, Japan, and the United States. Instead of only looking at historical patterns,
she uses rationalist explanations that center around ongoing negotiations between
different political groups and conflicts.
• These interactions lead to changes in the systems through a process of layering
(adding new elements) and conversion (changing existing elements). In other words,
Thelen studies how political groups working together, or clashing can bring about
changes in the way skills systems function in these countries.
C. “Origins of sociological institutionalism” (1977) – by Meyer and Rowan.
The very first origins of Sociological institutionalism can be traced back to the writings of two
organizational theorists- John W. Meyer and Brian Rowan’s work “Institutionalized
Organizations: Formal Structure as Myth and Ceremony” in 1977.
D. “Discursive institutionalism” – Campbell & Pederson.
Discursive institutionalism considers the ideas and discourse that actors use to devise,
deliberate, and/or legitimize political action in institutional context-whether seen as incentive
structures, regularized practices, or social constructions- according to a ‘Logic of
Communication’ (the organized patterns and rules that guide how ideas are shared among
individuals within institutions).
Thinkers of Discursive institutionalism – John L. Campbell, Ove K. Pedersen, Vivien A. Schmidt,
Peter Kjaer.

o (iii) Political Economy Approach –

o Definition – Pol Economy Approach refers to understanding our social and
political phenomenon where – economics and politics are not seen as separate
domains.
o Focus on – The way to Political ‘Development’ is the key common problem.
This approach looks at how economic forces combine with polity – and how
this creates a hierarchy of nations at the world level.
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o Main Thinkers – who contributed to Political Economy’s Evolution :-

o Adam Smith – considered as the father of Modern Political Economy.
o Book “Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations”
(1776).
o He gave Labour Theory of Value,
o He gave Theory of Invisible Hand – Supply and Demand.
o David Ricardo –
o Ricardo gave the theory Comparative Advantage.
o Karl Marx – Karl Marx never defined Political Economy but Engels did.
o Karl Marx himself never developed a theory on Political Economy, but
he wrote “Critique of Political Economy” where he criticized Adam
Smith.
o Lenin –
o Lenin regarded Imperialism as the Highest Stage of Capitalism.
o Imperialism for Lenin was synonymous with Monopoly Capitalism.

o Main Subjects- where Impact of Pol Economy is studied in Comparative

Politics –
o (1) . Impact of Modernization Theory –
o Focus of Modernization Theory was to bring the newly independent
‘Third-world’ states to ‘First-world’ standards.
o The tool of Modernization for them was – through ‘Political
Development.’
o Main Thinker – Modernization Theory – W.W. Rostow →
o Book – The Stages of Economic Growth : A Non-Communist Manifesto
(1960)
o 5 Stages of Economic Growth by W.W. Rostow =
o 1. Traditional stage → 2. Precondition for take-off → 3. Take-off →
4. Drive to Maturity → 5. High Mass Consumption (June 2023 Shift 1)

o (2) . Impact of Dependency Theory –

o Focus of Dependency Theory as a critique of Modernization Theory.
o Main Thinkers of Dependency Theory is – AG Frank, Prebisch, Singer,
Samir Amin, Paul Baran, Paul Sweezy, Cardoso, Furtado, Sunkel, Dos
Santos.
o AG Frank – concept – Development As Underdevelopment.
(PYQ 2021)
o Samir Amin – concept – Theory of Unequal Exchange.
o Dos Santos – concept – New Dependency.
o Cardoso – Dependency and Development.
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o Paul Baran and Paul Sweezy – Dependency and Imperialism.

o Singer and Prebisch – Terms-of-Trade (ToT) Thesis.
o Immanuel Wallerstein – World Systems Theory.

o (iv) Political Culture –

o Definition – Political Culture is a set of beliefs, values, norms and assumptions
concerning the ways on how government, politics and economic life is being
carried out or should to be carried out. (March 2023 Shift 1)
o Focus on – Political beliefs and values, Political Symbols, Political Action,
Orientations etc. (PYQ 2021)
Converse and Robinson principle (June 2023 Shift 2)

In Comparative Politics, there are certain principles which are important for understanding
how political culture works. They help us to understand how people's attitudes are related to
each other, and how those attitudes may differ at the aggregate and individual levels.
By comparing the values of people in different countries, we can learn about the different
political cultures that exist around the world. This information can be used to understand why
countries have different political systems and why they make different political decisions.
Two such principles are: Converse principle and Robinson's principle.
A. Converse principle: It states that there is a high correlation between different value
orientations. This means that people who have similar views on one political issue are likely
to have similar views on other political issues. For example, people who believe in democracy
are also likely to believe in individual rights and limited government.
B. Robinson's principle: It states that macro values may deviate from micro values. This
means that the values that people express at the aggregate level (e.g., the national level) may
not be the same as the values that people express at the individual level. For example, a
survey may find that a majority of people in a country support democracy, but when you look
at individual respondents, you may find that many people have contradictory views about
democracy.

o Main Thinkers –
o 1. Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba in 1963 defined Pol. Culture as –
“Political Orientations and Attitudes towards the Political System.”
o Almond and Verba in 1963 identified 5 important dimension of Pol. Culture
:-
▪ 1. A sense of National identity.
▪ 2. Attitude towards one’s-self – as a participant in political life.
▪ 3. Attitude towards one’s – fellow citizens.
▪ 4. Attitudes and Expectations from government output and
performance.
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▪ 5. Attitudes towards Knowledge about Political process of decision

making.
o Book – The Civic Culture (1963) – by Almond and Verba.
o Almond and Verba conducted a survey of 5 countries during 1959-60 :-
o Survey of :- USA, United Kingdom, West Germany, Italy, and Mexico.
o There are Three Broad Types of Political Culture acc. To Almond & Verba :-
▪ Parochial Culture = 0 % participation
▪ Subject Culture = 50 % participation
▪ Participant Culture = 100 % participation
Participatory Culture USA, Switzerland; Scandinavian countries like Finland,
Norway, Sweden, Denmark etc.

Subject Culture China.

Parochial Culture Uganda, Cuba, Libya, North Korea.

Homogenous Culture United Kingdom. (PYQ 2019)

Subject Participatory Erstwhile Communist Countries of USSR.

Culture

Elite Mass Culture India

• Acc. to Almond & Powell –

There are 3 types of Political Orientation –
o Cognitive Orientation
o Affective Orientation
o Evaluative Orientation (PYQ 2022)

David Easton - Systems Approach

• System Analysis approach started in the 1950s.

• David Easton in his book – The Political System (1953) defined Political System.
• Who inspired David Easton?
o Ludwig von Bertalanffy - General Systems Theory inspired David Easton’s
System Theory.
• What is Political System?
o A Political system is that system of interaction in any society through which
binding or authoritative allocations are made.
• David Easton’s – Systems Approach –
• Main Points :-
o It has two main components – Inputs and Outputs
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▪ Input consists of – Demand and Support – the Needs

▪ (demands are the needs that are brought by citizens infront of their
government and support is the belief system citizens have towards the
political system).
↓
It has a Political System – which acts as a “Gatekeeper” – it filters out
what are valid demands and what are invalid demands made by
citizens.
↓
▪ Output consists of – Decisions and Actions – the Policies
▪ (the laws, the rules and regulations that the government brings out as
a result of these inputs result into policies as outputs).
o This whole process goes on in a loop, as demand comes in the form of Input -
> goes into the Political System, gets filtered -> Output is generated as policies
-> this generates a positive/negative Feedback which goes into the
“Environment” -> this feedback system connects the Output to Input and then
a new set of demands generate in as a result of this process. Hence, it is also
called “Cyclic-model”.

Figure : David Easton’s Political System

• Features of David Easton’s System Approach :-

o Values are authoritatively allocated – meaning decisions of those who are in
power, are binding in nature. (PYQ 2018)
o Political System is Dynamic .
o Political System is Open and Adaptive .
o Political System is also known as “Cyclical Model / Loop Model .”
o Political System is the Unit Level of Analysis for David Easton .
o It focuses on intra-system behaviour (within a system) behaviour .
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Almond & Powell - Structural Functionalism

• Gabriel Almond and Bingham Powell introduced Structural Functional approach.

• They argued in order to understand a political system it is necessary to understand
not only the institutions, the structures but also their respective functions.
• Who inspired Almond?
o Max Weber and Talcott Parson inspired Gabriel Almond.
• Gabriel Almond in his book “The Politics of Developing Areas” (1960) defined
Structural-functional approach :-
o All political systems have a structure, and these structures perform their
respective functions, with different degrees in different political systems.
o Almond includes 4 Input functions and 3 output functions – (PYQ 2019)
▪ Input Functions :- (March 2023 Shift 1)
▪ 1. Political Socialisation and Recruitment (through Family, Peer Groups)
▪ 2. Interest Articulation (through Interest Groups)
▪ 3. Interest Aggregation (through Political Parties)
▪ 4. Political Communication (through Media)
↓
Political System
↓
▪ Output Functions :- (March 2023 Shift 1)
▪ 1. Rule Making (Legislature)
▪ 2. Rule Application (Executive)
▪ 3. Rule Adjudication (Judiciary)
• Almond’s Structural-functional Model is also Cyclic, Open and Continuous.
• MAJOR DIFFERENCE between Easton and Almond’s Model is :-
o There is NO FEEDBACK in Almond’s Structural-Functional Model.

Pressure Groups, Interest Groups –

• What is a Pressure Group?

o Pressure Group is – are forms of organisations, which exert pressure on the
political or administrative system of a country to extract benefits out of it and
to advance their own interests.
o Examples of Pressure Group - RSS, Jamaat-e-Islami, VHP, Indian Medical
Association (IMA), Bar Council of India (BCI), CII, FICCI, Bharatiya Kisan Union,
All India Kisan Sabha etc.
o Finer has characterized Pressure Groups as an “Anonymous Empire”.
o Richard D Lambert views Pressure Groups as the “Unofficial Govt”.
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• What is an Interest Group?

o Interest Groups are – bodies which aims to influence policy from outside the
formal structures of government. They do this with a combination of direct
pressure on government and direct pressure via. Media and public opinion.
o Examples of Interest Group - Amnesty International, Organization for Women
(NOW), National Rifle Association (NRA) etc.

• Neumann has pointed out DIFFERENCE between – Pressure Groups vs Political

Parties –

Pressure Groups – Political Parties –

Pressure Groups – HOMOGENOUS Political Parties Groups – HETEROGENOUS

INTERESTS. INTERESTS.

Pressure Groups seek for – Influence. Political Parties seek for – Power.

Pressure Groups have – Short-term Political Parties have – Long-term interests.

interests

• Who said about Pseudo – Pressure Groups?

o Maurice Duverger said on – Pseudo Pressure Groups.
o According to Duverger, MEDIA is example of Pseudo-Pressure Group.
• Duverger’s classification of 3 Types of Pressure Groups –
▪ 1. Exclusive Groups (those who put pressure on political system)
▪ 2. Partial Groups (those who promote their interests but do not put
pressure tactics as their method)
▪ 3. Pseudo pressure groups (like Media who put pressure politics not
for themselves but for others with a Monetary motive in consideration)
• Jean Blondel’s classification of 2 Types of Interest Groups –
▪ 1. Community Interest Groups
▪ 2. Associational Interest Groups
• Almond and Powell’s Four Types of Interest Groups –
▪ 1. Institutional Interest Groups (like UPSC)
▪ 2. Associational Interest Groups (like AITUC, Indian Chamber of
Commerce)
▪ 3. Anomic Interest Groups (Riots, Demonstrations)
▪ 4. Non-Associational Interest Groups (Family, Religious Heads, Caste
Groups)
Correct Order :- Institutional → Associational → Anomic → Non-Associational
(IAAN). (PYQ 2021)
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• What is Lobbying?
o Lobbying is – practice of members of certain pressure groups who loiter
outside in the lobbies of Legislatures in order to influence Lawmakers to
further their interests
o While Pressure Groups are organized groups, Lobbying is just a influencing
process.
o Pressure Groups and Lobbying is not the same thing.
o The process of Revolving Door Lobbying is seen in USA politics.
• What is Protective Group?
o It is an Interest Group that seeks selective benefits for its own members. Its
membership is restricted and enjoys insider status with relevant govt.
departments
• What is Promotional Group?
o It is an Interest Group that promotes wider issues and promotes a certain
cause. Its membership is open to public and its benefits go for both members
and non-members.

• What is Peak Association?

o It is an umbrella organization representing the interests of a business group or
labour group infront of the government. For example – the Federal
Organization of German Employers, Confederation of British Industry in UK –
are peak associations
• What is Think-tank?
o It is a type of Interest group that conducts Research into a given area of policy
with the goal of engaging that issue into a public debate and bring political
change.
For example – ORF, IDSA, CPPR, NITI AAYOG etc.

3 Waves of Democratization by Huntington

• What is Democratization?
o Samuel P. Huntington gave this idea in his book ‘Third Wave: Democratization
in the Late Twentieth Century’ (1991). (PYQ 2019)
o “A wave of democratization is a group of transitions from nondemocratic to
democratic regimes that occur within a specified period of time and that
significantly outnumber transitions in the opposite directions during that
period of time”

• 3 Waves of Democratization –
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• First Wave (1828-1926): (December 2023)

o Gradual emergence of liberal democracies in 1st world
o Industrial Revolution, modernization and rise of nation state
o North America, UK and Western Europe
o 29 Democracies
o Ended with rise of fascism in 1920s
o Reverse wave: fascism, great depression, WWII
o Only 12 democracies left by 1942
• Second Wave (1943-1962):
o Post-WWII era, restoration of democracies in defeated dictatorship;
West Germany, Japan and Italy
o In many European countries democracies were introduced by Allied powers
led by USA (Marshall Plan)
o Decolonialization produced many democracies: India, Sri-Lanka, Ghana and
Indonesia
o Ended during 1960s; Many nations revered to authoritarian rule
o Greece, Latin America: Brazil, Argentina, Peru, Mexico
o Also in several new democracies, single party rule dominated national
politics.
o For example :- Congress in India, Christian democrats in Italy, LDP in Japan
and Labour in Israel (PYQ 2019)
• Third Wave (1974-2000):
o Main elements:
o The end of rightwing dictatorships in South Europe (Greece, Portugal and
Spain) in the 1970s
o The retreat of generals in much of Latin America in the 1980s
o Collapse of USSR at the end of 1980s
o Started in 1974 in Portugal, followed in Greece and Spain, spread to Eastern
Europe, then to Latin America, Africa and Asia
o 28% (1974) to 61% (1998) nations adopted democracy
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Colonialism, Imperialism, De-colonization, Neo-Colonialism, Post-Colonialism.

• What is Colonialism?
o Colonialism is a practice of Domination – which involves the subjugation of
one people to another.
o Colonialism involves the Transfer of Population to a new territory, where the
arrival of this new population is as a Permanent Settler – while still maintaining
allegiance (loyalty) to their country of origin.
o For example – the British Permanent Settlers who came to colonize India were
still loyal to the Crown and their country of origin.
• Colonialism – 12 types of colonialism by Nancy Shoemaker (June 2023 Shift 1)
• Nancy Shoemaker, a professor of history at the University of Connecticut, has
proposed a typology of colonialisation.
• She defines colonialism as foreign intrusion or domination and distinguishes
colonialisms mainly by colonizer’s motivations.
• Her most recent book is “Native American Whalemen and the World: Indigenous
Encounters and the Contingency of Race” (2015)
• She talks about 12 types of colonialisation:
• Settler Colonialism
• Planter Colonialism
• Extractive Colonialism (June 2023 Shift 1)
• Trade Colonialism (June 2023 Shift 1)
• Transport Colonialism
• Imperial Power Colonialism
• Not-in-My-Backyard Colonialism
• Legal Colonialism (June 2023 Shift 1)
• Rogue Colonialism
• Missionary Colonialism
• Romantic Colonialism
• Postcolonial Colonialism

• Difference between Imperialism and Colonialism –

Colonialism Imperialism

- Here, there is Geographical Control (Rule). - Here, there is No Geographical Control .

- In Colonialism, focus is Physical Takeover of - In Imperialism, focus is on Power

Nations and their Resources. Projection and not on Physical Takeover of
resources.
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- Permanent Settlement of people is - Economic & Political domination from afar.

involved.

- Examples of Colonialism are the takeover - Examples of Imperialism are The Scramble
of India, Australia, Southern, and Central for Africa in the 19th Century by the
Africa by the British; and Western and European Powers of Belgium, Britain,
North Africa by the French. France, Germany etc.

• What is Anti-Colonialism?
o Anticolonialism is a term used to describe the various resistance movements
directed against colonial and imperial powers.
o The ideas associated with anticolonialism are –
Justice, Equality, and Self-determination.

• 3 Stages of Anti-Colonialism –
o Proto-Nationalism → Rise of New Leadership → Mass Movements
o 1. Proto-Nationalism – (phase of Anti-colonial struggle during Bankim
Chandra, Dadabhai Naoroji, Gokhale, Ranade).
o 2. Rise of New Leadership – (phase of Anti-colonial struggle during Aurobindo,
Bhagat Singh, Netaji, Savarkar).
o 3. Mass Movements – (phase of Anti-colonial struggle during Non-Cooperation
Movement, Civil Disobedience Movement, Quit India Movement led by
Gandhi).
• What is De-colonization?
o De-colonization is a process by which colonies become independent of the
colonizing country.
o The League of Nations was the first international body to take steps on
Decolonization.
o Example - In 1776, the 13 colonies of British America declared their
independence and later formed the United States of America. In 1947, The
British Raj leaves and India gains Independence.
• What is Neo-colonialism?
o Neo-colonialism is the control of less-developed countries by the developed
countries through indirect means such as economic exploitation and
promotion of capitalism.
o Economic Exploitation through – MNCs from Developed Countries who exploit
cheap labour and raw materials from the Least Developed Countries.
o Dependency on Developed countries – Developing nations are dependent on
foreign aid by the developed nations.
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o This is highlighted by Dependency School thinkers – Core economies exploiting

Periphery economies.
o Main Thinker – Kwame Nkrumah – Neo-Colonialism : The Last Stage of
Capitalism (PYQ 2022)
• What is Post-Colonialism?
o Post-colonialism is the phase of Aftermath of Western Colonialism.
o Post-colonialism refers to reclaiming, rethinking and overcoming colonialism.
o The field of Postcolonial studies was influenced by Edward Said’s book
Orientalism.
o Main Thinker – Post-colonialism – Edward Said.
o Books – Orientalism (1978), Culture and Imperialism (1993) by Edward Said.

Nationalism –

• What is Nationalism?
o Definition – Nationalism can be defined as sense of commonality i.e., a sense
of having common language, common culture, common religion, common
history, common homeland and common ancestors.
• Nationalism - Eric Hobsbawm’s theory of nationalism in Europe
• The Marxist historian, Eric Hobsbawm highlighted the extent to which nations are
based on "Invention of Traditions"(June 2023 Shift 2).
• Hobsbawm argued that a belief in the idea of a continuous history and pure culture is
a myth, and this myth has been created by the idea of nationalism itself.
• Eric Hobsbawm's theory, as in "Invention of Traditions," posits that nations construct
or "invent" their traditions to forge modern identities i.e. Nation and nationalism are
products of social engineering.
• These traditions are often recent creations used to unify diverse populations. Elite-
driven and rooted in industrialization, they involve standardized culture and history
narratives.
• These artificially constructed traditions help maintain national cohesion and identity,
challenging the notion that nations possess deep historical roots.
• Hobsbawm's theory underscores how political elites manipulate culture to serve the
interests of modern nation-states, contributing to a more critical understanding of
nationalism as a product of deliberate construction rather than organic, historical
evolution.
• The petty bourgeoisie were often the driving force behind separatist nationalism in
Europe for a number of factors –
• They were often excluded from political power. (June 2023 Shift 2) In many European
countries, the merchant class was not allowed to participate in government. This was
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because they were not considered to be part of the traditional ruling class. As a result,
they felt that they had no say in how their countries were run.
• They were also often taxed very heavily. The merchant class was often taxed heavily
by the government. This was because they were seen as being wealthy. The high taxes
made it difficult for merchants to do business and to grow their businesses.
• And they wanted to promote free trade for their own benefit. The merchant class
wanted to be able to trade freely with other countries. However, many European
countries had restrictions on trade. These restrictions made it difficult for merchants
to do business and to grow their businesses.
• These were the reasons why Petty bourgeoisie became a driving force behind many
of the Revolutions in the form of Separatist Nationalism that took place in Europe in
the 18th and 19th centuries.

• THEORIES OF NATIONALISM AND ITS MAIN THINKERS –

o 1. Tom Nairn and ‘Uneven Development’ –

o He explains in his book The Break-up of Britain: Crisis and Neo-Nationalism
(1981) how nationalism emerges in colonial societies
o He was inspired from dependency theory thinkers like Andre Gunder Frank,
Samir Amin and Immanuel Wallerstein.
o He points out that capitalism was supposed to bring progress in world
o But capitalist development was uneven at world level
o Some industrialized countries grew at such level that they dominated other
backward countries
o Elite leaders of backward countries convinced masses that such dominance in
name of progress need to be tackled
o Leaders told their masses, even they wanted school, factories, parliament, so
they had to copy their ruler but they had to rejected the direct intervention
and dominance
o In short, according to Nairn nationalism emerged in the form of anti-
imperialist struggle which was a result of uneven development

o 2. Paul R. Brass and Instrumentalism –

o Instrumentalists hold that ethnic and national identities are convenient tools
at the hands of competing elite groups for generating mass support in the
universal struggle for wealth, power and prestige
o Paul R. Brass in his book Ethnicity and Nationalism: Theory and comparison
(1991)
o Brass was against the idea that rise of ethnic identities are inevitable which
ultimately transform into nationalism
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o He asserts that ethnic identities are manipulated and created by Political

elites of country
o Ethnic conflict does not arise because of cultural differences but because of
political and economic conditions
o Such conditions lead to competition between elite groups for power and
prestige
o This competition defines and redefines the relevant ethnic group and its
persistence
o Two separate nations state in the Indian subcontinent was result of this elite
competition

o 3. Eric J. Hobsbawm and ‘Invention of Traditions’ –

o He is a Marxist historian, writes his famous book The Invention of Tradition
(1983)
o Nation and nationalism are product of social engineering
o Hobsbawm argued that governments for inculcating the sense of national
identity innovate tradition which is actually had a relatively shallow history.
o Earlier people were loyal to the ruler/ monarchy, but since the emergence of
mass politics particularly from the period of 1870 to 1914
o The new rulers found it difficult to maintain the obedience, loyalty and
cooperation of subjects (citizen)
o Invention of tradition was the strategy adopted by ruling elites to counter the
threat posed by mass democracy
o Three major innovations: development of primary education, the invention of
public ceremonies and the mass production of public monuments

o 4. Ernest Gellner and ‘High Culture’ –

o He gives the idea of nationalism in his book Nation and Nationalism (1983)
(PYQ 2019)
o Previous societies, Agro-literate societies, were based on culture diversity.
There was no need of culture homogenization for ruler to control his subject
and thus there was no nation
o In industrial societies, shared culture plays very important role.
o This shared culture is defined as ‘high culture’ by Gellner
o To run the industrial societies, high culture is needed. Specialized knowledge
and skills are needed, such societies can’t survive on manual labor
o This is why such societies develop high culture, a culture of merit, equality
and mobility.
o Nationalism is nothing but imposition of this high culture on society

o 5. Benedict Anderson and ‘Imagined Communities’ –

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o He describes nation as ‘imagined communities’ in his popular book –

Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism
(1983)
o A nation ‘is imagined because the members of even the smallest nation will
never know most of their fellow-members, meet them, or even hear of them,
yet in the minds of each lives the image of their communion’ creation of
imagined communities became possible because of ‘print capitalism’.
o Capitalist entrepreneurs printed their books and media in the vernacular
(instead of exclusive script languages, such as Latin) in order to maximize
circulation.

o 6. Partha Chatterjee and ‘Derivative discourse’ –

o He gave the idea of nationalism in his book – Nationalist Thought and
Colonial World: A Derivative Discourse (1986)
o He argues that India after 1947, kept British ideologies and practices
unbroken
o It is because Indian nationalist thought was borrowed from western ideas
o Nationalism in India was a ‘derivative discourse’ from the west i.e., taken
from west
o Even he questions the idea of imagined community in case of postcolonial
societies
o In his essay Whose Imagined Community (1996), he explains how west had
been defining the character of our anticolonial struggle. Even our imagination
is colonized.

Party Systems –
• Party system is a system of system, it not only emphasizes upon the motives, agendas and
interest of the Political Parties but it also highlights the relation of people towards political
parties and their set of interests.

• A Party system represents the whole political spectrum in which the present configuration
of political parties are the constituent units.

• Types of Party System –

o There are Five Major types of Party System which have significant variations
in the arrangement, characteristics and way of representation :-
No. Type of Party System Features and Examples of Party System
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1 No-Party System • Party system where there is no legal

framework for party functioning.
• Parties in this system have no authority to
compete.
• Examples - Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia.

2 Single-Party System • Allows a Single Party to hold power

• Leadership of a single existing party isdominant.
• Examples - N.Korea, China, Vietnam, Cuba

3 Dominant PartySystem • Different parties exist but only one party hasthe
capability to rule.
• Other parties have rare chances to come topower.
• Examples -
India (Congress DominantSystem till 1967)
South Africa (African National Congress)
Hungary (Fidesz)
4 Two-Party System • The Two Crucial Political Parties compete to gain
power.
• Constant Competition between two parties.
• Examples - Australia, UK, USA

5 Multi-Party System • Multiple parties with its unique ideology, beliefs, &
objectives.
• Role of Coalition governments plays a major role in this
party system.
• Examples - Switzerland, Austria, Belgium, India, New
Zealand

Polarized Multiparty System

• A polarized multiparty system, also known as polarized pluralism, is a political system

where multiple parties exist, but the system is seen as overly polarized and therefore
potentially dysfunctional.

• This polarization can be seen in both two-party and multi-party systems.

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• Giovanni Sartori argues that the way in which multiparty systems function largely
depends on the degree to which parties are ideologically polarized.

• He has distinguished two main types of multiparty systems: Moderate Multiparty

systems and Polarized Multiparty systems.

1. Moderate Multiparty Systems – the number of parties is small, and the direction of
the competition is Centripetal, i.e. the main parties tend to converge towards the
centre of the left–right scale to attract the support of the moderate electorate. Since
here the differences between parties are small, coalitions can form easily.

2. Polarized Multiparty Systems – “There is a large ideological distance between

parties with a strong dose of radicalism.” (June 2023 Shift 2) There is a one main
party placed at the centre of the left–right axis which represents the ‘system’ against
which extreme anti-system parties are opposed. These Anti-system parties aim to
change not only government but also the system of government.

Thus, “not all coalitions are viable,” with some parties continuously excluded from coalitions
and remain in constant opposition. They become irresponsible and radicalize with promises
they will never be called to put into practice. When one party controls the center, it stops
other parties from moving towards it. This leads to divergence and competition is
Centrifugal (away from center).
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• Major Contributions Given by Thinkers on Party System -

Thinker Classification of Party System

Gabriel Almond has classified Party Systems into four types :-

Almond (i) Authoritarian party system
(ii) Dominant non-authoritarian party system
(iii) Competitive two-party system
(iv) Competitive multi-party system (March 2023 Shift 2)

The Competitive Party system can be further divided into

● Turnover and Hegemonic
● Ideological and Pragmatic

When One Party hegemonizes political power for a long period of time
it is called a hegemonic party system.
For example - the Congress System in India (Rajni Kothari).
Maurice Duverger classified Party Systems on the basis of -
Duverger Number of Parties.
He has classified Party Systems into two broad categories:-
(a) One Party System .
(b) Pluralist Party System.
The One-Party System is further divided into two types -
(i) one-party system & (ii) dominant party system.
The Pluralist Party System is further divided into two types -
(i) two-party system & (ii) multi-party system.

Jean Blondel has classified Party Systems on the basis of -

Blondel Share of Votes.
He has classified Party Systems into three categories:-
(i) Two Party System
(ii) Two-and-a-half Party System
(iii) Multi-party System with a predominant party
(iv) Multi-party System without a predominant party
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Elite Theory

• Main Thinkers of Elite Theory –

• 1. Vilfredo Pareto –
o He gave his theory in his famous work ‘The Mind and Society’ (1916) (PYQ
2022)
o Inequality is inevitable in society
o Some individuals are superior in their attributes than other on the basis of
their knowledge, talents etc.
o Society consists of two classes:
▪ 1. Higher Stratum: governing and non-governing elite
▪ 2. Lower Stratum: non-elite (masses)
o Circulation of Elite:
▪ ‘History is a graveyard of aristocracies’ (PYQ 2019) (March 2023 Shift
2)
▪ Circulation of elite is a process in which individuals circulate between
elite and non-elite strata
▪ It also refers to a process where one elite replaces another elite
o Why Circulation Happens?
▪ When there is imbalance in ‘residues’ & ‘derivatives.
▪ Residues are Logical actions & Derivatives are non-logical actions.
▪ Logical actions are those that achieve an end
▪ Non-Logical actions are those that have no purpose and are based on
sentiments
o Residues:
o Pareto locates total Six Residues, which means the major motivation of
action:
▪ 1. Combination: tendency to invent (fox)
▪ 2. Persistence: tendency to consolidate (lion)
▪ 3. Expressiveness: tendency to express feelings
▪ 4. Sociability: tendency to affiliate with others
▪ 5. Integration: tendency to maintain a good self-image
▪ 6. Sex: tendency to see social events in erotic terms
o 2. Gaetano Mosca –
o He developed his theory of elites in his work ‘The Ruling Class’ (1939) (PYQ
2022)
o Mosca gave the ‘Political Formula’.
o In every society there are two classes exist:
▪ 1. A Class that rules: Ruling class
▪ 2. A class that is ruled: Ruled class
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o Ruling class is always in minority, performs all political functions &

monopolizes power
o While ruled class is directed and controlled by ruling class
o Circulation of elites happens when ruling class lose command and political
control. And When they fail to provide valuable services to masses.
o 3. Robert Michels –
o He is known for ‘Iron Law of Oligarchy’ (March 2023 Shift 2)
o His main work is ‘Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical
Tendencies of Modern Democracy’ (1911). (PYQ 2022)
o All organizations, including those committed to democratic ideals and
practices, will inevitably succumb to rule by an elite few (an oligarchy).
o Majority of human beings are apathetic, indolent and slavish, incapable of
self- government
o Therefore, they are depended on leaders and submit themselves to oligarchy.
o 4. James Burnham –
o In his book ‘The Managerial Revolution’ (1931), he explains his elite theory
from Marxist perspective (June 2023 Shift 1)
o According to him capitalism originally were managers and owners of their
business
o When their business grew, they left it to professional managers
o Thus, capitalist ruled class displaced by managerial elite
o Similarly in government, executive becomes more imp than legislation
o Bureaucrats backed by executives run the country
o 5. C. Wright Mills –
o In his book ‘The Power Elite’ (1959), he explains distribution of power in
U.S.A
o C. Wright Mills focuses on ‘The Economic Elite’. (PYQ 2022)
o He does not believe elite rules because of their superior traits
o They rule on society because they hold key institutional positions
o The corporation, the military, the federal government are three institutions
constitute three elites
o In American society, these three elites decide all important issues and matter
o They skillfully control the masses through mass media and manipulation

o Theory of Democratic Elitism

o This theory does not believe, like classical elitist theorists, that ‘democracy is
a myth’. Elites protects the democracy
o Political parties compete for masses’ votes
o Elites are relatively ‘open’ and recruited on the basis of merit
o Mass is able to participate in ruling the society
o By exercise choice between the rival elites
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o 1. Karl Manheim –
o He is famous for his work ‘Ideology and Utopia’ (1929)
o According to him, if elites take major decision on policy, it does not mean
society is not democratic
o In Mass democracy, all individuals can’t participate in forming a government
or to take decision
o But they can force their leaders to take decision in their interests or else they
will remove them
o Same is not possible in despotic society
o 2. Joseph Schumpeter – (March 2023 Shift 2)
o His Famous work is ‘Capitalism, Socialism & Democracy’ (1942). (December
2023)
o He points out that people’s role in democratic society is not govern or take
major decision
o Their role is to produce a government
o Thus, people do not decide political issues in democracy or nor they choose
leaders to take decision
o Rather, they choose leaders to take decisions for them
o He called it a ‘democratic method’.

Old Social Movements vs New-Social Movements

• Difference between Old Social Movement and New Social Movements :-

Old Social Movement (OSM) New Social Movement (NSM)

- 19th and 20th Century Movements. - Emerged in the later half of 20th Century.

- OSM Focus is on ideology, class distinction - NSM Focus is non-materialistic in nature,

based, Marxian idea of economy-based NSMs goes beyond class, boundary, borders,
movements. state and culture.

- Instead of economy, focus of NSM are on

issues of culture, symbolic identities-based
movements.

- OSM are centralized around particular - NSM are diffused and decentralized.
leaders. - NSM are mainly Non-violent in nature.

- OSM is Centered on Materialistic Goals - NSM is Centered on Certain Societal Goals

like improving the standard of living of a which needs to meet the present
particular social class. generation’s needs.
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Examples of OSM :- Examples of NSM :-

- Workers Movements - Students Movements

- Peasant Movements - Civil Rights Movements
- Women’s’ Movements
- Environmental Movements
- Peace Movements
- Anti-Racist Movements
- Movements for the Rights of Indigenous
Peoples’
- ‘Anti-Political’ Movements

• Major Theories of Social Movements and Thinkers –

o Relative Deprivation Theory – Robert Merton, Runciman, Marx, Ted Gurr, MSA
Rao
o Resource Mobilization Theory – Charles Tilly, Douglas McAdam
o New Social Movement Theory – Alain Touraine, Claus Offe, Jurgen Habermas
o Post-materialism – Ronald Inglehart

• Four Stages of Social Movements by Bloomer and Tilly –

o 1. Emergence → 2. Coalescence → 3. Bureaucratization → 4. Decline

Social Movements – Process Model by Doug McAdam

▪ The ‘Political Process Model’ of Movement Emergence was first given by Doug
McAdam in 1982. (June 2023 Shift 2)
▪ The political process approach focuses on how social movements interact with
their surroundings. This viewpoint also helps us understand the various stages that
social movements go through in its life cycle.
This model has Two Main Arguments –
• Firstly, the political process approach argues that Social Movements don't just follow
a set pattern internally but are also influenced by things outside like where does it
stand on an issue, what resources they have to carry out the movement, and how
they strategize and deal with their rivals (movements’ opponents).
• Secondly, the political process model suggests that Social Movements happen when
people who are organized, and are aggrieved about something, and believe they can
make a difference and take advantage of new chances in politics.
▪ According to Doug McAdam, John McCarthy, and Mayer Zald: a lot of political
movements and revolutions start because changes in society make the current
political system weaker or more open to change.
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▪ However, these "political opportunities" are just the first step. Without enough
organization, whether formal or informal, people won't likely take advantage of
these chances.
▪ In conclusion, the 'Political Process Model' highlights how social movements
interact with surroundings, influenced by external factors and opportunities.
McAdam’s model focuses on three crucial factors:
1. Political Opportunities: These are external factors in the political environment that
can affect the prospects of a social movement. They can include shifts in ruling
political alignment, changes in societal structures, or even international political
trends.
2. Mobilizing Structures: These are the networks, norms, and organizational structures
that facilitate collective action. They can include existing social networks and formal
organizations.
3. Framing Processes: These are the shared meanings and interpretations that people
bring to their situation. Framing helps people make sense of the issues at stake in a
social movement.
McAdam’s Process Model has been influential in the field of sociology and political
science, providing a comprehensive framework for understanding the rise,
development, and impact of social movements.

Political Development

• What is Political Development?

o Development is a process of continuous growth. It has its origin in the western
framework of thinking.
o Political Development tries to explain the Political changes in the Developing
world.
• Thinkers of Political Development – Lucian Pye, Fred W Riggs, Edward Shills,
Huntington, Almond and Powell.
• Important Concepts of Development and Thinkers –
o Modernization Approach – W.W. Rostow, AFK Organski, Samuel Huntington
(PYQ 2022)
o Political Development and Political Decay Model – Samuel Huntington
o Centre-Periphery Model of Development – Rajni Kothari and AG Frank
o Functional Model – Gabriel Almond
o Change Model – Leonard Binder
o Environmental Model – F.W. Riggs
o Developmental Syndrome – Lucian Pye (PYQ 2019)
o Market-Society Model – WW Rostow, Organski, Almond and Coleman.
o Political Man – S.M. Lipset (PYQ 2018)
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o Third World – Alfred Sauvy

• What the 4 stages of David Apter’s Political Modernization?
▪ 1. Contact and Control
▪ 2. Reaction and Counter-reaction
▪ 3. Contradiction and Reaction
▪ 4. Search for new generative solution
• What are the 5 Types of Political Systems acc. to Edward Shills?
▪ 1. Political Democracy (USA, UK, India)
▪ 2. Tutelary Democracy
▪ 3. Modernizing Oligarchy (Pakistan)
▪ 4. Totalitarian Oligarchy (Nazi Germany, Stalin USSR)
▪ 5. Traditional Oligarchy (Saudi Arabia)
▪ Acc to Edward Shills, Political Democracy is the BEST type and
Traditional Oligarchy is the WORST.
• What are the 3 Aspects of Political Development acc to Lucian Pye? (PYQ 2019)
▪ ECD – Equality , Capacity, Differentiation
• What are the 6 Crisis of Political Development acc to Lucian Pye? (PYQ 2018) (June
2023 Shift 1)
▪ Identity Crisis
▪ Legitimacy Crisis
▪ Penetration Crisis
▪ Participation Crisis
▪ Unification Crisis
▪ Distribution Crisis
• In which country did Pye mention about his Crisis of Pol Development in 1966?
o United Kingdom, 1966 – in his book, “Aspects of Political Development
(1966)”.
• Who has criticized Lucian Pye’s theory of Political Development?
o Fred W. Riggs
• What is the difference between Lucian Pye and Fred W. Riggs?
o For Pye – ECD, three factors
o For Riggs – EC, two factors
o Riggs mentions that the degree of Differentiation is directly related to the
level of development of a country.
• Who gave the concept of Development Trap?
o Fred W. Riggs – Development Trap
• Who gave the concept of Political Decay?
o Samuel P. Huntington – Political Decay (PYQ 2018)
o Huntington mentions in his book, “Political Development and Political
Decay” (1965).
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o When Political Institutionalization is HIGHER than Political Mobilization

= Political Development
o When Political Institutionalization is LOWER than Political Mobilization
= Political Decay
• What are the Four Stages of Political Development of Kenneth Organski?
▪ 1. Political Unification
▪ 2. Industrialization
▪ 3. National Welfare
▪ 4. Abundance / Affluence

Dependency School and World Systems Theory

• Dependency Theory –
o Dependency School Emerged in the second half of 1950s in Latin America.
o Dependency School Emerged from the ECLA School of Latin America.
o Dependency School is Criticism against Liberal theories of Political
Development.
o Dependency is defined as a situation in which Underdeveloped economies
are conditioned by the exploitation and expansion of Developed economies.
o The Underdeveloped economies here - belong to the (Periphery).
o The Developed economies here - belong to the (Core).

• Major Thinkers of Dependency –

o 1. Ander Gunder Frank –
▪ AG Frank is one of the Founding Fathers of Dependency School.
▪ Concept – Development of Underdevelopment.
▪ Book -
o 2. Raul Prebisch –
▪ Prebisch was head of United Nations Economic Commission for Latin
America (ECLA)
▪ Concept – The Singer-Prebisch Terms-of-Trade (ToT) Thesis.
▪ Book – The Economic Development of Latin America and Its Principal
Problems (1950).
o 3. Samir Amin –
▪ Samir Amin is one of the prominent Islamic Scholars of Dependency
Theory
▪ Concept – Theory of Unequal Exchange.
▪ Book – Accumulation on a World Scale
o 4. Dos Santos –
▪ Concept – New Dependency
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▪ There are 3 types of Dependency acc to Dos Santos –

▪ (i) Colonial Dependency (monopoly of land, mines, manpower)
▪ (ii)Financial Industrial Dependency (domination of capital for raw
materials)
▪ (iii) New Dependency (after WWII, this is based on investments by
large MNCs in dependent periphery countries)
o 5. Cardoso –
▪ Concept – Dependency and Development
o 6. Paul Baran and Paul Sweezy –
▪ Concept – Dependency and Imperialism
o 7. Immanuel Wallerstein –
▪ Concept – World Systems Theory
▪ World Systems Theory introduced the concept of ‘Semi-periphery’ as
a third category between Core and Periphery.
▪ Semi-Periphery states are the emerging developing economies such
as India, China, South Africa, Brazil etc. with both features of modern
industries, cities, as well as of large peasantry.
▪ According to World Systems Theory, the possibility of changing
position in the core/semi-periphery/periphery hierarchy is very rare.
(March 2023 Shift 2)
• Dependency Theory criticizes Modernization Theory.
• Why? – Because Modernization Theory states that every country can follow a similar
path and the same formula of ‘One Size Fits All Development’ through mass
industrialization, high rates of economic growth and by adopting liberal democratic
values.
• Dependency Theory argues that modernization theory is ethnocentric and ignores the
social and cultural arrangements in other parts of the world. It ignores the impact of
colonization on the former colonies of Asia, Africa and Latin America.
• Dependency Theory also say, the current phase of Globalization is dominated by the
interest of large Transnational Corporations (TNCs) in a Neoliberal world. This has a
drastic impact on ‘sovereign’ decision making power of the underdeveloped
‘Peripheral’ states.

USA Constitutional Development

• The Constitutional development of the United States is a fascinating journey that
began with the signing of the Declaration of Independence in 1776. The original constitution
was drafted at the Philadelphia Convention in 1787 and ratified by state conventions in 1787
and 1788.
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• Since its inception, the Constitution has been amended 27 times to address various
societal changes and needs. Notable amendments include the Bill of Rights (the first ten
amendments) and the three Reconstruction Amendments.
• The Constitution was designed to establish a federal government of limited power and
to protect the rights of the states. It has served as the supreme law of the United States since
taking effect in 1789.
• The development of the American Constitution is an ongoing process, reflecting the
evolving needs and values of the society it governs. It continues to be a cornerstone of
American democracy, embodying the principles of justice, liberty, and equality for all.
In the history of the United States of America, these are some Landmark events in the
development of their Constitution: (June 2023 Shift 2)
▪ Introducing the Articles of Confederation of the U.S.A. The Articles of Confederation were
adopted by the Continental Congress on November 15, 1776. This document served as the
United States' first constitution. It was in force from 1781 to 1789 when the present-day
Constitution went into effect.
▪ Establishment of the Federal Constitution of the U.S.A.: Written in 1787, ratified in 1788,
and in operation since 1789, the United States Constitution is the world's longest surviving
written charter of government.
▪ Addition of Bill of Rights in the U.S. Constitution: On December 15, 1791, the new United
States of America ratified the Bill of Rights, the first 10 amendments to the U.S. Constitution,
introducing Fundamental rights to the citizens of U.S.A.
▪ 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution that guarantees equal protection of laws: Passed
by the Senate on June 8, 1866, and ratified two years later, on July 9, 1868, the Fourteenth
Amendment granted citizenship to all persons "born or naturalized in the United States,"
including formerly enslaved people, and provided all citizens with “equal protection under
the laws.

Mancur Olson - The Logic of Collective Action

Mancur Lloyd Olson Jr. (1932–1998) was an influential American economist and political
scientist. His work primarily centered around new institutional economics, exploring topics
such as private property, taxation, public goods, collective action, and contract rights in
economic development.
• Olson is best known for his first book, “The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods
and the Theory of Groups” (1965), where he theorized that what stimulates people to
act in groups is incentive; members of large groups do not act in accordance with a
common interest unless motivated by personal gain (economic, social, etc.)
• In 1965, American economist Mancur Olson challenged the Pluralist idea that group
formation was equally available to everybody. He believed that people's decisions are
based on weighing the costs and benefits for themselves.
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• In his 1965 book "The Logic of Collective Action" Olson argued that people are more
likely to join groups that offer specific rewards that they personally value (selective
incentives). (June 2023 Shift 2)
• With the help of the concept of Rational choice, Olson suggests that only groups which
offers individual benefits would succeed.
• While groups offering benefits for the general public (public goods) would struggle to
attract members, as these benefits aren't tied to a person's membership.
• In other words, Olson suggested that people are more motivated to join groups that
directly benefit them, rather than those that offer benefits to everyone.

Types of Welfare State Models given by Richard Titmuss

Richard Morris Titmuss (1907 – 1973) was a pioneering British social researcher and teacher.
He is best known for founding the academic discipline of social administration, now largely
known as social policy.
In the late 1950s, Richard Titmuss gave a three-fold model of Types of Welfare State regimes
as follows:
1. Residual Welfare Model – In this kind of welfare system, help is offered only when the
usual ways like private market and family can't meet people's social needs anymore.
Examples – United States, United Kingdom, Canada.

2. Industrial Achievement Performance Model – In this type of welfare system, the

benefits you get are connected to your job, and how well you work. It's based on your
effort and how productive you are. Examples – Germany, Japan, South Korea.

3. Institutional Redistributive Model – In this model of welfare state Social Welfare

Institutions are an integral part of society, providing Universalist Services to everyone,
not just through buying and selling. Examples – Sweden, Norway, Denmark.
(Scandinavian Social - Democratic Regimes) (June 2023 Shift 2)

Democratic Transition and Consolidation by Juan Linz and Alfred Stepan

“Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and
Post-Communist Europe” is a significant work by Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan. Published in
1996, this book presents a systematic comparative analysis of the process of democratic
consolidation in southern Europe, South America, and post-Communist Europe.
This book is the first to ground post-Communist Europe within the literature of comparative
politics and democratic theory.
In this book, Linz and Stepan break new ground in several areas:
• They reconceptualize the major types of modern nondemocratic regimes.
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• They point out for each type the available paths to democratic transition and the tasks
of democratic consolidation.
• They argue that, although “nation-state” and “democracy” often have conflicting
logics, multiple and complementary political identities are feasible under a common
roof of state-guaranteed rights.
• They also illustrate how, without an effective state, there can be neither effective
citizenship nor successful privatization.
• They provide criteria and evidence for politicians and scholars alike to distinguish
between democratic consolidation and pseudo-democratization.
Out of these Linz and Stepan argue that in Southern Europe we see Completed Consolidations,
in South America we see Constrained Transitions and in Post-Communist Europe we see most
complex paths towards democratic transition. They argue:
A. Both civil society and political society are complementary to each other. (June 2023
Shift 2)
B. Rule of law is condition for consolidation of democracy. (June 2023 Shift 2)
C. Modern democracies must have effective capacity to command, regulate and extract
(June 2023 Shift 2)
They Further argued that:
• Within the democratic community, champions of either Civil or Political Society adopt
practices which limits the development of the other. They remain in opposition.
• To form supportive conditions for a Consolidated democracy we need neither
command economy or pure market economy, - instead – what we need is “economic
society” – one which mediates between the state and market.

Breakdowns of Modernisation by S.N. Eisenstadt

S.N. Eisenstadt wrote a research paper titled “Breakdowns of Modernization” (1964). (June
2023 Shift 1)
• In this work, Eisenstadt explores the complexities and challenges associated with
modernization.
• He examines the factors that can lead to the breakdown of modernization processes
and the implications of these breakdowns for societies undergoing change.
• The optimism which guided much of the concern with many of the studies of
undeveloped areas or new nations, and which assumed that these countries were
advancing – even if slowly and intermittently – towards full-fledged modernization,
has lately given way to a much more cautious and pessimistic view.
• This is due to the fact that in many such new nations, where initially modern
frameworks were established in different institutional fields, especially in the political
one, the progress towards modernization was not only slow, but also these regimes
faltered, giving way, in their place rise to – autocratic or semi-authoritarian regimes.
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• Indonesia, Pakistan, Burma and Sudan are perhaps the most important examples of
this trend highlights Eisenstadt.
• Eisenstadt set to analyze the nature of the social processes in these countries which
led to these changes, which he called as “Breakdowns in their political
modernization”.

Role of Representative by John Wahlke

John C. Wahlke, a political scientist, has made significant contributions to the understanding
of representative democracy.
In his work “Policy Demands and System Support: The Role of the Represented,” (2009) he
explores the functioning of representative bodies and the discontent associated with them.
Wahlke suggests that much of the disillusionment with modern representative government
arises from a fascination with the policy decisions of representative bodies, what he calls a
‘policy-demand-input’ conception of government.
In defining the Role of Representative John Wahlke has given a three-fold classification: (June
2023 Shift 1)
1. Trustee-Deputy Role: The deputy can act as a delegate of the people they represent,
following their instructions, or make decisions on their own without consulting them.
2. Facilitator-Neutral Role: The representative consults various interest groups and others to
some extent while trying to serve their constituents.
3. District-State or Country Role: The deputy decides whether to prioritize the interests of
their local area or those of the entire country in their actions.
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UNIT 5 – INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

Main Theories of IR –
• (1) Idealism in IR –
• Main Points – Idealism in IR emerged during First World War (1914-1918).
• Idealism argued that war can be avoided by reforming international system.
• The idealist school of thought in international relations proposed to replace ‘balance
of power’ by Disarmament. (June 2023 Shift 2)
• Main Thinkers & Their Key Points –
Thinker Concept / Contribution Books

Woodrow Wilson ● 14 Points Speech in 1918 (Shift 2

2021)
● Formation of League of Nations
● 1920 Received Nobel Peace Prize

Norman Angell ● He gave Idealist explanation to ● The Great Illusion (1909)

prevent war. ● The Problems of War and
Peace (1915)

J.A. Hobson ● He argued that war happens ● The Morals of Economic

because of Imperialism. Internationalism (1920)
● Imperialism is the primary source
of International Conflict.

• (2) Realism in IR –
• Main Points – Realism Theory in IR emerged during 1930s and 1940s.
• Realism emerged as a challenge against Idealism during the inter-war period (1919-
1939).
• Realism believes in these Core Points –
o Pessimistic view of Human Nature – Human nature is greedy, have lust for
Power.
o IR is necessarily Conflictual in nature – Conflicts are ultimately resolved by War.
o States are the main Primary Actors of IR. (December 2018)
o International System is Anarchic in nature (There is No World Government).
• Types of Realism & Their Thinkers –
• Classical Realism – Thucydides, Machiavelli, Hobbes, Morgenthau, E.H. Carr, Reinhold
Niebuhr.
• Strategic Realism – Thomas Schelling
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• Neo-Realism / Structural Realism / Scientific Realism – Kenneth Waltz, John

Mearsheimer
• According to structural realism, the distribution of capabilities and the ordering
principle of the international structure are what determine how it is.
• Neorealism is a reformulation of the classical realist school of E. H. Carr, Hans
Morgenthau, George Kennan, and Reinhold Niebuhr.
• Waltz addressed the flaws of classical realism in this work, which was significantly
inspired by ideas and models of microeconomics. Waltz argued that the market and
international relations are similar in that they both function without a clear hierarchy.
• States are similar to businesses in a domestic market in that their main goal is to
survive via competition in a setting where self-help is the norm. (June 2023 Shift 1)
• The anarchic framework of international relations is to blame for governments' similar
behaviour.
• Neo-Classical Realism – Fareed Zakaria, Randal Schweller.
• Offensive Realism – John Mearsheimer
• Defensive Realism – Kenneth Waltz, Stephen Walt
• Types of Realism in IR & Their Key Points –
Thinker Concept / Contribution Books

(i) CLASSICAL REALISM –

Thucydides ● Structure of International system affects ● The History of

relations between the States. Peloponnesian War
● Moral Reasoning has little or nothing to do (431-404 BC)
with relations between States. (2020)
● The Strong do what they have the Power to ● The Melian Dialogue
do and the Weak accept what they have to
accept

Machiavelli ● Rulers should have both qualities of Lion ● The Prince (1532)
(Strong) and Fox (Cunning) to survive.
● Rulers should always defend the interests of
the State and ensure its survival.

Thomas Hobbes ● He says the International System is a ● Leviathan (1651)

permanent ‘State of Nature.’

E.H. Carr ● EH Carr criticizes the ‘Utopian’ thinking of ● The Twenty Years
(20 Years Crisis) Idealists and advocated a realistic approach to Crisis (1919-1939)
International affairs.
● EH Carr said – Realism and Utopianism are ● What is History?
mutually dynamic and dialectic. (1961)
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Hans J ● Morgenthau argues that Human is a political ● Politics Among

Morgenthau animal. Nations (1948)
(Power Politics) ● He gives the term ‘ANIMUS DOMINANDI’ – (Shift 1 2022)
which means Lust for Power.
(December 2018) ● Six Principles of Morgenthau –
(2020) 1. Politics is governed by Objective Laws.
2. National Interest is defined in terms of
Power.
3. Political Ethics is diff from Universal moral
principles.
4. Particular nations cannot impose their
national aspirations onto other nations.
5. Pessimistic view of Human Nature.
6. Politics is an autonomous sphere. (Shift 2
2021)

(ii) STRATEGIC REALISM –

Thomas Schelling ● State Leaders think Strategically, i.e., ● The Strategy of

(Strategic logically to deal with Diplomatic and Military Conflict (1960)
Realism) issues.
● It deals with how to employ Power to get
our enemy to do what we desire, without
using brute force.
● “Diplomacy is Bargaining” act according to
Schelling.

(iii) STRUCTURAL or NEO-REALISM –

Kenneth Waltz ● Main thinker of Neo-Realism. (Shift 2 2022) ● Theory of

(International ● States in IR exist in a system of International International Politics
System Anarchy. (1979) (Shift 1 2022)
is Anarchic) ● Here focus is not on Human Nature, but on
the Structure of the International System. ● Man, the State and
(Shift 1 2021) War (Shift 2 2022)
● States differs in their capabilities.
● Acc. to Kenneth Waltz – Bipolar System is
more stable (during Cold War) and Bipolar
System provides more peace than in a
Multipolar arrangement. (2020)
● He gave 3 Levels of Analysis –
Individual Level
State Level
International System Level.
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John ● Main thinker of Neorealist Stability Theory. ● The Tragedy of Great

Mearsheimer ● He considers three reasons why Bipolar Power Politics (2001)
(Great Power systems are more stable & peaceful than (Shift 1 2022)
Politics) Multipolar systems -
● Europe during Cold War – condition of
(2020) Stable Bipolarity
● Europe before 1945 and after 1990 –
condition of Unstable Multipolarity

(iv) NEO-CLASSICAL REALISM

Fareed Zakaria ● Neo-Classical Realism combines both ● From Wealth to

(Neo-Classical elements of classical and neorealism. Power (1999)(Shift 1
Realism) ● Neo-Classical Realism combines the 2022)
Structure of International system is Anarchic in
nature and also mentions the importance of
Domestic factors.
● Domestic factors + Anarchic Intl System =
Neoclassical Realism.

(v) OFFENSIVE vs DEFENSIVE REALISM

Offensive Realism Offensive Realism – Realists who seek for

John ‘Power’.
Mearsheimer Power = Offensive.

(March 2023 Shift 2)

Defensive Realism Defensive Realism – Realists who seek for

Kenneth Waltz ‘Security’.
Stephen Walt Security = Defensive.

• (3) Liberalism in IR –
• Main Points – Focus on : Human Progress, Humans are Rational Logical Beings,
Cooperation in IR.
▪ Types of Liberalism in IR & Their Key Points –
Thinker Concept / Contribution Books

SOCIOLOGICAL LIBERALISM

Karl Deutsch ● Deutsch gave the concept Security ● Political Community

(Security Community. and North Atlantic
Community) ● Example of Security Community – in the (1957)
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North Atlantic area

● 4 conditions of Security Community –
(a) Increase social communication,
(b) greater mobility,
(c) stronger economic ties and
(d) mutual human transactions.

John Burton ● Burton supports the Cobweb Model ● World Society (1972)
(Cobweb Model) ● Burton says IR cannot be understood by
the billiard board model, instead he
proposes Cobweb.
● Cobweb Model focuses on – World will
benefit by Mutual Cooperation not
Conflict.

James Rosenau ● Rosenau gave imp. to Transnational ● The Study of Global

(Transnational Networks Interdependence
Networks) ● These transnational networks of (1980)
individuals and groups will focus on
bringing world peace .

INTERDEPENDENCE LIBERALISM

Richard ● He gave the concept ‘Trading States’ ● Action and Reaction

Rosecrance ● The most economically successful in World Politics (1963)
(Trading States) countries of the post-war period are
‘Trading States’ – Japan, Germany and
South Korea.
● Studied the link between Economics and
IR.

David Mitrany ● Mitrany gave Functionalist Theory of ● A Working Peace

(Functional Integration System (1966)
Theory) ● Cooperation should be arranged by
● Functionalist Theory
Focus on - EU Technical Experts, not by Politicians.
of Politics (1975)
● Example – Mitrany studied European
Union (EU).

Ernst Haas ● Haas gave Neo-Functionalist Theory of ● Beyond the Nation-

(Neo-Functional Integration State (1964)
Theory) ● Haas says, Integration in IR depends on
(Spillover Effect) ‘Spillover’ effect – that is – Increased
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Cooperation in one area leads to Increased

Cooperation in other areas.

Robert Keohane ● They gave concept – ‘Complex ● Power and

& Interdependence’ Interdependence
Joseph Nye ● Keohane & Nye say that instead of State (1977)
(Neoliberalism Leaders, various branches of Govt. and
in IR) different actors maintain relations
between states.
● The ‘Low Politics’ of Economics has high
priority over the ‘High Politics’ of Security
and Survival.
● Military force less useful, Economic and
Institutional Instruments more useful.

INSTITUTIONAL LIBERALISM

Robert Keohane ● Liberal Institutionalists argue that ●

International Orgs and International
&
Regimes help Cooperation between States.
Joseph Nye
(June 2023 Shift 2)
(Institutions and
● High Level of Institutionalization
Regimes)
reduces the destabilizing effects of
Multipolar anarchy.
● Institutions bridge trust between States
in IR.
● Enhances the ability of governments to
monitor each-others’ compliance to signed
Intl agreements.

REPUBLICAN LIBERALISM

Immanuel Kant ● He gave ‘Perpetual Peace Theory’ ● Metaphysics of

(Perpetual Peace Morals (1797)
Theory)

Michael Doyle ● He gave ‘Democratic Peace Theory’ ● Liberalism and World

(Democratic ● Liberal Democracies are More Peaceful Politics Revisited (1995)
Peace Theory) states
● Do Democracies not Go To War? –
Yes, Democracies Have Gone to War, but
argument is they have gone to war against
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non-democracies, they do not fight with

other democracies.

● Why? – Doyle gives 3 Reasons :-

1.Democratic Governments are controlled
by their own Citizens – who will not
advocate war with democracies.
2. They hold Common Moral Values which
leads to the formation of ‘Pacific Union’ –
prefers solution over violence.
3. Peace between Democracies is
strengthened by Economic Cooperation
and Interdependence.

• (4) Social Constructivism in IR –

• Main Points – Focus on Ideas, Interests and Ideational Factors in International
Relations.
• The term ‘Constructivism’ was coined by Nicholas Onuf.
• Previously, Neorealists highlighted that Identities and Interests are given, States know
who they are and what they want (by default).
• But, for Social Constructivists – It is not a given, Constructivists say that it is the very
interactions with other actors that Creates New Identities and New Interests.
o Main Thinkers of Social Constructivism in IR & Their Key Points –
Thinker Concept / Contribution Books

Alexander Wendt ● Wendt says, “Anarchy is not given. It is ● Anarchy is What

(3 Types of what States Make of it.” In his famous 1992 States Make of It
Anarchy) Article. (March 2023 Shift 2) (1992)
● Wendt criticized Neorealism on the point
that Anarchy compels States to take certain
action (by default)

● Anarchy according to Wendt depends on

– the Interaction between States.
● Wendt says there are 3 types of Anarchy -
Hobbesian Anarchy
Lockean Anarchy
Kantian Anarchy (March 2023 Shift 2)
● Hobbesian – State view War of all against
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all.
● Lockean – States view each other as
rivals, they consider the right of other
states to exist.
● Kantian – States view each other as
friends, they emerged among consolidated
Liberal Democracies.

● “Construction idea of social structures” –

Wendt refers to the concept that the social
structures within a society, including
institutions, systems, and relationships, are
not inherent or naturally existing entities,
but rather they are shaped and brought
into existence through human thought
processes, beliefs, and interpretations.

● It emphasizes that these social structures

are not merely the result of physical
entities or material resources, but rather
they are formed and organized based on
the ideas, concepts, and understandings
that people have about these entities.
(June 2023 Shift 2)
Martha ● Norms of International Society define the ● National Interests in
Finnemore identities and interests of States in IR. International Society
(Norms in IR) (1996)

• (5) Feminist Theory in IR –

• Main Points – World Politics does not affect Women and Men equally.
For example – War affects women more than men and it has not been accounted for
in IR.
• There is domination of Males in the field and study of IR.
• Main Thinkers – Ann J. Tickner, Christine Sylvester, Cynthia Enloe, Jean Bethke
Elshtain.
▪ Main Thinkers of Feminism in IR & Their Key Points –
Thinker Concept / Contribution Books
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Ann J. Tickner ● Anna Tickner attacked the Masculinism ● Gender in

(On Masculinism and Misogyny of Realism. International Relations
and Misogyny in ● Tickner reformulated Morgenthau’s Six (1992) (Shift 1 2022)
IR) Principles of Realism :-
● 1. Dynamic Objectivity – Human nature is
both masculine and feminine.
● 2. National Interest is Dynamic – It
cannot be just defined in terms of Power
alone. It is more dynamic
● 3. Power cannot be defined universally –
Power in Realist lens was domination and
control. It ignores the possibility of
‘Collective Empowerment’.
● 4. Morality and Politics cannot be
separated – All Political Actions have moral
significance behind it.
● 5. To Discover Moral Commonalities in
Human
● 6. Rejects Autonomy of Politics in IR
(2020) (June 2023 Shift 2)

Cynthia Enloe ● Enloe focused that International division ● Bananas, Beaches

(On Military, of labour subordinates women, and Bases (1990)
Wars and its International politics also depends on
effect on men’s control of women – Serving wives of
Women) Diplomats, Around foreign military bases
(sex industry).

Jean Bethke ● Elshtain is a Conservative Feminist ● Women and War

Elshtain Thinker. (1987)

• (6) Postmodernism Theory in IR –

• Main Points – Focus on How Knowledge and Power are integrally connected in
theory and practice of International Relations.
▪ Main Thinkers of Postmodernism in IR & Their Key Points –
Thinker Concept / Contribution Books

Michel Foucault ● Discourse, Genealogy ● Madness and

Civilization
● Discipline and Punish
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Derrida ● Deconstructionism ● On Grammatology

Richard Ashley ● Meta-theory and Critical Theory ● The Poverty of

Neorealism

RBJ Walker ● Inside-Outside distinction – Walker says, ● Interrogating State

Inside the state there is order, trust, loyalty, Sovereignty
but outside there is conflict, suspicion, self-
help and anarchy.

Judith Butler ● Concept of Gender Performativity. ● Gender Trouble

● Identities have no objective existence, ● Undoing Gender
they depend on discursive practices.

• (7) Critical International Theory in IR –

• Main Point – Critical Theory emerged from the Frankfurt School, Germany in 1923.
(Shift 1 2021)
• First Generation Critical School Thinkers – Adorno, Max Horkheimer, Herbert
Marcuse.
• Second Generation Critical School Thinkers – Jurgen Habermas.
• Main Thinkers of Critical School in IR – Robert Cox, Andrew Linklater.
• Critical School Focus on – Criticizing the existing system of Domination. It tries to
create an Alternative World Order based on Emancipatory Values.
o Main Thinkers of Critical Theory in IR & Their Key Points –
Thinker Concept / Contribution Books

Robert Cox ● Robert Cox gives the Neo-Gramscian ● Production, Power

(Neo-Gramscian) Approach. and World Order
(Problem ● Cox differentiates between - (1987)
Solving) ‘Problem Solving’ vs ‘Critical Theory’
● Cox says, “Theories are always for
someone and for some purpose”.

● Robert W. Cox describes the difference

between problem-solving and critical theory
in this way: "[problem solving theory] takes
the world as it finds it, with the prevailing
social and power relationships and the
institutions into which they are organized,
as the given framework for action. The
general aim of problem solving is to make
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these relationships and institutions work

smoothly.” (March 2023 Shift 2)

Andrew Linklater ● Linklater gave Normative Approach in ● Transformation of

(Normative Critical theory. Political Community
approach) ● He says European Union (EU) is an (1998)
example of
post-Westphalian Community.

• (8) English School in IR –

o Main Point – Focus on International ‘Society of States.’
o Main Thinkers – Hedley Bull, Barry Buzan, Timothy Dunne, Martin Wight
Thinker Concept / Contribution Books

Hedley Bull ● Anarchical Society of States ● The Anarchical

● Intl System is explained as “Society of Society (1977)
States”.

Barry Buzan ● International Society ● From International

● Regional Security Complex Theory (RSCT) System to
(2020) International Society
(1993)

Timothy Dunne ● Three Preliminary Articles tracing the ● Inventing

History of English School International Society

Martin Wight ● Father of English School. ● System of States

● Wight gave the 3 Rs of IR :-
● International Theory
Realist tradition of Hobbes – Intl System
: The Three Traditions
Rationalist tradition of Hugo Grotius – Intl
(1991)
Society
Revolutionist tradition of Kant – World ● Why is there no
Society international theory?
(1960)

(June 2023 Shift 1)

• (9) Structural Marxism in IR –

• Main Point – Marxist theories are Positivist Theories which reject Realist/Liberal view
of State Conflict or Cooperation. Instead, Marxist Theory Focuses on – Economic and
Material aspects.
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• Marxist Theory says International System is an Integrated Capitalist System in pursuit

of Capitalist Accumulation.
• Capitalism culminates into Imperialism- Lenin said Imperialism is the Highest Stage
of Capitalism
• Thinkers
Ralph Miliband (Instrumentalist thinker) , Nicolas Poulantzas (Structuralist thinker)
• Books
Miliband – The State in Capitalist Society (1969), (June 2023 Shift 2) Poulantzas –
State, Power, Socialism.

• (10) Systems Theory in IR –

• Main Point – There is a System in International Relations.
• In Systems Theory – all Nation-States are parts involved in a process of constant
interaction as each nation is in contact with ‘the whole’ – the International
Environment. (Shift 2 2021)
• Main Thinkers – Morton Kaplan, Karl Deutsch. (Shift 2 2021)
• Morton Kaplan’s – Six Models of International System :-
• Balance of Power System
• Loose Bipolar System
• Tight Bipolar System
• Universal System
• Hierarchical System
• Unit Veto System
• Main Book – Morton Kaplan - System and Process in International Politics (1957).

• (11) Game Theory in IR –

• Main Point – Game Theory is Rational Decision Strategies in situations of Conflict and
Competition – when each participant tries to – maximize Gains and minimize Losses.
• This theory applies Mathematical models to the study of Political Science.
• In Game Theory, there are ‘Players’ or ‘Decision-Makers’ – and the Reward of the
Game is called “Pay-off”. The best pay-off is victory, draw is the second best.
• Main Thinkers – Martin Shubik, Oskar Morgenstern, Karl Deutsch – first to recognize
the importance of Game Theory in IR.
• Kaplan, Schilling, Riker – first to apply this Game theory in International Politics.

• (12) Decision Making Theory in IR –

• Main Point – This approach takes a “State-centric” model of International Relations.
• Main Thinkers – Richard Snyder, HW Bruck and Sapin.
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Major Concepts – Power, Security, Sovereignty, War, Human Rights, Treaties

• Power –
o Hard Power – Traditional Realist view of Power is Hard Power.
o Hard Power = Military + Economic power.
o Hard Power is also called Command Power – the ability to change what others do
o Soft Power – given by Joseph S. Nye. (Shift 1 2022)
o Soft Power is invisible power. It is power of attraction rather than coercion.
o Soft Power includes use of Culture, Diaspora, Diplomacy etc.
o Smart Power – given by Joseph S. Nye. Smart Power is = Hard + Soft Power.
o Smart Power was popularized by Hillary Clinton.
o Fast Power – given by John Chapman.
o Fast Power focuses on the Speed and Timing of our decisions to secure our
National Interest.
o Structural Power – given by Susan Strange.
o Susan Strange gives 4 types of Power Structures –
1. Knowledge Structure. 2. Financial Structure. 3. Security Structure.
4. Production Structure.
o Books by Susan Strange –
States and Markets (1988), Retreat of the State (1996), Casino Capitalism (1998).

• Security –
o Traditional Security – Realist / Neo-realists focus is limited to National Security,
Military threats
o Traditional Security – Liberals focus is that Institutions at World Level can enhance
Security.
o Non-Traditional Security – Main Thinker - Barry Buzan.
o Barry Buzan in his book “People, States and Fear (1983)” broadened this definition
of Security in IR – Non-traditional security includes Political, Economic, Societal
and Environmental as well as military aspects in IR.
o Human Security thinkers – Amartya Sen and Mahbub ul Haq conceptualized
UNDP’s Human Development Index (HDI).
o Security Community – Karl Deutsch (2020)
o Security Regimes – Robert Jervis (2020)
o Security Complex – Barry Buzan (2020)
o Regional Security Complex Theory (RSCT) – Barry Buzan and Ole Weaver. (2020)
o Copenhagen School of Security – Barry Buzan and Ole Weaver.
o Security Dilemma
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o One of the core concepts of realism, which is based on the Westphalian world
order.
o John Herz has used the Hobbesian theory of state of nature to develop security
dilemma, a vicious cycle of insecurity which makes power politics a permanent
feature (March 2023 Shift 2).
o Robert Jervis has developed ‘offence defence theory’ to explain severity of
security dilemma.
o Social constructivists believe that security dilemma is because anarchy is
interpreted in a specific way. They suggest that communications can address
security dilemma.
o George Sorenson has given the concept of insecurity dilemma. Insecurity dilemma
suggests that in 21st century, nations suffer from internal security threats.
Reasons – rise of ethnic movements, non-state actors, failed states, civil wars.
o Prof. Amitabh Acharya also believe that security dilemma may not be a relevant
concept for third world states.

• Sovereignty –
o Jean Bodin – first systematic presentation of sovereignty in his book – Six Books of
the Republic.
o Thomas Hobbes – defined Sovereignty as a monopoly of coercive power.
o Two Types of Sovereignty – Internal and External Sovereignty.
o Internal Sovereignty – It means within the State, State is the final authority whose
decisions are binding upon all its citizens.
o External Sovereignty – It means the State’s capacity to act as an Independent and
Autonomous entity in World affairs.

• War –
o Main Thinker – John von Clausewitz – “War is an extension of Politics by other
means.”
o von Clausewitz Books – On War (1832).
o Autarky – means 100% Self-rule by a complete cutting-off /withdrawal from
international trade
o Negative Peace – Peace defined when war is not being fought, although the
forces which give rise to war remain in place. (War ki possibility rehti hai)
o Positive Peace – Peace defined in terms of harmony, absence of not just of war
but also of the causes of war. (War ki possibility nehi rehti hai)
o Pacifism – A commitment to Peace and Rejection of War under any
circumstances. (MK Gandhi)
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o Jus ad bellum = Justice Before War - describes the conditions under which it is just
to go to war against a nation. (Let's remember this as a Country's right to self
defence against hostile attack) (2020)
o Jus in bello = Justice During War - describes the conduct that is just / morally
permissible within a war. (Let's remember this as when a Ceasefire is declared -
soldiers cannot fire against opponents - a peace corridor is established - following
protocols of the just conduct of war) (December 2019)
o Mary Kaldor – New Wars and Old Wars, Global Civil Society.
o Raymond Aron – Hyperbolic Wars.
o Martin Shaw – Degenerate Wars.
o Martin van Creveld – The Transformation of War.
o David Kilkullen – Countering Global Insurgency, The Accidental Guerilla.
o Michael Walzer – Just Wars and Unjust Wars, Spheres of Justice, Arguing about
War.

• Human Rights –
o Three Generation of Human Rights –
o First Generation Rights (18th & 19th Century) – Civic and Political Rights –
Negative Rights – Right to Life, Liberty and Property.
o Second Generation Rights (20th Century) – Economic, Social, Cultural Rights –
Positive Rights – Right to Work, Social Security, Healthcare.
o Third Generation Rights (post-1945) – Solidarity Rights – Human Rights –
Right to Self-determination, Peace, Environmental Protection. (June 2023 Shift 1)

• Major International Human Rights Documents & Conventions –

• 1948 – Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) (Shift 1 2022)
• 1949 – Geneva Convention on Treatment of Prisoners of War
• 1951 – Genocide Convention (On Prevention and Punishment for Crimes of Genocide)
• 1954 – Convention Relating to Status of Refugees
• 1966 – International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (Came to force in 1976)
(Shift 1 and 2 2022)
• 1966 – International Covenant on Eco, Social and Cultural Rights (Came to force in 1976)
(Shift 1 2022)
• 1975 – Declaration on Torture
• 1981 – Convention on Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (Shift 1 2022)
• 1990 – Convention on Rights of the Child (Shift 2 2022)
• 1993 – Vienna Convention on Human Rights (Vienna Convention on Law of Treaties)
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• Major Humanitarian Intervention in IR –

• 1991 – Northern Iraq (Kurdish people)
• 1992 – Somalia
• 1994 – Haiti
• 1994 – Rwanda (Tutsi vs Hutu)
• 1999 – Kosovo
• 1999 – East Timor
• 2000 – Sierra Leone

• Major Treaties and Agreements in IR –

o 1959 – Antarctic Treaty –
▪ prohibits weapons testing and deployment in Antarctica.
o 1963 – Partial Test Ban Treaty ( PTBT ) – also called Limited Test Ban Treaty
▪ bans atmospheric, underwater,outer-space nuclear tests
o 1967 – Outer Space Treaty –
▪ bans deployment of nuclear weapons in outer-space
o 1968 – Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty ( NPT ) –
▪ NPT prohibits horizontal proliferation to non-nuclear states.
o 1972 – Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty 1 ( SALT – 1 ) – USA & USSR. (Shift 1 2021)
▪ SALT-1 limits strategic nuclear weapons and freezes ICBMs at 1972 levels.
▪ The period of easing of tensions between 1967-1979 is called Détente.
o 1972 – Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty ( ABM ) – USA & USSR.
▪ limits number of anti-ballistic missiles btwn USA & USSR.
o 1979 – Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty 2 ( SALT – 2 ) – USA & USSR (Shift 1 2021)
▪ limits long range missiles of USA & USSR to 1320 missiles.
o 1987 – Intermediate Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty – USA and USSR.
(December 2018) (Shift 1 2021)
▪ eliminates all intermediate range nuclear weapons in Europe of USA and
USSR.
o 1991 – Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty 1 ( START I ) – USA and USSR.
(December 2018) (Shift 1 2021)
▪ Limits number of nuclear warheads and delivery systems.
o 1993 – Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty 2 ( START II ) – USA and Russia.
(December 2018)
▪ Further limits number of nuclear warheads & eliminates certain
categories of warheads.
o 1972 – Biological and Toxic Weapons Convention ( BTWC )
▪ BTWC signed on 1972, enforced in 1975. India signed BTWC in 1973.
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▪ Bans Biological and toxic weapons by prohibiting their development,

production, acquisition, transfer, stockpiling and use.
o 1993 – Chemical Weapons Conventions ( CWC )
▪ CWC signed on 1993, enforced in 1997. India signed CWC in 1993.
▪ Bans chemical weapons and requires their destruction within a specified
period of time.
o 1996 – Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty ( CTBT )
▪ Bans the testing of weapons.
▪ USA and China have not ratified CTBT yet.
▪ Not signed, Not ratified by – India, Pakistan, North Korea.
o 2002 – Strategic Offensive Reduction Treaty ( SORT or Moscow Treaty ) – USA
and Russia.
▪ SORT signed on 2002, enforced in 2003.
▪ Limits number of deployed nuclear warhead btwn USA & Russia.
o 2010 – New START ( or Prague Treaty ) – USA and Russia.
▪ NEW START signed on 2010, enforced in 2011.
▪ New START replaced the Treaty of Moscow (SORT).
▪ Limits both sides nuclear warheads to 1,550.

Major Organizations of IR –

• United Nations
o The United Nations was founded on 24th October 1945. (December 2019)
(March 2023 Shift 1)
o UN has Total 193 members. South Sudan was latest member in 2011.
o The term ‘United Nations’ coined by US President Franklin D. Roosevelt.
o There are 6 Main Organs of the UN :-
▪ 1. United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) – HQ → New York
▪ 2. United Nations Security Council (UNSC) – HQ → New York
▪ 3. Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) – HQ → New York
▪ 4. Trusteeship Council – HQ → New York
▪ 5. International Court of Justice (ICJ) – HQ → The Hague, Netherlands
(Shift 2 2022)
▪ 6. UN Secretariat – HQ → New York
o UNGA is called ‘Parliament of Nations’. Each member has one vote.
o UNSC has 5 permanent members, 10 non-permanent members. (Shift 1 2021)
o The P5 members of UNSC have veto power – USA, UK, France, Russia, China.
o ECOSOC has 54 members, elected for a 3 years term.
o Trusteeship Council suspended its operation on 1st November 1994.
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o ICJ has 15 judges. Term for 9 years. Court decides disputes between Countries.
o UN Secretariat comprises of the Secretary General. Term for 5 years.
o UN Charter –
o The UN Charter was signed on 26th June 1945 at San Francisco. (Shift 1 2021)
o The UN Charter has 19 Chapters. It has been amended 3 times in –
1963,1965,1973.
o Chapter 1 – Purposes and Principles (Shift 1 2021)
o Chapter 2 – Membership
o Chapter 3 – Organs of the UN
o Chapter 4 – The General Assembly
o Chapter 5 – The Security Council
o Chapter 6 – Pacific Settlement of Disputes (December 2018)
o Chapter 7 – Action with Respect to Threats of Peace and Acts of Aggression
o Chapter 18 – Amendments
o UN Secretary Generals – in Chronological Order →
o Trygve Lie → Dag Hammarskjold → U Thant → Kurt Waldheim → Javier
Perez de Cuellar → Boutros Boutros-Ghali → Kofi Annan → Ban Ki-moon →
Antonio Guterres (2017-Present). (March 2023 Shift 2)

• ICC vs ICJ –
o Both ICC and ICJ Headquarters is located at – The Hague, Netherlands. (2020)
o ICC – International Criminal Court is an Independent body. ICC formed by the
1998 Rome Statute. (Shift 2 2022)
o ICJ – International Court of Justice is a body of the United Nations formed in
1945.
o ICC – has 123 countries as signed to the Rome Statute.
o ICJ – has 193 countries as State Parties of the United Nations.
o Focus of ICC cases – Criminal matters – investigating and prosecuting crimes
of genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes.
o Focus of ICJ cases – Civil matters – settling legal disputes between the
member-states and giving advisory opinions on international legal issues.
o ICC is “the court of last resort”. Meaning – It exercises its powers when a
state’s legal system collapses, or when a government is the perpetrator of
heinous international crimes. (2020)

• Bretton Woods Agreement – (March 2023 Shift 1)

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o Bretton Woods Conference was formally called the ‘United Nations

Monetary and Financial Conference’. Signed on 1944 by 44 states at New
Hampshire, USA.
o Bretton Woods Conference resulted in formation of 3 bodies :-
▪ International Monetary Fund (1944)
▪ International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World
Bank) 1944 (December 2019)
▪ General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) 1948. (Shift 2 2022)
o Bretton Woods system collapsed in the 1970s after the Oil Shock crisis.
o In 1971, USA abandoned the system of Fixed exchange rates.

• IMF
o Established – 1944 at Bretton Woods Conference. IMF = 190 Members. HQ
→ Washington D.C. (March 2023 Shift 1)

o Purpose – to Maintain Stable Exchange Rates, to give Resources to countries

facing a Balance of Payment crisis, to promote International Monetary
Cooperation. (Shift 2 2021)
o IMF Quota System – decides how much financial resources a member gives to
IMF is directly proportional to the voting power in IMF.

• World Bank
o Established – 1944 as IBRD. WB = 189 Members. HQ → Washington D.C.
(March 2023 Shift 1)

o Purpose – to Provide Loans for countries in need for reconstruction and

development.

• WTO
o WTO – Established – 1st January 1995. WTO replaced the GATT in 1995. HQ
→ Geneva. (December 2019)
o 8 Rounds of GATT talks to WTO – Timeline of the Journey →
o 1. GATT Geneva 1947 → 2. Annecy 1949 → 3. Torquay 1951 → 4. Geneva
1956 →
→ 5. Geneva (Dillon Round) 1960-61 → 6. Geneva (Kennedy Round) 1964-67
→ 7. Geneva (Tokyo Round) 1973-79 → 8. Geneva (Uruguay Round) 1986-94
→ Marrakesh Agreement 1994 → WTO 1995 .
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o Purpose – WTO overlooks rules and regulations of International Trade and

Tariffs.
o WTO does NOT favour Most Favored Nation (MFN) principle.
o China entered WTO in the 2001 Doha Round.

• G20
o Established – 1999. No Headquarters. 19 countries + European Union.
(December 2019)
o G20 Members – Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, France, Germany,
India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, South
Korea, Turkey, UK, USA,
and European Union. … G20’s has a Permanent Guest – Spain (not a member,
Spain is guest).
o G20 Presidency rotates annually. Troika System.
o Present G20 Troika – Indonesia (2022), India (2023), Brazil (2024).
o G20 is a forum, its decisions are NOT legally binding.
o (i) Sherpa Channel – Heads of G20 States meet.
(ii) Finance Channel – Finance Ministers of G20 States meet.
o India holds the current G20 Presidency for 2023.
o Theme of G20 – “Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam.”

• G7
o Established - 1975. Russia was expelled from G8 in 2014 due to Crimea
Invasion. (December 2019)
o G7 Members – United Kingdom, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, and
the United States.
o World’s Seven Most Advanced Economies is the G7 Nations.
o India, Australia, South Korea were invited to the 2021 G7 Summit.
o Carbis Bay Declaration – was signed by G7 to prevent future pandemics.

• G4
o G4 – comprises of Brazil, India, Germany and Japan. Formed in 2005.
o Purpose – G4 is to support each other's bids for permanent seats on the
United Nations Security Council and bring in the UNSC Reforms.
o In response to this grouping, another group – Uniting for Consensus was
formed
nicknamed – the Coffee Club – it includes Italy, Pakistan, South Korea,
Argentina, Spain, Turkey, Canada, Mexico and Malta.

• BRICS
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o BRICS – acronym stands for Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa.
o Initially, 4 countries initiated the grouping BRIC – and South Africa joined in
2010, making it BRICS
o India joined the BRICS in 2009.
o Timeline of BRICS –
o 2001 – The term BRIC was coined by Jim O’Neil.
o 2006 – Leaders of BRIC countries formalized BRIC.
o 2009 – First BRIC Summit took place in Yekaterinburg, Russia.
o 2010 – South Africa joins, making it BRICS.
o 2011 – South Africa is included in BRICS summit at Sanya, China.
o 2012 – New Delhi hosts 4th BRICS summit.
o 2012 – BRICS Cable with optical fiber communications system announced.
o 2014 – Fortaleza Declaration, BRICS New Development Bank (NDB) formed and
BRICS Contingent Reserve Arrangement (CRA) signed. (December 2019)

• ASEAN
o ASEAN - Association of Southeast Asian Nations. Formed in – 1967.
(December 2019)
o Secretariat – Jakarta, Indonesia.
o Motto of ASEAN – ‘One Vision. One Identity. One Community.’
o 10 Members – Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam,
Brunei, Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia. (March 2023 Shift 2)
o ASEAN + 3 = China, South Korea, Japan.
o ASEAN + 6 = China, South Korea, Japan, Australia, India, New Zealand.
o East Asia Summit (EAS) = 10 ASEAN members + China, South Korea, Japan,
Australia, India, New Zealand, USA, Russia.
o India and ASEAN celebrated 30 years of Relations at the 19 th ASEAN-India
Summit in 2022.

• EU
o European Union – Formed in 1993 with Maastricht Treaty. 27 Members.
(March 2023 Shift 2)
o EU Headquarters – Brussels, Belgium.
o EU European Council – is the Topmost body. It includes top political leaders
from EU states. (2020)
o EU European Commission – this body is appointed by Council and approved
by EU Parliament. (2020)
o EU European Parliament – members elected on the basis of Proportional
Representation. (2020)
o EU European Court of Justice – located in Luxembourg.
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o 1951 – Treaty of Paris. European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC).

o 1957 – Treaty of Rome. European Economic Community (EEC).
o 1957 – Euratom – European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC).
o 1985 – Schengen Agreement – Schengen Free Movement Zone – NO
passports, NO Borders.
o 1993 – Maastricht Treaty signed in 1992, enforced in 1993.
o 1999 – Monetary Union signed in 1999, enforced in 2002. EU has a common
currency-the Euro.
o 2007 – Treaty of Lisbon.
o 2016 – Brexit Referendum. Britain votes to leave EU. Article 50 – To Leave EU.
(December 2019) (Shift 1 2022)
o 2020 – Britain leaves EU on 31st January 2020.

• AU
o African Union – AU Formed in 2002. 55 Members. (March 2023 Shift 2)
o 1999 – AU first time announced in Sirte Declaration.
o 2001 – AU bloc was founded on 26 May 2001 in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
o 2002 – AU was launched in the Durban Summit of 2002.
o The Pan-African Parliament is the highest legislative body of the AU.

• SCO
o Shanghai Cooperation Organization – It is Eurasian Political, Economic and
Military organisation with purpose to maintain Peace, Security and Stability in
the region.
o SCO 8 members – Russia, China, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan,
Uzbekistan, India and Pakistan.
o SCO Headquarters – Beijing, China.
o SCO was created in 2001.
o SCO Charter was signed in 2002.
o SCO Charter came into force in 2003.
o Official Languages are – Russian and Chinese.
o The Group was previously known as Shanghai Five.
o SCO Heads of State Council is the Supreme Body.
o RATS – Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure is the body to combat terrorism,
separatism, extremism. RATS located in Tashkent.
o India and Pakistan became members of SCO in 2017 – at the Astana Summit
in Kazakhstan.
o Iran to become 9th Member of SCO in 2023. (Samarkand Declaration).

• QUAD
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o The Quadrilateral Security Dialogue is an informal strategic forum.

o QUAD is Group of 4 Democracies – India, Japan, United States and Australia
focusing on the Indo-Pacific region.
o Timeline of QUAD –
o 2004 – For the first time these four nations cooperate on the Tsunami Core
Group – a relief and rescue operation organized for the victims of the Dec 2004
Tsunami.
o 2007 – Japanese PM Shinzo Abe delivers the ‘Confluence of the Two Seas
Speech’ at the Indian Parliament. He defines the concept of ‘Free and Open
Indo-Pacific’ (FOIP). This is the vision that will compete against China’s vision
in the Indo-Pacific region.
o 2007 – Beginning of QUAD 1.0.
o 2008 – Australia backs out from QUAD due to economic pressures from
China.
o 2012 – Shinzo Abe begins the “Democratic Security-Diamond” concept
comprising of the 4 nations – India, Japan, United States and Australia.
o 2017 – QUAD 2.0 is revived at the East Asia Summit in Manila in 2017.
o 2019 – The first ministerial level meeting of QUAD takes place.
o 2021 – The first in-person QUAD Leaders’ Summit takes place in Washington.
o 2022 – The second in-person QUAD Leaders’ Summit takes place in Tokyo.
o QUAD focuses on the following areas :-
o ▪ Vaccine Partnership.
o ▪ Critical and Emerging Technologies.
o ▪ Semiconductor and Supply Chain Resistance.
o ▪ Cybersecurity, Space, Maritime Cooperation.

Beijing Consensus (June 2023 Shift 1)

• In international development debates, the "Beijing Consensus" refers to the
economic model of the People's Republic of China.
• The term was coined by Joshua Cooper Ramo to contrast with the Washington
Consensus, (June 2023 Shift 1) which was the standard model of development
prescribed by Western institutions to developing countries.
• The Beijing Consensus emphasizes aspects like controlled political development,
economic pragmatism, a growth-oriented focus, and pursuit of innovation and
experimentation.
• It rejects the 'one-size-fits-all' approach to development, allowing for more flexible
and context-specific economic practices.
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• This model has resulted in rapid economic growth for China over the past few
decades, and has been lauded for lifting hundreds of millions of people out of
poverty.

Humanitarian Interventions
• Humanitarian interventions, involving the use of military force by states to address
grave human rights violations or humanitarian crises in other countries, present
complex ethical dilemmas but are justified on grounds of global interdependence
and regional stability. (June 2023 Shift 1)
• The intention behind such interventions is often noble to protect civilians and
alleviate suffering. They also raise significant ethical concerns.
KEY EXAMPLES

1991 US launched in Northern Iraq (Operation Provide Comfort) (June

2023 Shift 1)

1992 UN-authorized and US-led intervention in Somalia (Operation

Restore Hope) (June 2023 Shift 1)

1994,2004,2022 US troops were despatched to Haiti to restore order. In October

2022, Haitian PM called on the international community to send a
"specialised armed force" to combat gang violence. The United
States has provided over $300 million in humanitarian aid to Haiti
over the last three years.
1994 French established 'safe zone' for fleeing Hutu refugees post-
Rwandan genocide (Operation Turquoise) (June 2023 Shift 1)

1999 NATO air strikes halt Serbian ethnic cleansing, ensuring Kosovo
safety (Operation Allied Forces) (June 2023 Shift 1)

1999 UN-backed Australian force intervenes, taking control from

Indonesia in East Timor

2000 UK deploys forces to protect citizens, aid elected government

against rebels in Sierra Leone
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2003 United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) conducted by the United

Nations to stabilize Liberia after years of civil war.

2006 UNIFIL (United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon) expanded its

presence in Southern Lebanon after the 2006 Lebanon War to
maintain peace.

2011 NATO-led intervention in Libya aimed to protect civilians during the

Libyan Civil War.

2013 French-led Operation Sangaris intervened to stabilize the Central

African Republic amidst conflict and violence.

2014 International coalition led by the United States launched airstrikes

against ISIS (Islamic State) in Iraq and Syria to combat terrorism and
protect civilians.

2014 International efforts, including those by the World Health

Organization (WHO) and various aid organizations, intervened in
West Africa to combat the Ebola virus outbreak.

2015 Saudi-led intervention in Yemen aimed to restore the Yemeni

government against Houthi rebels, leading to a complex
humanitarian crisis.

2017 Humanitarian aid was provided to Rohingya refugees fleeing

violence in Myanmar, primarily led by international organizations
and neighbouring countries.

2018 Humanitarian aid missions were conducted to assist Venezuelans.

2021 Humanitarian aid missions intensified after the Taliban takeover in

Afghanistan

GLOBALISATION
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• David Held, (A globalizing world culture, economics, politics, 2004) a

prominent political theorist, advocates the transformationalist view of
globalization, emphasizing its multifaceted nature. He highlights four key
aspects:
1. Space compression reduces physical distance, facilitating rapid global exchanges.
2. Globalization challenges traditional state sovereignty, necessitating transnational
cooperation.
3. New spatial organizations like global cities emerge, fostering economic and cultural
exchange.
4. Globalization engenders both integration and fragmentation, creating interconnectedness
alongside disparities.
• Stiglitz has criticized aspects of globalization such as deregulation, capital
flight, and inequality, advocating for policies that prioritize social equity,
environmental sustainability, and fair trade. He argues that globalization
should be harnessed to promote inclusive growth and address global
challenges effectively. Additionally, Stiglitz has been critical of certain
international institutions like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and
World Bank, suggesting reforms to make them more responsive to the needs
of the global community. (Globalization and Its Discontents, 2002)
• Held and McGrew’s (Globalization/anti-globalization, 2002) analytical
framework is constructed by developing a three-part typology of theories of
globalisation consisting of “hyper-globalist,” “sceptic,” and
“transformationalist” categories. (June 2023 Shift 2)

▪ Hyperglobalist Perspective:
- Globalization seen as a potent force eroding national sovereignty.
- Advocates assert declining state control due to global economic
integration.

▪ Anti-Globalists/Sceptic Perspective:
- Critical view questioning the extent and novelty of globalization.
- Emphasizes intact regional processes and state power, suggesting
globalization as a myth.

▪ Transformationalist Perspective:
- Acknowledges globalization's significant impact but challenges
hyperglobalist predictions.
- Views globalization as reshaping rather than diminishing national
power, leading to reconfigured global politics and economics. (June
2023 Shift 1)
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Just War
• Just war is military ethics often known as a tradition that is studied by military
leaders, theologians, ethicists, and policymakers. The doctrine's goal is to ensure
that a war is morally justifiable by establishing a set of criteria that must all be met
for a war to be declared just.
• The conditions are divided into two categories:
- jus ad Bellum (right to fight)
- jus in Bello (right conduct in war)
• The first set of criteria deals with the morality of going to war, whereas the second
set of criteria deals with moral behaviour during the fight.
• Three principles: (June 2023 Shift 2)
1. War as last resort: Just War theory advocates exhausting peaceful means first to
avoid unnecessary violence, making war a response to imminent threats.
2. Justifiable war aims: Just War theory emphasizes morally acceptable objectives like
self-defence or human rights protection, rejecting wars with unjust aims.
3. Wholesale invasion not justifiable: Just War theory stresses proportionality,
suggesting responses to threats should match the level of provocation to avoid
excessive harm.
• Dutch jurist Hugo Grotius in his book The Rights of War and Peace argued that war is
only acceptable if a country is in imminent danger and the use of force is both
necessary and proportionate to the threat.
• Grotius distinguishes three types of such pursuits:
- self-defence,
- property recovery, and
- retribution.
• Each of them is founded on natural law albeit the specific rights at issue may come
from other sources such as international law.
• The right to self-defence stems from everyone's fundamental desire to protect
themselves from harm. Property recovery includes not just tangible goods and land,
but also rights over people (such as rightful subjects or slaves), rights to actions (such
as contract fulfilment), and damages recompense.

UN PEACEKEEPING (March 2023)

• UN peacekeeping operations are police and peacebuilding operations carried out by
the UN to restore order and stability to war-torn countries. Peacekeeping is not
stated in the United Nations Charter.
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• The United Nations Security Council is empowered by the UN Charter to take

collective action to safeguard international peace and security.
• The UN Security Council is responsible for deploying peacekeepers in conflict zones
to ensure stability and security.
• The UN engages in preventive diplomacy by proactively identifying potential
conflicts and working to prevent their escalation.
• Peacekeepers from the United Nations guarantee that peace agreements and
accords are implemented in conflict zones.
• They provide assistance through confidence-building measures, electoral support,
law and order improvements, and social development that will result in beneficial
economic changes.
• Its provisions are not explicitly given in the UN Charter and it has undergone
quantitative and qualitative changes in the post-cold war period are true about the
UN peace-keeping.
• UN has not been able to resolve the following conflicts:
o Israeli-Palestinian conflict (1948-Now)
o Cambodia Violence (1975-1979)
o Civil War in Somalia and South Sudan (1991-Now)
o Darfur Conflict in Sudan (2003-Now)
o Iraq Invasion (2003-2011)
o Syrian Civil War (2011-Now)
o Yemen Civil War (2014-Now)
o Rohingya Crisis, Myanmar (2017-Now)
o Russia-Ukraine War (2014-2022- Now)
• India has taken part in 49 peacekeeping missions so far. India’s all women contingent
was deployed in 2007 in Liberia as the first ever all-women unit. List of countries in
which India participated in the peacekeeping operations. (March 2023)
✓ Korea
✓ Lebanon
✓ Congo
✓ Gaza strip
✓ Sudan and South Sudan
✓ Golan Heights
✓ Cyprus
✓ Ivory Coast
✓ Haiti
✓ Liberia
• The Indian Army commemorated the 75th International Day of United Nations (UN)
Peacekeepers on 29th May (which was designated by the UN General Assembly) at
the National War Memorial in New Delhi. Theme for 2023: 'Peace begins with me'.
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• Important UN Peacekeeping Missions:

1. UNEF I - 1956-1967 - Sinai Peninsula (Egypt)
2. UNIFIL - Since 1978 – Lebanon
3. UNAMIR - 1993-1996 – Rwanda (June 2023 Shift 2)
4. UNMIBH - 1995-2002 - Bosnia and Herzegovina
5. UNAMSIL - 1999-2006 - Sierra Leone
6. UNMIS - 2005-2011 - Sudan
7. MINUSTAH - 2004-2017 - Haiti
8. UNMIL - 2003-2018 - Liberia
9. MONUSCO - Since 2010 - Democratic Republic of the Congo
10.UNMISS - Since 2011 - South Sudan (June 2023 Shift 2)
11. UNPROFOR- 1992-1995- Yugoslavia (June 2023 Shift 2)
12. UNAMID -2007- Darfur (June 2023 Shift 2)

SDGs and MDGs

•
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) (June 2023 Shift 2) and the
subsequent Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are global frameworks designed
to address complex social, economic, and environmental challenges.
• In September 2000, world leaders came together at the United Nations
Headquarters in New York to adopt the United Nations Millennium Declaration and
aimed to alleviate poverty, promote education, and improve healthcare, among
other objectives.
• The SDGs replace the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) which had started a
global effort in 2000 to tackle the indignity of poverty.
• The Sustainable Development Goals were adopted by all United Nations Member
States as a universal call to action to end poverty and protect the planet by 2030.
They are built on the principle of “leaving no one behind”.
• The 17 Sustainable Development Goals and 169 targets are integrated and
indivisible and balance the three dimensions of sustainable development: the
economic, social, and environmental.
• Following are the 17 SDGs: (June 2023 Shift 2)
GOAL 1: No Poverty
GOAL 2: Zero Hunger
GOAL 3: Good Health and Well-being
GOAL 4: Quality Education
GOAL 5: Gender Equality
GOAL 6: Clean Water and Sanitation
GOAL 7: Affordable and Clean Energy
GOAL 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth
GOAL 9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure
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GOAL 10: Reduced Inequality

GOAL 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities
GOAL 12: Responsible Consumption and Production
GOAL 13: Climate Action
GOAL 14: Life Below Water
GOAL 15: Life on Land
GOAL 16: Peace and Justice Strong Institutions
GOAL 17: Partnerships to Achieve the Goal

Problem Solving Theory

Robert Cox was a prominent scholar in the field of international relations and is known for
his Two kinds of theories: Problem-solving and Critical Theory. He held that ‘theories are
‘always for someone and for some purpose’. (June 2023 Shift 1)
• Critique of Problem-Solving Theory:
• Identified flaw: neglect of power structures and social dynamics.
• Theory accepts existing structures without questioning them.
• Cox's Perspective:
• Advocated for deeper analysis of power dynamics.
• Proposed solutions should challenge and transform existing structures.
• Influence on Critical Theory:
• Cox's work shaped critical theory in international relations.
• Emphasizes the need to question power dynamics for effective solutions.

Modern Global Capitalism (June 2023 Shift 1)

• Post-1945 Keynesian Era:

o Western governments initially believed Keynesian principles solved business
cycle instabilities.
o Keynesianism declined after the 'stagflation' crisis in the 1970s.
• Rise of Neoliberalism:
o Neoliberalism revived laissez-faire thinking post-1970s.
o Instead of mitigating, neoliberalism accentuated capitalist system
fluctuations.
• Financialization and Instability:
o Financialization intensified capitalist fluctuations, leading to a 'risk society'.
o Globalized financial systems increased vulnerability to speculative bubbles.
• Casino Capitalism:
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o A form of capitalism that is highly volatile and unpredictable because it is

susceptible to speculatively-orientated lifts in finance capital.
o It was popularised by Susan Strange (1986).
• Bonus Culture and Risk-Taking:
o Bonus-driven short-term risk-taking incentivized instability.
o Banks and financial institutions became more vulnerable to collapse.
• Global Financial Crisis of 2007–09:
o Most serious crisis since the Great Depression.
o Revealed deeper instabilities in economies with extensive financial
deregulation and debt burdens.
• Crises of Modern Global Capitalism
o 1994–95: The Mexican economic crisis begins with the sudden devaluation of
the Mexican peso, sparking the 'Tequila effect' across Latin America.
o 1997–98: The Asian financial crisis commences in Thailand with the collapse
of the baht, spreading to Southeast Asia and Japan, resulting in currency
devaluations and stock market crashes.
o 1998: The Russian financial crisis unfolds with the collapse of stock, bond,
and currency markets, exacerbated by falling commodity prices following the
Asian financial crisis.
o 1999–2002: The Argentine economic crisis starts with a loss of investor
confidence, leading to capital flight amid declining GDP.
o 2000: The Dot-com crisis ensues as the 'dot-com bubble' bursts, following
speculative rises in IT-related stocks since 1998.
o 2002: The Uruguay banking crisis erupts with a massive run on banks driven
by concerns over the Uruguayan economy, linked to Argentina's economic
meltdown.
o 2007–08: The US sub-prime mortgage crisis triggers the onset of the global
financial crisis, causing widespread economic turmoil.
o 2007–09: The global financial crisis persists, encompassing various economic
crises worldwide.
• Key Modern Political Economists:
o George Soros:
- Contribution: Emphasized reflexivity over market fundamentalism, challenging rational-
actor economic models.
- Key Works: "Open Society" (2000) and "The New Paradigm for Financial Markets" (2008).

o Joseph Stiglitz:
- In Globalization and its Discontents (2002), Stiglitz mentioned about IMF policies.
- In Making Globalization Work (2006), he linked globalization to ‘Americanization’,
environmental degradation and a ‘roll-back’ of democracy.
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- Stiglitz’s main works include Whither Socialism? (1996), The Roaring Nineties (2003)
and Freefall (2010).

o Paul Krugman:
- Contribution: Advocated for expansionary fiscal policy as a solution to recession,
critiquing unsustainable fiscal policies.
- Key Works: "The Conscience of a Liberal" (2007) and "The Return of Depression
Economics and the Crisis of 2008" (2008).

o Ben Bernanke:
- Contribution: Led the US Federal Reserve during the 2007–09 global financial crisis,
focusing on managing economic fallout and lending.
- Key Work: "Essays on the Great Depression" (2004).

o Herman Daly:
- Contribution: Pioneered the theory of steady-state economics, advocating for qualitative
development over quantitative growth.
- Key Works: "Steady-State Economics" (1973) and "For the Common Good" (1990).
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UNIT 6 – INDIA’S FOREIGN POLICY

– IMPORTANT EVENTS & AGREEMENTS –
– INDIA’S RELATIONS WITH NEIGHBOURS –
INDIA – PAKISTAN
YEAR EVENT KEY POINTS
1947 Independence and India and Pakistan become two Independent States.
Partition A Violent Partition takes place displacing millions.

1947 Junagadh Dispute Indian troops annex Junagadh on 9th Nov 1947 by the
order of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel.

1947- India – Pakistan ▪The First India-Pak War on Kashmir.

1948 War ▪ (October 1947 to December 1948).
The War ends with –
▪India gains - 2/3rd control of territory, Pak - 1/3rd control.

1948- United Nations on UNSC Resolution 47 – forms a Five-Member UN

1951 Kashmir Commission (UNCIP) to deal with a ceasefire agreement
in the Subcontinent. (December 2019)

1950 Liaqat – Nehru Treaty signed to guarantee Rights of Minorities to both

Pact India and Pak after violence they suffered from Partition.

1958 Nehru – Noon ▪ Half of Berubari Union No. 12 was agreed to be given
Agreement to Pakistan and other half to be retained by India.
▪ Then, Supreme Court of India in Landmark Judgement
(Berubari Union Case) citied Article 3 of Indian
Constitution and stated Parliament is NOT competent to
give away a territory of India.

1960 Indus – Water ▪Signed between PM Nehru and Pak Pres Ayub Khan.
Treaty ▪The Treaty gives India control over 3 eastern rivers –
(Shift 2 2022) Ravi, Beas, Sutlej. (June 2019)
▪The Treaty gives Pakistan control over 3 western rivers –
Indus, Chenab, Jhelum.

1965 India-Pakistan War ▪ Second India-Pak war begins in August 1965.

▪ Pakistan launches two Military Operations –
▪ Operation Gibraltar and Operation Grand Slam.
▪ Both Pakistani operations fail in objectives.
▪ India then launched offensive to Lahore through Punjab.
▪ During War, PM Shastri gave the famous slogan –
▪ “Jai Jawan, Jai Kisaan” at Urwa, Allahabad.
▪ Soviet Union acts as mediators to bring end to conflict.
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1966 Tashkent ▪ Soviet Premier Kosygin invites both leaders of India

Agreement and Pak to Tashkent to end the conflict with Ceasefire line.
(Shift 1 2021) ▪ Tashkent Agreement signed on – 10th January 1966.
(Shift 1 2022) ▪ PM Shastri dies in Tashkent.

1971 India – Pakistan ▪ Third India-Pak War begins in 1971 – and this is the first
War war not to be centred around Kashmir.
/ ▪Tensions arose between the Urdu speaking and Bengali
Bangladesh speaking population in East Pakistan.
Liberation War ▪ Pakistan brutally kills Bengali minorities with
Operation Searchlight.
▪ India supports Awami League leader Mujibur Rahman.
▪India actively supported Bangladesh’s cause for
Liberation – and their liberation force Mukti Bahini.
▪ Indian army wins this war decisively.
▪ The conflict ends with signing of Simla Agreement.

1972 Simla Agreement ▪ On 2nd June 1972 – Simla Agreement is signed between
Indian PM Indira Gandhi, Pak PM Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto.
(December 2019) As per terms of Simla Agreement (1972) –
(2020) (Shift 2 ▪ The Charter of the UN shall govern relations between
2022) India and Pakistan.
(March 2023 Shift ▪ The Ceasefire Line (CFL) of December 1971 shall be
1) respected as the Line of Control (LoC). (Shift 1 2022)
▪ Any Differences shall be settled by Peaceful means
and through Bilateral Negotiations.

1986 Operation ▪ During PM Rajiv Gandhi the Indian Army undertook a

Brasstacks military operation from November 1986 to January 1987.
▪ This Large scale military operation conducted in
Rajasthan by the Indian Army involving 500,000 troops
on the ground in the military exercise was to conduct a
war-like simulation exercise to determine the strength and
tactical nuclear strategy of Pakistan.

1988 Nuclear Non- Rajiv Gandhi enjoyed good rapport with next Pakistan
Aggression Pact Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto and they signed the
Nuclear Non-Aggression Agreement in 1988.

1998 Pokhran – II tests ▪ Operation Shakti – Between 11-13 May 1998 India
Nuclear Tests carried 3 underground nuclear tests at Pokhran range.
(Shift 2 2021) ▪ India became a Nuclear Weapon State in 1998.
▪ USA heavily condemned India’s Pokhran-II tests and
imposed sanctions against India. (December 2018)
▪ Seeing India secure its nuclear security in South Asia,
Pakistan could not resist and carried out its only nuclear
tests till date codenamed: Chagai-I and Chagai-II on 28th
and 30th May 1998.
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1998 Composite Dialogue India on PM Vajpayee’s initiative started

Process Composite Dialogue Process with Pak on 8 subjects –
▪ Confidence Building Measures;
▪ Jammu & Kashmir;
▪ Siachen; (Shift 2 2021)
▪ Tulbul navigation project;
▪ Sir Creek Dispute; (Shift 2 2021)
▪ Trade and Economic Cooperation;
▪ Terrorism and Drug Trafficking;
▪ Friendly Exchanges in different field.

1999 Delhi-Lahore Inaugural run of the Delhi-to-Lahore Bus Service started

Bus Diplomacy in February 1999. (Bus Diplomacy). (December 2019)
(Shift 2 2021)

1999 Lahore Declaration PM Vajpayee met Pakistan PM Nawaz Sharif and signed
the Lahore Declaration in Feb 1999. (2020)
(Shift 1 2022) (Shift Under the Lahore Declaration, both countries agreed to
2 2022) (March stop any more nuclear arms race.
2023 Shift 1)
1999 India – Pakistan ▪Fourth India-Pak War is fought at Kargil May-July 1999.
War ▪Three Military Operations were carried out by India –
Kargil War ‘Operation Vijay’ carried out by the Indian Army,
‘Operation Safed Sagar’ by the Indian Air Force and
‘Operation Talwar’ by the Indian Navy.

2001 Agra Summit ▪Despite incidents of Terrorist attacks from Pak,

(Shift 2 2022) ▪Vajpayee tried to restart the Composite Dialogue process.
▪Vajpayee and Musharraf eventually met at the historic
city of Agra on July 2001. (December 2019)
▪However, the two countries could not meet at an
agreement point – for Pakistan, Kashmir was the core
issue and for India, cross-border terrorism supported by
the Pakistan State.

2001 Terrorist Attack on ▪ A deadly terrorist attack on the Indian Parliament took
Indian Parliament place on 13th December 2001.
▪ India retaliated with ‘Operation Parikrama’.
▪ This was biggest military mobilization since Kargil and
soon India drastically reduced all contacts with Pakistan.

2003 India’s ▪ Father of India’s Nuclear Program – Homi J. Bhabha.

NUCLEAR
DOCTRINE ▪ What is Nuclear Doctrine?
(March 2023 Shift It is a document which states – How a Nuclear Weapon
2) State would employ its nuclear weapons both during times
of Peace and War.

▪ Who first passed the India’s Nuclear Doctrine?

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Cabinet Committee on Security - January 2003.

▪ When was India’s Nuclear Doctrine established?

January 2003.

▪ What are Two Points of India’s Nuclear Doctrine? –

1. NO FIRST USE
2. CREDIBLE MINIMUM DETERRENCE.
(Shift 2 2021)

2005 Srinagar- PM Manmohan Singh tried to restart the Composite

Muzaffarabad Bus Dialogue Process with Pak. In this context,
Service Srinagar to Muzaffarabad Bus Service started in 2005.

Series of A Series of Terrorist attacks impacted India-Pak relations:

Terrorist Attacks
2006 ▪ 2006 – Mumbai Train Bombings.
2007 ▪ 2007 – Samjhauta Express bombed in Panipat.
2008 ▪ 2008 – 26/11 terror attacks on Mumbai. (March 2023
Shift 2)

2015 Terrorist Attack on Pak state-sponsored terrorist attacks saw the militancy
– theatre shift from J&K to Punjab.
Gurdaspur,
Udhampur A Series of Terrorist attacks occurred in 2015 & 2016 :
Pathankot Airbase Gurdaspur (27th July 2015)
Udhampur (5th August 2015)
and Pathankot Airbase (2nd Jan 2016).

2016 Terrorist Attack on On 18 September 2016, the army camp at Uri town of
– Baramulla district was attacked by a group of terrorists
Uri town having roots traceable to Pakistan.

2016 Uri Surgical Strikes On 29 September 2016, Indian Army carried out a limited
and calculated counter-terrorism operation based on
precise inputs on concentration of militant groups.
(The Uri Surgical Strikes).

2017 Kulbhushan Illegal detention of Indian national Kulbhushan Jadhav

Jadhav Case consular access under the Vienna Convention was asked
several times. Finally, after India’s approach to the ICJ at
Hague stayed his death sentence on 28th May, 2017.

2019 Terrorist Attack on On 14 February 2019, 40 Indian security forces were

– killed in a cross-border suicide terror attack in
Pulwama Pulwama, Jammu & Kashmir by Pakistan-based and
supported terrorist organization Jaishe-Mohammed (JeM)
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2019 Balakot Airstrikes On 26th February 2019, India carried out an intelligence
led anti-terror pre-emptive air strike against JeM training
camp in Balakot, Pakistan. (The Balakot Air Strikes)

2019 MFN Status After the Pulwama terror attack, India withdrew the
Withdrawn Most Favoured Nation (MFN) status previously
accorded to Pakistan.

2019 Article 370 On 5th August 2019, Article 370 of India’s Constitution,
abrogated was scrapped off, which gave a special status to Jammu
and Kashmir. Following this decision, the bilateral
relations faced another severe blow.

2019 Kartarpur Sahib The Kartarpur Sahib Corridor was formally

Corridor inaugurated by the Prime Minister on 9 November 2019.

INDIA – BANGLADESH
1971 India recognizes India was the first country to recognize Bangladesh as an
Bangladesh independent state and established diplomatic relations
immediately after its independence in December 1971.

1974 Land Boundary Bangladesh signs the Land Boundary Agreement (LBA)
Agreement (LBA) with India in 1974. (Shift 1 and 2 2021)
signed
1996 Ganga Waters The Ganga Waters Treaty was signed in 1996 as a 30-year
Treaty water sharing arrangement at Farakka Barrage.

2015 Land Boundary The India-Bangladesh LBA comes into force in 2015.
Agreement (LBA) Under the Agreement – India transferred 111 enclaves to
comes into force Bangladesh and Bangladesh transferred 51 enclaves to
India. Also, the 100th Amendment Act of 2015 of the
Indian Constitution gave effect to this agreement.
INDIA – AFGHANISTAN
2011 Strategic The guiding spirit of the India – Afghanistan relationship
Partnership is its Strategic Partnership Agreement (SPA) in 2011.
Agreement (SPA) (Shift 1 2021)
2016 Development India completes the Construction of Afghan Parliament
Partnership and the Salma Dam in 2016.

2021 Taliban Takeover On 15th August 2021, Taliban overthrew Ashraf Ghani’s
govt and seized power in Afghanistan. The new leader of
Afghanistan is Mullah Abdul Ghani Baradar.
The new Taliban govt has changed the official name and
flag of Afghanistan to “Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan”
Previously, the Taliban had ruled Afghanistan from
1996-2001.
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2021 Operation Devi Operation Devi Shakti was carried out by the
Shakti Indian Armed Forces, the Indian Air Force, and the MEA–
to evacuate hundreds of Indians stranded in Afghanistan
after the fall of Kabul government and the takeover by
Taliban.
INDIA – NEPAL
1950 Treaty of Peace and The India–Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship of
Friendship 1950 forms the bedrock of the Special Relations that exist
between India and Nepal.

1996 Mahakali Treaty In 1996, the Mahakali Treaty is signed. The river is a
boundary river passing between the two countries.

1997 BIMSTEC BIMSTEC (Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi Sectoral

Technical and Economic Cooperation) was formed in
1997. Nepal and Bhutan joined BIMSTEC in 2004. (Shift
2 2021) (Shift 1 and 2 2022)
BBIN BBIN (Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal (BBIN)
2015 Initiative) was formed in 2015.

India and Nepal share multiple multilateral forums such as

BBIN, BIMSTEC and SAARC etc.

2015 Operation Maitri After the 2015 earthquake in Nepal, Government of India
(Shift 2 2022) was the first-responder to the crisis and India carried out
its largest disaster relief operation abroad. India extended
US$ 1 billion to Nepal as part of its long-term assistance
for post-earthquake reconstruction in housing, education,
health and culture heritage sectors.

2020 India-Nepal border Nepal in 2020 released a new political map that claims
dispute Kalapani, Limpiyadhura and Lipulekh of Uttarakhand
(Kalapani Dispute) as part of Nepal’s territory.
(Shift 1 and 2 2021)
Nepal also claimed the area of Susta (located in the
West Champaran district, Bihar) on their new map.
Kalapani boundary dispute remains an unresolved issue.

INDIA – BHUTAN
1949 Treaty of Perpetual The Treaty of Perpetual Friendship and Cooperation
Friendship and of 1949 is the basic framework of India- Bhutan bilateral
Cooperation relations. This treaty was renewed in the year 2007.
Formal Diplomatic relations were established in 1968.

Multilateral India and Bhutan share multiple multilateral forums such

Engagements as BBIN, BIMSTEC, SAARC etc.
The major area of Indo-Bhutan Development Partnership
is Hydropower cooperation.
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2021 Bhutan adopts the Bhutan becomes the first country, in India’s immediate
BHIM app neighbourhood, to use the BHIM app for mobile-based
payments deepening the financial linkages between our
two countries.

INDIA – MYANMAR
Multilateral Myanmar is a key component of India’s ‘Act East’ and
Engagements ‘India’s Neighbourhood First Policy.’ (Shift 1 2022)
BIMSTEC, ASEAN, Mekong-Ganga Cooperation are
the various platforms for their multilateral engagements.
(Shift 2 2022)

Kaladan Multi- India is building the Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit

Modal Transit Transport - to link Kolkata to Sittwe in Myanmar and
Transport Project then from Myanmar’s Kaladan river to India’s north-east.

India-Myanmar- It is a highway under construction under India’s ‘Look

Thailand-Trilateral East Policy’ that will connect Moreh in India to Mae Sot
Highway in Thailand via Myanmar. The trilateral highways project
is aimed at opening the gate to ASEAN through the land.

INDIA – SRI LANKA

1956- Discrimination The Sri Lankan government passed many laws like the
1970 against Tamil Sinhala Only Official Languages Act in 1956 which
minority discriminated against the minority community-the Tamils.

1975 LTTE formation Prabhakan established the LTTE - Liberation Tigers of

Tamil Eelam.

1983- Start of Sri Lankan The Sri Lankan Civil War officially begins between the
2009 Civil War Sinhalese majority government and militant group LTTE.

1987 Indo-Sri Lanka Indian PM Rajiv Gandhi and Sri Lankan PM

Peace Accord J.R. Jayewardene signed the Indo-Sri Lanka Peace
Accord in 1987 in hopes to bring an end to the conflict.

1987 Indian For the first time India was going to take an
Peacekeeping Interventionist approach. Rajiv Gandhi approved to
Forces sent to send the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) to Sri
Sri Lanka Lanka to end the hostilities to fight against the LTTE.
(2020)
(March 2023 Shift
1)
1987 Operation Pawan Operation Pawan was the name of Indian military
operation conducted by the IPKF forces to take control
of the Jaffna peninsula from LTTE forces.
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1990 Withdrawal of Facing a brutal conflict, with no end result PM V. P. Singh

IPKF decided to withdraw the IPKF forces from Sri Lanka.
1991 Assassination of LTTE member Kalaivani Rajaratnam in a suicide
Rajiv Gandhi bombing attempt assassinated PM Rajiv Gandhi.

2009 End of Civil War The Sri Lanka government reclaims territory from the
and defeat of LTTE LTTE, ending the Sri Lankan Civil War.
Fishermen Due to the close proximity of territorial waters between
Detention Issue two countries, at the Palk Straits, Gulf of Mannar - many
(Ongoing Issue) incidents of illegal crossing of International Maritime
Boundary Line of fishermen and their long detention have
become a common problem in Indo-Sri Lankan relations.

2017 Hambantota Port Hambantota port was suffering from losses due to high
(Shift 1 2021) and unsustainable expenses. In 2017 Sri Lanka leased the
port to China for 99-years. This is an example of China’s
Debt Trap Diplomacy.

2022 Sri Lankan Due to rise in external debts, high inflation rates, rising
Economic Crisis food prices and collapse of the Tourism sector hit by
Covid-19 pandemic and Tea industry affected by
agricultural reforms – Sri Lanka was on the verge of
collapse.
India placed Sri Lanka at the centre of its
‘Neighbourhood First Policy’ and extended its line of
credit to Sri Lanka to over $3 billion to help it through the
crisis.
INDIA – MALDIVES
‘India First’ has been a stated policy of the Government
of Maldives.

1976 Maritime Boundary One‐time claim of Maldives to Minicoy Island was

Treaty resolved by the Maritime Boundary Treaty of 1976.

1988 Operation Cactus A military operation by the Indian Army to restore

President Gayoom’s from a coup attempt led to long-
term trust in India-Maldives ties.
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– INDIA’S RELATIONS WITH MAJOR POWERS –

INDIA – CHINA
1949 India-China ▪ India gains independence in 1947 and China gains
establish diplomatic independence in 1949.
relations ▪ India was one the first few non-communist nations in the
world to recognize - the communist PRC government.

1950 China invades ▪ India recognizes in 1950 the Chinese suzerainty over
Tibet Tibet. India begins to refer as “Tibet region of China.”
▪ On Oct 1950 - Chinese Troops cross the Sino-Tibetan
boundary and move towards Lhasa.

1954 Panchsheel India’s PM Nehru and Chinese Premier Zhou En-Lai

Agreement signed the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence in
(2020) Colombo, also known as – Panchsheel Agreement in 1954.
(March 2023 Shift (Shift 2 2021)
1)
The five principles of Panchsheel are :-
❖ Mutual respect for territorial integrity and sovereignty
❖ Non-aggression
❖ Non-interference in internal affairs
❖ Equality
❖ Peaceful co-existence.

1955 Bandung ▪ Premier Zhou En-Lai and Prime Minister Nehru attended
Conference the inaugural Afro-Asian Bandung Conference on
(March 2023 Shift 18-24 April 1955.
1) ▪ A Total 29 countries participated in the Bandung
Conference of NAM.
1959 India grants asylum ▪ India grants asylum to the Dalai Lama.
to Dalai Lama ▪ India China relations see a downfall.

1959 China refuses to ▪ September 1959 – After downfall in relations China

accept McMahon refuses to accept McMahon Line (Boundary Line
Line between India and China). (Shift 1 2021)
▪ China argues that since it was not signatory to 1842
Peace Treaty between British India and England it will
not accept the boundaries along McMahon Line.

1961 Nehru’s Forward ▪ PM Nehru’s initiates the FORWARD POLICY of 1961

Policy ▪ The Aim of Nehru’s Forward Policy Was To Establish
New Outposts by the Indian Army on North of the Line
of Actual Control (LAC) to reclaim territory that had
been occupied by China.
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1962 Sino-India Border ▪ 1962 – SINO-INDIA BOUNDARY WAR –

War ▪ Chinese troops launch an offensive attack on Indian
positions at Aksai Chin (WESTERN SECTOR) and
Tawang, Walong (EASTER SECTOR).
▪ The Conflict ended when China declared a unilateral
ceasefire and announces withdrawal of troops 20km
behind the Line of Actual Control (LAC).
▪ India suffered heavy losses during this war.

1963 The Henderson The Henderson Brooks-Bhagat report (or the Henderson
Brooks-Bhagat Brooks report) is the report of an investigative
report (June 2023 commission, which conducted an Operations Review of
Shift 1) the Indian Army's operation during the Sino-Indian War
of 1962.
1964 China Nuclear ▪ Project 596 – was the first nuclear weapons test
Tests conducted by the People's Republic of China.
▪ It was detonated on 16 October 1964, at the Lop Nur
test site.

1976 India-China restore ▪ PM Indira Gandhi re-established ambassadorial relations

relations between India and China in 1976.
1979 EAM Vajpayee ▪ High-level political contacts with China were revived in
visits China the next government – in 1979 when then Foreign
Minister A.B. Vajpayee under the Janata Government of
Morarji Desai would made an official visit to China.

1986 Sumdorong Chu ▪ In 1986, a military standoff took place between Chinese
Valley stand-off PLA and Indian army in the Sumdorong Chu Valley in
Arunachal Pradesh region.

▪ In same year, the Indian Parliament had also decided

to grant full Statehood to Arunachal Pradesh.

1988 PM Rajiv Gandhi ▪ The historic event of PM Rajiv Gandhi’s visit to China.
visits China ▪ He became the first Prime Minister in 34 years to make
a state visit to China, since PM Nehru.

▪ PM Rajiv Gandhi’s 1988 visit marked the beginning of

improvement in bilateral relations.

1998 India Nuclear Tests ▪ India conducted three underground nuclear tests on
11 and 13 May 1998 at the Pokhran range in Rajasthan
Desert. After this test, India declared herself as a Nuclear
Weapons State. China criticized India’s tests.

2002 Premier Zhu Ronji Chinese Premier Zhu Rongji led a state-visit to India in
visits India 2002.
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2003 PM Vajpayee visits PM Vajpayee led a state-visit to China in 2003. These

China state-visits improved India-China bilateral relations.
2003 Sikkim recognition The same year saw, with the easing of relations between
the two nations, Indian sovereignty over Sikkim was
finally recognised by China in 2003.
2006 Nathu La Pass ▪ On 6th July 2006, China and India re-opened the Nathu
re-opened La pass after a closure of 44 years.
▪ The Nathu La pass is an important strategic route
connecting India’s North-eastern state of Sikkim with
Tibet in China.
2007 India joins QUAD India’s joining of the QUAD Initiative in
May 2007, provoked criticism from China as it
looked at the new grouping with suspicion.

2009 India joins BRICS India joined the BRICS in the first summit held at
Yekaterinburg, Russia in 2009.

2017 Doklam Crisis ▪ The Military standoff between India and China lasted
for 73 days.
▪ Chinese troops were trying to construct a road in the
area, and Indian troops, in aid of their Bhutanese
counterparts, objected to it, resulting in the stand-off.

2018 Wuhan Summit The 1st Informal Summit held between PM Modi and
President Xi Jinping to build India-China relations upon
Mutual Respect and Mutual Sensitivity.
2019 Mamallapuram The 2nd Informal Summit held between PM Modi and
Summit President Xi Jinping.

2020 Galwan Valley ▪ On April-May 2020, the Chinese side undertook several
clash attempts to unilaterally alter the status quo along the Line
(Shift 2 2021) of Actual Control (LAC).
▪ This included Kongka La, Gogra and North Bank of
Pangong Tso Lake.
▪ India and China engaged in a violent face off on 15 June
2020 at Galwan valley.

2022 Tawang stand-off On December 9, 2022 - Around 200 Chinese soldiers tried
to transgress the Line of Actual Control (LAC), but the
Indian troops contested the PLA attempts in Yangtse area
of Tawang Sector.

INDIA – U.S.A.
1949 PM Nehru visits ▪ PM Nehru met US Pres. Harry Truman in his
USA multi-week tour to United States in 1949.
▪ This trip precedes India’s formal declaration of taking an
independent stance in the Cold War.
▪ This stance sets the tone for future India-USA relations.
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1962 Pak signs SEATO ▪ Pakistan was an ally of the West at the time.
and CENTO ▪ Pakistan signed the SEATO pact in 1954, and Baghdad
with USA Pact (later named CENTO) in 1955 with USA. These
military agreements further the gap between India-USA.

1962 USA supports India ▪ PM Nehru sought support from US Pres. Kennedy during
in Sino-India War Sino-India 1962 war. US pledged to help in reply, but
China had already declared a ceasefire before and the war
came to an end.

1963 U.S. Agronomist ▪ USA’s Norman Borlaug travelled to India in 1963. His
collaboration collaboration with Indian scientist Dr. M.S. Swaminathan
brings Green resulted the “Green Revolution” in India.
Revolution ▪ As a result of this, India goes from food scarcity to
self-sufficiency within a decade.

1971 USA supports ▪ Despite evidence of Pakistan Army’s violence against its
Pakistan in own citizens in East Pakistan, USA sides with Pak in the
India-Pak War 1971 war as Richard Nixon seeks good relations in 1971
with China via Pakistan’s help. The international context
made USA side with Pakistan in this war.

1974 India Pokhran I ▪ India conducts its first nuclear test at Pokhran in 1974.
tests ▪ This is called a Peaceful Nuclear Explosion (PNE).
(Shift 1 2022)
▪ It was codenamed Operation Smiling Buddha.
▪ USA imposes sanctions against India due to nuclear tests

1978 Pres. Jimmy Carter US Pres Jimmy Carter visits India on a three-day official
visits India state visit. He met PM Morarji Desai and Pres. Neelam
Sanjiva Reddy. PM Desai also visits the USA same year.

1982 PM Indira Gandhi PM Indira Gandhi met US Pres. Ronald Raegan in order
visits USA to improve relations. The leaders agree to increase
cooperation and resolve a dispute over nuclear power.

1984 Bhopal Gas A toxic gas and chemical leak at the American-owned
Tragedy Union Carbide Plant in Bhopal kills thousands of residents
and leaves a devastating impact with death and disability
of the local population.
This incident harms US-India relations for years.

1998 India Pokhran II ▪ India conducted three underground nuclear tests on

tests 11 and 13 May 1998 at the Pokhran range in Rajasthan
Desert. After this test, India declared herself as a Nuclear
Weapons State. USA imposes sanctions against India.

2000 Pres. Clinton visits Pres. Bill Clinton makes state-visit to India. He becomes
India the first US President to visit India since 1978.
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This visit ends the estrangement between India-US ties.

2001 USA lifts Sanctions Pres. George W. Bush administration lifts all remaining
US Sanction on India. This helps in improving future
India-US relations.

2005 Civil Nuclear Deal On 18th July, 2005, PM Singh and Pres. Bush,
Drafted issued a joint statement and announced their
agreement to enter into a Civil Nuclear Deal. (Shift 1
2021) (Shift 1 2022)
2005 Open Skies • The "Open Skies" agreement between India and
Agreement (June the United States was signed in 2005, and allows
2023 Shift 1) airlines from both countries to fly freely
between them.
• The agreement provides rights for airlines to offer
international passenger and cargo services, and
expands international passenger and cargo flights.
2006 Civil Nuclear Deal On 2nd March 2006, Pres. Bush and PM Singh
Signed signed the Civil Nuclear Deal (CND) in New Delhi.

2006 United States-India • United States-India Peaceful Atomic Energy

Peaceful Atomic Cooperation Act of 2006, also known as the Hyde
Energy Act, is a domestic law that allows the United
Cooperation Act States to cooperate with India on nuclear issues.
(March 2023 Shift • The act was passed by the US House of
1)
Representatives on July 26, 2006. It modifies the
requirements of Section 123 of the U.S. Atomic
Energy Act, which typically requires the
conclusion of a peaceful nuclear cooperation
agreement before significant transfers of nuclear
material or equipment can take place.
• The Hyde Act also exempts India from signing the
Non-Proliferation Treaty.
2008 123 Agreement On 10th October 2008 – The 123 Agreement
between India and US is finally operationalized
between the two countries.

2017 LEMOA India and USA sign LEMOA in 2017.

LEMOA – is a facilitating agreement that establishes basic
terms and conditions - for Logistic Support and Services
between the armed forces of India and the United States.

2018 COMCASA India and USA sign COMCASA in 2018.

COMCASA-Communications Compatibility and Security
Agreement helps to enhance interaction between
U.S. Naval Forces Central Command and the Indian Navy.
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2018 First 2+2 Dialogue In this 2+2 Dialogue format – four important personnel
meet – the Foreign and Defence Ministers of two nations.

2020 BECA Basic Exchange and Cooperation Agreement between

India and USA was signed on 26 November 2020. (Shift
1 2021) (Shift 1 2022)

INDIA – Russia
1950s – USSR support to Being a permanent member on UN Security Council,
Present India at the UN USSR has the veto power. USSR (and then, Russia) has
Day regularly supported the Indian position on Kashmir at UN.

1971 Treaty of Peace, This treaty was a landmark event in overall India’s foreign
Friendship and policy departure in context of Non-alignment.
Cooperation This agreement was signed on the basis that USSR
(2020) (Shift 1 would guarantee military supplies to India and act
2021) (Shift 1 2022) pre-emptively in case of Chinese attack on India.

1991 Russia takes de- After disintegration of Soviet Union in 1991 – Russia
ideologized and under President Boris Yeltsin decided for “Pragmatic
Pragmatic Renewal” of ties with both India and Pakistan.
approach
2000 President Putin India sign with Russia Strategic Partnership agreement in
visits India October 2000 during Pres Putin’s visit to India.

2001 PM Vajpayee visits India sign the ‘Moscow Declaration on International

Russia Terrorism’ with Russia.
Defence India has longstanding cooperation with Russia in the field
Cooperation of defence.
From India purchasing Russian weapons systems like
MiG-21, Sukhoi-30MK fighter aircrafts to T-72 battle-
tanks, India-Russia has initiated a joint defence project
‘Anti-Ship Cruise Missile System – BrahMos’. (June
2019)

Thus, India-Russia military technical cooperation has

evolved from a buyer-seller framework to one involving
joint research & development (R&D).

2003 India-Russia ▪ India-Russia holds a bilateral military exercise named

Military Exercise ‘INDRA’.
‘INDRA’ ▪ The first edition took place in 2003 as a single service
2017 exercise. This was upgraded to a tri-services exercise in
2017.
▪ The latest edition is set to take place in Kaliningrad in
2023.
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2016 S-400 Missiles During the BRICS Summit, India and Russia sign a
defence agreement for the purchase of S-400 missiles
systems. This step was criticized by the United States.

2021 2+2 Dialogue First India – Russia 2+2 Dialogue held in New Delhi on
6th December 2021. Raksha Mantri Rajnath Singh and
EAM Dr. S. Jaishankar represented the Indian side;
while the Russian Side was represented by Defence
Minister Sergei Shoigu and Russian Foreign Minister
Sergey Lavrov.

2022 Russia-Ukraine India’s position on the Russia-Ukraine war has been

War consistent. India has called for “immediate cessation” of
violence and end to all hostilities in this war.

Despite economic sanctions against Russia from the West,

India continued to ‘maintain and stabilize trade
relations with Russia’.

Indian EAM S. Jaishankar stated India is keeping all the

options open in order to diversify her energy needs from
different sources – and this step has been well received
from Moscow.

– INDIA’S RELATIONS WITH IMPORTANT POWERS –

INDIA – JAPAN
YEAR EVENT KEY POINTS
1952 Diplomatic India and Japan establish Diplomatic Relations on 28th
Relations April 1952.
established
1980s Maruti-Suzuki In 1982, Maruti Udyog Ltd. of India and Suzuki of Japan
Motor Partnership signed joint venture agreement in automobile partnership.
1991 BoP crisis Japan was among the few countries that bailed India out
of the balance of payment crisis.
2000 Global Partnership Japan PM Yoshiro Mori visits India. ‘Global Partnership’
Level agreement signed and brings a qualitative shift in relations

2006 Strategic and India and Japan under PM Singh and PM Abe elevate
Global Partnership their ties to ‘Strategic and Global Partnership’ level.
Level
2007 Abe visit to Indian PM Shinzo Abe visits India and gives the ‘Confluence of
Parliament the Two Seas’ speech in Indian Parliament. He defines the
concept of ‘Free and Open Indo-Pacific’ (FOIP).
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2007 QUAD 1.0 Japan, Australia, United States and India form the QUAD.
2011 CEPA India signs Comprehensive Economic Partnership
Agreement with Japan in 2011. (June 2019) (Shift 2
2022)
2014 Special Strategic India – Japan further elevate their ties under PM Modi.
and Global Japan gives US$ 35 billion to India through public and
Partnership Level private funding for development projects – for Smart
Cities and clean-up of River Ganga.

INDIA – ISRAEL
1950 Recognition of India recognised the State of Israel on September 17, 1950
Israel
1992 Diplomatic Under PM Narasimha Rao, India established full
Relations diplomatic relations with Israel in 1992.
established
2017 PM Modi’s visit to In 2017 PM Modi became the first Indian PM to visit
Israel Israel, and he made the trip to only Israel, and not Palestine
This Signalled a de-hyphenation in India’s ties with
Israel and Palestine.

2017 De-hyphenation of India’s traditionally had hyphenated its ties with Israel –
ties with that is, it used to link them to ties with the Palestinian
Israel and Palestine Authority. This essentially prevented India from pursuing
a pragmatic policy towards the issue.
After de-hyphenation of ties, India’s relationship with
Israel would stand on its own merits, which is independent
and separate from India’s relationship with Palestine.
INDIA – UAE
1972 Diplomatic India and UAE establish Diplomatic Relations in 1972.
Relations
2015 Strategic PM Modi visits UAE. Start of New Strategic Partnership.
Partnership
2016 Comprehensive Sheikh Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan (MBZ) Crown
Strategic Prince of Abu Dhabi was the chief guest at India’s
Partnership Republic Day celebrations. India-UAE ties upgraded to
‘Comprehensive Strategic Partnership’.
2019 PM Modi receives PM Modi visits UAE in August 2019 – and receives the
UAE’s highest highest civilian award of UAE – ‘the Order of Zayed’.
civilian award
2019 RuPay Card in Launch of RuPay Card in UAE – UAE adopts the Indian
UAE card system.
2019 EAM Sushma EAM Sushma Swaraj representing India was invited as the
Swaraj at OIC ‘Guest of Honor’ at the 46th session of Council of Foreign
Ministers of Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC).
2021 I2U2 I2U2 is a new alliance created by four countries: India,
Israel, (I2) and UAE, United States (U2) created in 2021.
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I2U2 has identifies 6 areas of cooperation and investment–

Water, Energy, Transportation, Space, Health,
and Food Security. This group is also dubbed as the
‘West Asian Quad’.

INDIA – UK
1947 Commonwealth of India became a member of 'Commonwealth of Nations'
Nations on 1947. The organisation comprises of 54 member
nations. The head of this organisation is Great Britain.
2004 Strategic India and UK upgraded their ties to Strategic Partnership
Partnership in 2004 during PM Singh and PM Tony Blair in London.
2017 UK-India Year of The year 2017 was held as the UK-India Year of Culture.
Culture The Queen hosted a grand reception at Buckingham
Palace. Arun Jaitley represented India at the event.
Impact of Brexit on Brexit – or Britain’s exit from European Union took place
India-EU and with the Referendum in 2016.
India-UK relations UK left the EU on 31st January 2020.

In January 2022, India and UK concluded the first round

of talks for the future UK-India Free Trade Agreement.

Current British PM Rishi Sunak of the Conservative

Party (Tory Party) had said that his government seeks to
change the UK-India relationship into a more “two-way
exchange”. UK aims to open up easy access of UK
students and companies to India. With India’s rise in the
global order Britain looks to directly engage India for new
opportunities as it is freed from EU.

– INDIA’S RELATIONS WITH ORGANISATIONS –

INDIA – UNITED NATIONS
YEAR EVENT KEY POINTS
1945 United Nations : UN Charter was signed by 51 countries on 26th June
The Formation Years 1945 at San Francisco. It came into effect – 24 Oct
1945.
The United Nations was established on 24th Oct. 1945.
The term United Nations was coined by former
US President Franklin D. Roosevelt.
Although India was yet to gain Independence, still India
belonged as one of the founding members of UN in
1945.
Major India related UNSC Resolutions No. = 38, 39, 47, 51, 123, 126, 1172.
UNSC Resolutions

1947 UNSC Resolution 38 On Jan 1947, UNSC called upon India and Pakistan to
refrain from escalating the situation in Kashmir.
1948 UNSC Resolution 39
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On Jan 1948, UNSC proposal to form a Commission to

1948 UNSC Resolution 47 resolve the India-Pakistan question on Kashmir.
On April 1948, UNSC forms a 5 member UN
1948 UNSC Resolution 51 Commission UNCIP with the task overseeing plebiscite
in Kashmir.
1957 UNSC Resolution 123 On June 1948, UNSC directs the UN Commission for
UNSC Resolution India-Pak to proceed without delay to the areas of
1957 126 dispute.
UNSC Resolution On Feb 1957, UNSC sends President of UNSC to Indian
1998 1172 Subcontinent to prepare report for resolution of dispute.
On Dec 1957, UNSC asks both India and Pak to refrain
from escalating the situation on Kashmir.
On June 1998, UNSC condemns the Pokhran-II
nuclear tests conducted by India on 11 and 13 May 1998
and Chagai I and II tests by Pakistan on 28 and 30 May
1998 and UNSC demanded that both India and Pakistan
refrain from any further nuclear test.

India and India is the 2nd largest contributor of troops to

UN Peacekeeping UNPKO.
Operations (UNPKO) Dag Hammarskjold coined the term peacekeeping.

List of India’s contribution in UN Peacekeeping

Missions
Past Peacekeeping Missions :
Korea (1950-54)
Indo-China (1954-70)
Middle East (1956-67)
Congo (1960-64)
Cambodia (1992-93)
Mozambique (1992-94)
Somalia (1993-94)
Rwanda (1994-96)
Angola (1989-99)
Sierra Leone (1999-2001)
Ethiopia – Eritrea (2006 - 2008)

Current Ongoing Peacekeeping Missions :

Lebanon (Since Dec 1998)
Congo (Since 2005)
Sudan and South Sudan (Since 2005)
Golan Heights (Since 2006)
Ivory Coast (Since 2004)
Haiti (Since 1997)
Liberia (Since 2007)
India and Chapter V - of UN Charter states the composition,
UNSC Presidency powers and voting procedure of UNSC.
UNSC consists of 15 members –
Vote : 9 out 15 votes are required to pass a resolution.
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Composition : 5 are permanent members – the P5.

And 10 non-permanent members are elected on a two-
year term by a vote from the UNGA.

The P5 members are (USA, UK, France, Russia,

China).
Only these P5 members have the right to veto.

India has held the non-permanent membership of

UN Security Council for a total 8 times till date.
The most recent tenure when India was elected in 2021-
22

India and India seeks Reforms at the UN Security Council.

UNSC Reforms India’s campaign for expansion of permanent
membership at UNSC is collaboration with
the G4 – India, Japan, Germany, Brazil.

INDIA – ASEAN

ASEAN ASEAN - Association of Southeast Asian Nations.

(June 2019)
Formed in – 1967.
Secretariat – Jakarta, Indonesia.
Members – Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore,
Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam, Brunei, Myanmar, Laos,
Cambodia.
Timeline of
India-ASEAN India – ASEAN Relations Timeline –
Relations 1992 – India becomes ASEAN Sectoral Dialogue
Partner
1994 – P.V. Narasimha Rao unveils ‘Look East’ Policy
in his lecture at Singapore. (December 2018) (2020)
(Shift 2 2021) (Shift 2 2022)
1996 – India becomes ASEAN Regional Forum Member
2002 – India becomes ASEAN Summit Level Partner
2003 – India signs Treaty of Amity and Cooperation
with ASEAN
2005 – India joins East Asia Summit (EAS) for the first
time
2014 – Narendra Modi launches ‘Act East Policy’ at the
12th India-ASEAN Summit in Myanmar. (2020) (Shift 2
2022) (March 2023 Shift 1 and 2)

India – ASEAN Free Trade Agreements –

2003 – Signing of the India-ASEAN CECA - Trade in
Goods, Services and Investment Agreement (with
Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia,
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Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and

Vietnam).
2005 – India joins the East Asia Summit (EAS) for the
first time.
2006 – India signed with Thailand the Early Harvest
Scheme (EHS).
2010 – India sign with Singapore Comprehensive
Economic Cooperation Agreement (CECA).
2011 – India sign with Malaysia Comprehensive
Economic Cooperation Agreement (MICECA).

India – ASEAN Engagements –

At Foreign Ministers’ Level
•India – ASEAN Summit – held annually.
•The Delhi Dialogue Mechanism (DD) – held annually.
•The Delhi – Dialogue is a Track 1.5 Diplomacy
platform.

India – ASEAN Engagements –

At Trade Level
•ASEAN Economic Ministers-India Consultations
(AEM+India)
•ASEAN India Framework Agreement on
Comprehensive Economic Cooperation (2003)
•ASEAN – India Business Council (2003).

India also participates at East Asia Summit (EAS).

Members of East Asia Summit –
10 ASEAN members + China, South Korea, Japan,
Australia, New Zealand, India, USA, Russia.

INDIA – SAARC

SAARC South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation.

(Shift 1 2021)
1985 Formed in – 1985.
Charter – Dhaka Charter 1985.
Secretariat – Kathmandu, Nepal. (Shift 1 2022)
Members-states – Bangladesh, Bhutan, India,
Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri-Lanka, Afghanistan.

2007 Afghanistan joins Last member to join SAARC – Afghanistan in 2007.

Observer-states – Australia, China, EU, Iran, Japan,

S.Korea, Mauritius, Myanmar, USA.

SAARC Specialized Bodies –

1. South Asian University (SAU) – New Delhi, India .
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SAARC Specialized 2. South Asian Regional Standards Organization

Bodies (SARSO) – Dhaka.
3. SAARC Development Fund (SDF) – Bhutan.
4. SAARC Arbitration Council (SARCO) – Pakistan.

Out of 18 SAARC summits so far,

1986 India has hosted 3 summits – (2nd SAARC Summit 1986,
1995 India hosted 3 8th SAARC Summit 1995, 14th SAARC Summit 2007).
2007 SAARC Summits
India’s initiative of National Knowledge Network
(NKN) is extended to Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and
National Knowledge Bhutan.
Network (NKN)
2017 India launched a South Asian Satellite (SAS) in May
South Asian Satellite 2017 from Sriharikota.
(SAS)
2008 The South Asian University (SAU) was established in
South Asian New Delhi in 2008 to provide world-class educational
University (SAU) facilities & professional faculty to students and
researchers from across all the SAARC countries.

India created a COVID-19 Emergency Fund and the

COINEX ‘SAARC COVID19 Information Exchange Platform
(Covid-19) (COINEX)’ – to facilitate exchange of specialized
information and tools on COVID-19 among designated
health professionals.

INDIA – SCO

SCO SCO – is a permanent inter-governmental international

organization. It is a Eurasian political, economic and
military organisation with purpose to maintain peace,
security and stability in the region.

2001 SCO was created in 2001.

2002 SCO Charter SCO Charter was signed in 2002.
2003 SCO Charter came into force in 2003.
Official Languages are – Russian and Chinese.
The Group was previously known as Shanghai Five.
It has 8 members – Russia, China, Kyrgyzstan,
Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, India and Pakistan.
(March 2023 Shift 2)
2017 India and Pak become
members of SCO India and Pakistan became members of SCO in 2017 –
at the Astana Summit in Kazakhstan.
India will chair
2023 SCO 2023 Iran is set to become the 9th member of SCO in 2023.
India will take over as chair of the SCO in 2023.
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Iran has signed the commitment document for official

member-state status.

INDIA – AFRICA Relations

Africa Union (AU) The African Union (AU) consists of 55 African states.
AU was first announced in Sirte Declaration in 1999.
AU was founded in 2001 at Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
AU was launched in 2002 at the Durban Summit.
2008 India-AU The first India-Africa Forum Summit (IAFS) took place
in 2008.
The 2008 summit adopted the Delhi Declaration and
Africa-India Framework for Cooperation – marks the
blueprint of India-Africa relations going in the 21st
century
The IAFS takes place every 3 years.
2017 Asia-Africa Growth India and Japan collaborated in establishing the Asia-
Corridor Africa Growth Corridor (AAGC) in 2017 during the
52nd Annual meeting of the African Development Bank
at Gandhinagar, Gujarat.

AAGC is focusing on the following four pillars :

1. Enhancing capacity and skills.
2. Quality Infrastructure and Institutional Capacity.
3. Development and Cooperation Projects.
4. People-to-people partnership.

Common goals and interests of India and Japan are :-

1. Freedom of navigation in sea lines
2. Combating terrorism
3. Countering Chinese rise and hegemony in Africa.

INDIA – GCC

GCC – Gulf Cooperation Council. (Shift 2 2022)

Formed in – 1981.
Headquarters – Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
Members – Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, Oman, Saudi
Arabia, and UAE.

India and Gulf Relations are important for two reasons :-

(i) Energy security through oil & gas, and trade.
(ii) The huge number of Indians who work in the Gulf
countries, and the remittance they send back home.

India-UAE signed the Comprehensive Economic

Partnership Agreement (CEPA) in Feb 2022.
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This CEPA will enter into force on 1st May 2022.

(Shift 2 2022)

In 2021-22, UAE was India’s 3rd largest trading partner,

Saudi Arabia 4th largest trading partner, and Iraq 5th
largest trading partner.

INDIA – BRICS
BRICS BRICS – India joined the BRICS in 2009. This acronym
stands for Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa.

Initially, 4 countries initiated the grouping BRIC – and

South Africa joined in 2010, making it BRICS.

Timeline of BRICS –
2001 2001 – The term BRIC was coined by Jim O’Neil.

2006 2006 – Leaders of BRIC countries formalised BRIC.

2009 First Summit 2009 – First BRIC Summit took place in

Yekaterinburg, Russia.

2010 South Africa Joins 2010 – South Africa joins, making it BRICS.

2011 3rd BRICS Summit 2011 – South Africa is included in BRICS summit at
Sanya, China Sanya, China.

2012 India hosts 4th BRICS 2012 – New Delhi hosts 4th BRICS summit.
Summit
2012 2012 – BRICS Cable with optical fibre
communications system announced.
2013 Durban 2013 - Durban, South Africa – Durban, South Africa -
March 26-27, 2013 (Summit) (March 2023 Shift 1)

2014 Fortaleza Declaration 2014 – Fortaleza Declaration,

BRICS New Development Bank (NDB) formed
and BRICS Contingent Reserve Arrangement signed.

Ufa, Russia Ufa, Russia – July 8-9, 2015 (Summit) (March 2023
2015 Shift 1)
Johannesburg, South
2018 Africa Johannesburg, South Africa – July 25-27, 2018
(Summit) (March 2023 Shift 1)
2020 Beijing Virtual
Summit Beijing Virtual Summit – November 17 (video
conference), 2020 (Summit) (March 2023 Shift 1)
INDIA – QUAD
QUAD QUAD –
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The Quadrilateral Security Dialogue is an informal

strategic forum – a group of 4 democracies – India,
Japan, United States and Australia focusing on the
Indo-Pacific region.

Timeline of QUAD –

2004 Tsunami Core Group 2004 – For the first time these four nations cooperate on
the Tsunami Core Group – a relief and rescue operation
organised for the victims of the Dec 2004 Tsunami.

2007 Confluence of Two 2007 – Japanese PM Shinzo Abe delivers the

Seas ‘Confluence of the Two Seas Speech’ at the Indian
‘Free-and-Open Parliament. He defines the concept of ‘Free and Open
Indo-Pacific (FOIP)’ Indo-Pacific’ (FOIP). This is the vision that will
compete against China’s vision in the Indo-Pacific
region.
2007 QUAD 1.0
2007 – Beginning of QUAD 1.0.
2008 Australia withdraws
2008 – Australia backs out from QUAD due to economic
pressures from China.
2012 ‘Democratic Security
Diamond’ 2012 – Shinzo Abe begins the “Democratic Security-
Diamond” concept comprising of the 4 nations – India,
Japan, United States and Australia.
2017 QUAD 2.0
2017 – QUAD 2.0 is revived at the East Asia Summit in
Manila.
2019 Ministerial Meeting
2019 – The first ministerial level meeting of QUAD
takes place.
2021 QUAD Leaders’
Summit 1 2021 – The first in-person QUAD Leaders’ Summit
takes place in Washington.
2022 QUAD Leaders’
Summit 2 2022 – The second in-person QUAD Leaders’ Summit
takes place in Tokyo.

QUAD focuses on the following areas :-

▪ Vaccine Partnership.
▪ Critical and Emerging Technologies.
▪ Semiconductor and Supply Chain Resistance.
▪ Cybersecurity, Space, Maritime Cooperation.

IPEF
23 rd IPEF – Indo-Pacific Economic Framework
May India and 12 nations joined the USA-led Indo-Pacific
2022 Economic Framework on 23rd May 2022 to provide an
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economic alternate solution to China’s Geostrategic

footprint in the Indo-Pacific area.

The IPEF has four main pillars :-

▪ Supply-chain Resilience.
▪ Clean energy and De-carbonisation.
▪ Taxation & Anti-Corruption.
▪ Fair & Resilient Trade.

INDIA – IOR

IOR • India started to focus on its maritime neighbours in the

Indian Ocean Region (IOR).

2015 SAGAR
• PM Modi in 2015 announced India’s vision of SAGAR
(Security and Growth for All in The Region).
• India has been proactively working as the
“first responder” in her maritime neighbourhood to
become a net security provider in the IOR.

2019 Indo-Pacific Oceans

Initiative (IPOI) • The spirit of SAGAR was further enhanced in the
Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (IPOI) announced by
PM Modi at the 14th East Asia Summit in 2019.

IPOI is aimed at forging partnerships to create a safe,

secure, stable, prosperous and sustainable maritime
domain with focus on - maritime security, capacity
building and resource sharing, disaster risk reduction
and management, science & technology and academic
cooperation as its key pillars.

2020 SAGAR • This concept is a suggestion that was first made

PANCHAYAT by C Uday Bhaskar – who is the director of
(June 2023 Shift 1) Society for Policy Studies, New Delhi in an Op-
Ed to The Hindustan Times on 05th July, 2020.
The Op-Ed was titled “Shift focus to the
maritime domain”.
• The four-nation Quad (United States, Japan,
Australia and India) is a work in progress and
India could sherpa a cluster of Indo-Pacific
nations into a Sagar Panchayat and uphold the
rule of law at sea.
• Enhancing interoperability at sea, intelligence-
sharing and capacity-building would be the
early building blocks.”
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• Given India’s geostrategic location, it could

sherpa a cluster of Indo-Pacific nations into
a “Sagar panchayat” and uphold the rule of
law at sea.
2004 INDIA’S • The Indian government was affirming “the
EXTENDED concept” of an extended Neighbourhood for
NEIGHBOURHOOD India in 2004.
(March 2023 Shift 1) • It stretches from the Suez Canal to the South
China Sea
• It includes within its purview -West Asia, the
Gulf, Central Asia, South East Asia, East Asia,
the Asia Pacific and the Indian Ocean Region.

INDIA-NAM
1814-15 Concept of non-aligning The concept of not aligning a country’s
policy with others can be traced to the
Congress of Vienna when the neutrality
of Switzerland, by which that country
would keep out of others’ conflicts, was
recognized
1953 Coinage of the term “non- The term “non-Alignment” was
Alignment” coined by V.K. Krishna Menon
at United States in his speech.
1955 Shaping of NAM as an It took concrete shape at the Asia-Africa
organisation Bandung Conference held in 1955 in
Indonesia.
1961 First NAM conference (March First conference of NAM took place at
2023 Shift 2) Belgrade in 1961.
1961 Belgrade Summit was 29 Afro-Asian Countries
Attended by
(March 2023 Shift 1)
1979 Havana Declaration The purpose of the organization was
enumerated in the Havana Declaration
of 1979 to ensure “the national
independence, sovereignty, territorial
integrity and security of non-aligned
countries” in their struggle against
imperialism, colonialism, neo-
colonialism, racism, and all forms of
foreign subjugation.
Founding members The founding members of NAM and
their leaders are:
• Nehru (India),
• Nasser (Egypt),
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• Nkrumah (Ghana),
• Tito (Yugoslavia), and
• Sukarno (Indonesia).
Membership Criteria (June ● The Country should have adopted
2023 Shift 2) an independent policy based on
the coexistence of States with
different political and social
systems and on non-alignment, or
it should have shown a tendency
to Favor such a policy.
● The Country in question should
support national independence
movements in a consistent
manner.
● The Country should not be a
member of a multilateral
military alliance concluded in
the context of great power
conflicts.
● If the Country has a bilateral
military agreement with a great
power or it is a member of a
regional defence pact, the
agreement or pact should have
not been concluded deliberately
in the context of great power
conflicts.
● If the Country has granted
military bases to a foreign
power, the concession should
have not been made in the
context of great power conflicts.
2019 18th NAM Summit In 2019, at Baku, Azerbaijan
2024 19th NAM Summit ● In January 2024
● At Kampala, Uganda
2024 Chair of 19th NAM Summit ● Uganda will be the chair of the
and Theme NAM grouping from 2024-2027
● It will be held under the theme of
“Deepening cooperation for
Shared Global Affluence”
2024 Total Members ● As of 2024, the Non-Aligned
Movement (NAM) has 121
members and 27 observers.

Nehruvianism (June 2023 Shift 1)

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• Stephen Cohen (India: Emerging Power, 2002) constructed the evolution of Indian
foreign policy within these three strands of Nehruvianism.
• 'Militant Nehruvianism,' refers to the early years of Nehru's prime ministership.
During this time, Nehru held an assertive stance on international issues, resisting pressure
from major powers, advocating for decolonization, and pushing for the recognition and
representation of newly independent nations on global platforms.
• 'Classical Nehruvianism,' dominated the middle phase of Nehru's prime ministership.
This phase was marked by the adoption of soft power strategies, emphasizing peace and
cooperation, goodwill, and diplomatic solutions for prevailing international disputes. Non-
Alignment Movement (NAM) is a prime example of policy from this era.
• 'Post-Cold War Nehruvianism,' represents the period after Nehru. India adapted her
foreign policy according to shifts in global power paradigms, economic liberalization, and
evolving national interests.

Alternative Perspectives on IFP (June 2023 Shift 2)

• Stephen Cohen's book "India – Emerging Power" explores India's strategic thought.
• Cohen observes a rise in alternative perspectives on India's security and foreign policy
after the breakdown of Nehruvian consensus.
• Two major branches of alternative perspectives emerge:
(a) Conservative-Realists, originating from the Swatantra party.
(b) Ideologically-Revitalist perspective, associated with the RSS and supporters of Hindutva
ideology.
• The Swatantra party in the mid-1960s attempted to provide a classical conservative
viewpoint on domestic and foreign policy.
• Led by Congress veteran C. Rajagopalachari, Swatantra drew support from former
government bureaucrats, princely families, and the business community.
• These factions were united by a dislike for Nehru's Fabian economics and
nonalignment, showing sympathy towards the market, private enterprise, and strong
anticommunism.
• This center-right realist perspective, led by figures like Jaswant Singh and K. C. Pant,
advocate for a shift towards pragmatic policies acknowledging economic power dynamics.
They criticize Nehruvian approaches, emphasizing the need for a strategic economy-driven
foreign policy.
• Revivalist proponents, represented by organizations like RSS, assert a culture-centric
worldview, viewing India as the pinnacle of civilization under threat from external forces.
The revivalists subscribe to a culture-driven view of the world in which India represents one
of humankind’s supreme civilizational accomplishments.
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• Atal Behari Vajpayee epitomizes a synthesis of realist and Hindutva ideologies,

promoting strategic alliances while upholding cultural identity.
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UNIT 7 – Political Institutions in India

Major Pre-Independence India Acts –

• India was under rule of East India Company (1765-1858) and under British Crown Raj
(1858-1947).
• Regulating Act 1733 –
o Beginning of British Parliament control over East India Company.
o Governor General of Bengal Established. First Gov. General of Bengal name –
Warren Hastings.
• Act of Settlement or Amending Act, 1781 –
• This act was passed to amend the Regulation Act, 1773. Regulating Act of 1773: Key
conflict between Supreme Court and Governor General in Council.
• Safeguarded the Governor-General and its council from the jurisdiction of the
Supreme Court.
• Exempted matters related to the Company's revenue from the Supreme Court's
jurisdiction. Required the Supreme Court to administer the personal law of the
defendant.
• Exemptions: Company servants, revenue collectors, judicial officers from Supreme
Court jurisdiction.
• Empowered the Governor-General and its Council to frame regulations regarding
Provincial Courts and Councils.
• Geographic and appellate jurisdiction of Supreme Court limited to Calcutta.
• Appeals redirected to Governor-General in Council from provincial courts.
• Establishment of Governor General and Council as final court of appeal.
• Application of religious laws in relevant cases.
• Requirement for registration of rules issued by Governor General in Council in
Supreme Court.
• Pitts India Act 1784 –
o Separated Commercial and Political functions of East India Company.
o Court of Directors (COD) - for Commercial function, Board of Control (BOC) -
for Political Affairs.
• Charter Act 1813 –
o Trade Monopoly of East India Company abolished.
• Charter Act 1833 –
o Governor General of Bengal became Governor General of India. First Gov.
General of India name – Lord William Bentinck.
o 1833 Act ended All Commercial Activity of East India Company.
• Charter Act 1853 –
o The Last of Charter Acts.
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o 1853 Act introduced for First time Open Competition as basis of recruitment
of Civil Servants.
• GOI Act 1858 – (Government of India Act 1858)
o Administration of India now transferred from East India Company to the
British Crown.
o Secretary of State and Viceroy system introduced.
o Governor General of India was replaced by Viceroy. First Viceroy Name – Lord
Canning.
• ICA 1861 – (Indian Councils Act 1861)
o 3 Indians added to the Legislative Council for First time.
• ICA 1892 – (Indian Councils Act 1892)
o Indirect Elections were introduced for First time.
o Enlarged the size of Legislative Councils.
o Members could now debate the budget without having the ability to vote on
it also barred from asking follow-up questions.
o Made a limited franchise and indirect provision for the use of election in
filling up non-official seats both in central and provincial councils (June 2023
Shift 2)
• ICA 1909 – (Indian Councils Act 1909) – (Morley – Minto Reforms)
o Separate Electorate for Muslims introduced.
• GOI 1919 – (Government of India Act 1919) – (Montague – Chelmsford Reforms)
o Extended Communal Representation to Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-
Indians, Europeans. (December 2018)
o Division of Subjects into 2 – Central subjects and Provincial subjects.
o Provincial Subjects divided into two :- (i) Reserved & (ii) Transferred subjects
(Dyarchy system).
o Introduction of Dyarchy system.
• GOI 1935 – (Government of India Act 1935) (March 2023 Shift 2)
o Extended Communal Representation to Depressed Classes (Scheduled
Castes), Women and Labour (workers).
o Establishment of a ‘Federation of India’ – consisting of Provinces and Princely
States.
o Dyarchy system abolished in 1935 Act.
o Introduction of Provincial Autonomy.
o Introduction of 3 Lists – Federal List, Provincial List, Concurrent List.
o However, the ‘Federal part’ of the GoI Act 1935 was never implemented.
• Indian Independence Act, 1947 –
o Sovereignty and Responsibility of British Parliament over India abolished.
Crown Rule Ends.
o Governor-General and Provincial Governors became Constitutional Heads of
India.
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o Lord Mountbatten became first Governor General of Independent India.

o C Rajagopalachari became the first Indian Governor General of Independent
India.
• Regulating Act 1733→ Pitts India Act 1784→ Charter Act 1813→ Charter Act 1833→
Charter Act 1853→ GOI Act 1858→ICA 1861→ICA 1892→ICA 1909→GOI 1919→
GOI 1935→Indian Independence Act 1947

Schedules of Indian Constitution –

Schedule No. Details –
Schedule 1 Territories of 28 States and 8 Union Territories.
Schedule 2 Salaries & Allowances of President, VP, Speaker, Judges of Supreme
Court, High Courts etc.
Schedule 3 Oath and Affirmation to take before assuming a public office. (Shift 2
2022)
Schedule 4 Seats allocation of Rajya Sabha. (March 2023 Shift 1)
Schedule 5 Administration of Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes. (Shift 2 2022)
Schedule 6 Administration of Tribal Areas in Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram. (March
2023 Shift 1)
Schedule 7 Three Lists – Union List, Subject List, Concurrent List. (Shift 2 2022)
(March 2023 Shift 1 and 2)
Schedule 8 Official Languages of India – 22 languages. (Shift 2 2022)
Schedule 9 Land Reforms. These acts are protected from Judicial scrutiny. Presently
there are 284 Acts
Schedule 10 Disqualification on grounds of Defection. (Anti-Defection). (March 2023
Shift 1)
Schedule 11 Panchayats – 29 Subjects.
Schedule 12 Municipalities – 18 subjects.

Parts of Indian Constitution –

• Indian Constitution has 25 Parts, 12 Schedules and 395 Articles.
• Three parts – 9A Municipalities, 9B Co-operative societies and 14A tribunals – are
added to the original constitution via Amendments.
Part No. Subject Matter Articles
Part I The Union and its Territories 1–4
Part II Citizenship 5 – 11
Part III Fundamental Rights 12 – 35
Part IV Directive Principles of State Policy 36 – 51
Part IV A Fundamental Duties 51 (A)
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Part V The Union 52 – 151

Part VI The States 152 – 237
Part VII The States in Part B of First Schedule 238 (Repealed)
Part VIII The Union Territories 239 – 242
Part IX The Panchayats 243 – 243 O
Part IX A The Municipalities 243 P – 243 ZG
Part IX B The Co-operative Societies 243ZH – 243 ZT
Part X The Scheduled and Tribal Areas 244 – 244 A
Part XI Relation between the Union and the States 245 – 263
Part XII Finance, Property, Contracts and Suits 264 – 300 A
Part XIII Trade, Commerce and Intercourse within 301 – 307
India
Part XIV Services Under the Union and the States 308 – 323
Part XIVA Tribunals 323A – 323B
Part XV Elections 324 – 329A
Part XVI Special provisions relating to certain classes 330 – 342
Part XVII Official language 343 – 351
Part XVIII Emergency Provisions 352 – 360
Part XIX Miscellaneous 361 – 367
Part XX Amendments 368
Part XXI Temporary, Transitional and Special 369 – 392
Provisions
Part XXII Short Title, Commencement, Authoritative 393 – 395
Text in Hindi and Repeals
Constituent Assembly Debates –
• M.N. Roy first proposed the idea of Constituent Assembly in 1934.
• Demand taken up by Congress Party in 1935.
• British Accepted this in August offer in 1940.
• Acc. to Cabinet Mission Plan 1946, Constituent Assembly of India was formed
through Election. (Shift 2 2021)
• Total Members = 389. Princely States – 93. British India – 296.
• Dr. Sachidanand Sinha – interim President of Constituent Assembly.
• Dr. Rajendra Prasad – elected first President of Constituent Assembly.
• H.C. Mukherjee – elected Vice-President of Constituent Assembly.
• B.N Rao – Chief Constitutional and Legal Advisor to the Constituent Assembly.
• Nandalal Bose and Prem Behari Narain Raizada and their team of artists took up the
task of handcrafting and illustrated the Constitution of India.
• Total Time Taken to Complete India’s Constitution = 2 years 11 months 18 days.
• Total No. of Sessions = 11 Sessions.
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• 6th Dec 1946 – Formation of Constituent Assembly.

• 9th Dec 1946 – First Meeting of Constituent Assembly.
• 11th Dec 1946 – President = Rajendra Prasad appointed, VP = HC Mukherjee, Legal
Advisor = B.N. Rao.
• 13th Dec 1946 – Objective Resolution PASSED by Jawaharlal Nehru (Later on became
Preamble). (2020)
• 22nd Jan 1947 – Objective Resolution ADOPTED. (December 2019) (March 2023 Shift
2)
• 22nd July 1947 – National Flag Adopted.
• 15th Aug 1947 – Independence & Partition (India & Pakistan).
• 29th Aug 1947 – Drafting Committee appointed with Dr. BR Ambedkar as Chairman
with 6 members – KM Munshi, Muhammed Saadulah, Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer,
Gopala Swami Ayyangar, N. Rao (replaced by BL Mitter) and TT Krishnamachari
(replaced by DP Khaitan).
• 26th Nov 1949 – Constitution of India ADOPTED AND ENACTED.
• 26th Jan 1950 – Constitution of India ENFORCED.
• First Speaker of Lok Sabha = Ganesh Vasudev Mavlankar.
o Main Committees & Their Chairperson –
• Drafting Committee – Dr. BR Ambedkar
• Union Constitution Committee – Jawaharlal Nehru
• Union Powers Committee – Jawaharlal Nehru
• States Committee – Jawaharlal Nehru
• Steering Committee – Rajendra Prasad
• Rules of Procedure Committee – Rajendra Prasad
• Provincial Constitution Committee – Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
Major Amendments of Indian Constitution –
•
1st Amendment Act, 1951 –
o To remove certain difficulties in land reforms, freedom of speech etc.
o Added 9th Schedule to protect land reforms related law and other law from
judicial review.
o Inserted Art 31A and Art 31B for saving laws providing for acquisition of
estates etc.
• 7 Amendment Act, 1956 –
th

o Abolition of Class A, B, C and D states – 14 States and 6 Union Territories

were formed.
o The provision of having a common High Court for two or more states was
introduced. (December 2018)
• Important State and Union Territory Related Amendments –
th
10 Amendment (1961) Dadra and Nagar Haveli incorporated into Indian Union
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12th Amendment (1962) Goa, Daman and Diu incorporated into Indian Union
13th Amendment (1962) Nagaland was formed with special status under Article 371A
14th Amendment (1962) Puducherry incorporated into Indian Union
22nd Amendment (1969) Meghalaya as autonomous state within Assam
36th Amendment (1975) Sikkim as a full fledge state

• 24th Amendment Act, 1971 –

o It was brought in response to Golaknath Case (1967), in which SC held that
Parliament can’t amend Fundamental Rights.
o Affirmed the power of Parliament to amend any part of the Constitution
including fundamental rights. Thus, Added Art 13 (4)
• 38th Amendment Act, 1975 –
o Made the declaration of emergency by the President non-justiciable. (Shift 2
2021)
• 39th Amendment Act, 1975 –
o In Raj Narain Case (1975), Indira Gandhi was found guilty of election
malpractices. This amendment was brought to stop courts in interfering in
elections.
• 42nd Amendment Act, 1976 –
o It brought so many changes to Indian Constitution that’s why it is known as
Mini Constitution. (Shift 2 2021)
o It was brought during the Internal emergency (1975-1977) of the Indira
Gandhi government.
o It Added three new words (i.e., Socialist, Secular and Integrity) in the
Preamble. (Shift 1 2021)
o Added 10 Fundamental Duties by the citizens (new Part IV A).
(December 2018)
o Made the constitutional amendments beyond judicial scrutiny.
o Raised Lok Sabha Tenure from 5 to 6 yrs.
o Facilitated the proclamation of national emergency in a part of territory of
India
o Extended the one-time duration of the President’s rule in a state from 6
months to one year.
o Added four new Directive Principles:
▪ Healthy development of children (Art 39),
▪ Free legal aid for poor (Art 39-A),
▪ Participation of workers in the management of industries (Art 43-A)
▪ Protection of environment, forests and wild life (Art 48-A)
(December 2018)
o Shifted five subjects from the state list to the concurrent list
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▪ education,
▪ forests,
▪ protection of wild animals and birds,
▪ weights and measures
▪ administration of justice

• 44th Amendment Act, 1978 –

o It was enacted by Janata government after emergency to nullify some wrong
provisions of 42nd Amendment Act, 1976. (Shift 2 2021)
o Restored the SC and High Courts power of writs and judicial review
o Restored Lok Sabha Tenure to 5 years
o Replaced the term ‘internal disturbance’ by ‘armed rebellion’ in respect of
national emergency.
o Made the President to declare a national emergency only on the written
recommendation of the cabinet.
o For national emergency special majority of Parliament is required
o Deleted Right to Property as Fundamental Right and made it legal right
o Art 20 and 21 can’t be suspended during emergency.

• 52nd Amendment Act, 1985 –

o It is popularly known as Anti-Defection Law. (March 2023 Shift 1)
o Added a new Tenth Schedule containing the details in this regard.

• 61st Amendment Act, 1989 –

o Reduced the voting age from 21 years to 18 years for the Lok Sabha and state
legislative assembly elections.

• 69th Amendment Act, 1991 –

o Union Territory of Delhi was given the special status of ‘National Capital
Territory of Delhi.’

• 73rd Amendment Act, 1992 –

o Granted constitutional status and protection to the panchayati raj
institutions.
o For this purpose, the Amendment has added a new Part-IX entitled as ‘the
panchayats’ and
o a new Eleventh Schedule containing 29 functional items of the panchayats

• 74th Amendment Act, 1992 –

o Granted constitutional status and protection to the urban local bodies.
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o For this purpose, the Amendment has added a new Part-IX-A entitled as ‘the
municipalities’ and
o a new Twelfth Schedule containing 18 functional items of the municipalities

• 86th Amendment Act, 2002 –

o Made elementary education a fundamental right.
o It added Art 21-A: State shall provide free and compulsory education to all
children of the age of 6 to 14
o Changed Art 45 of DPSP: State shall provide early childhood care and education
for all until age 6
o Added 51-A in Fundamental Duties: Duty of every citizen to provide education
to his child between 6-14 (March 2023 Shift 1)

• 91st Amendment Act, 2003 –

o Made the total number of ministers in council of ministers shall not exceed
15% of the total strength of the Lok Sabha. Art 75 (1A) were added for this.

• 99th Amendment Act, 2014 –

o Replaced the collegium system to appoint judges of SC and HC with a new
body called National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC)
o However, in 2015, the SC declared it unconstitutional

• 101st Amendment Act, 2016 –

o Good and Service Tax was introduced

• 102nd Amendment Act, 2018 –

o Constitutional Status was granted to National Commission for Backward
Classes (NCBC)

• 103rd Amendment Act, 2019 –

o A maximum of 10% Reservation for Economically Weaker Sections of citizens
of classes.

• 104th Amendment Act, 2020 –

o Removed the reserved seats for the Anglo-Indian community in the Lok Sabha
and state assemblies.
• 105th Amendment Act, 2021 –
o Restored the power of State governments to recognize Socially and
Educationally backward classes (SEBCs).
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• 106th Amendment Act, 2023

o The Constitution (106th Amendment) Act, 2023, reserves one-third of all seats
for women in Lok Sabha, State legislative assemblies, and the Legislative Assembly
of the National Capital Territory of Delhi, including those reserved for SCs and STs.
o Articles Inserted:
▪ Article 330A - Reservation for Women in LS
▪ Article 332A - Reservation for Women in State LAs
▪ Article 239AA - Reservation for Women in NCT of Delhi
▪ Article 334A - Reservations to become effective after delimitation is
undertaken and Census is conducted
o Time Period: Reservation to be provided for 15 years (can be extended)
o Rotation of Seats Reserved: After each delimitation

Major Articles of Indian Constitution –

• Article 1 – Name and Territory of the Union. “Bharat shall be a Union of States.”
(December 2018) (2020)
• Article 2 – Admission and Establishment of a New State.
• Article 3 – Formation of new states and alteration of areas, boundaries, and name of
existing states.
• Citizenship Articles: Article 5 to 11
• Article 5 – Citizenship at the commencement of the constitution.
• Article 6 – Rights of citizenship of a certain person who has migrated to India from
Pakistan.
• Article 10 – Continuance of Rights of Citizenship.
• Article 11 – Parliament has the Power to Regulate the Right of Citizenship by Law.
• Fundamental Rights: Article 12 to 35 (December 2018) (June
2023 Shift 1)
• Article 12 – Definition of the State.
• Article 13 – Laws inconsistent with fundamental rights shall be declared null & void.
(Judicial Review)
• Right to Equality: Article 14 to 18 (Shift 2 2021)
• Article 14 – Equality before the Law.
• Article 15 – Prohibition of Discrimination on the grounds of religion, race, caste, sex,
or place of birth.
• Article 16 – Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment.
• Article 17 – Abolition of Untouchability.
• Article 18 – Abolition of Titles.
• Right to Freedom: Article 19 to 22
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• Article 19 – Guarantees to all the citizens the Six Rights and they are :
o a – Freedom of speech and expression.
o b – Freedom to assemble peaceably and without arms.
o c – Freedom to form associations or unions.
o d – Freedom to move freely throughout the territory of India.
o e – Freedom to reside and settle in any part of the territory of India.
o f – Omitted
o g – Freedom to practice any profession, or to carry on any occupation, trade
or business. (2020)
• Article 20 – Protection in respect of conviction for offences
• Article 21 – Protection of life and personal liberty (June 2023 Shift 2)
• Article 22 – Protection against arrest and detention in certain cases
• Right Against Exploitation : Article 23 and 24
• Article 23 – Prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour
• Article 24 – Prohibition of employment of children (Under the age of 14) in factories
and mines
• Right to Freedom of Religion : Article 25 to 28
• Article 25 – Freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of
religion
• Article 26 – Freedom to manage religious affairs (March 2023 Shift 1)
• Article 27 – Freedom as to pay taxes for promotion of any particular religion.
• Article 28 – Freedom from attending religious instruction (Shift 1 2022)
• Cultural and Educational Rights: Article 29 and Article 30
• Article 29 – Protection of interest of minorities.
• Article 30 – Right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions.
• Right to Constitutional Remedies: Article 32
• Article 32 – Remedies for enforcement of Fundamental Rights.
o What are the 5 Writs ? – (June 2019)
o Habeas Corpus – To ‘produce the body’ of the detained person within 24hrs.
o Mandamus – It is a ‘command’ issued to public official asking him to perform
his official duties.
o Prohibition – Issued by a higher court to a lower court to prevent latter to
exceed ‘jurisdiction’.
o Certiorari – Issued by a higher court to a lower court to transfer a case or to
squash the order.
o Quo Warranto – By ‘what authority’. It enquires the qualifications of a person
to a public post.

• DPSPs : Article 36 – 51 (December 2018)

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• Article 39A – Equal Justice and Free Legal Aid. (March 2023 Shift 1)
• Article 40 – Organization of Village Panchayat. (June 2023 Shift 1)
• Article 41 – Right to Work, Education and Public Assistance in certain cases. (June
2023 Shift 1)
• Article 44 – Uniform Civil Code. (March 2023 Shift 1)
• Article 45 – Free and Compulsory Education for Children.
• Article 48 – Organization of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry.
• Article 49 – Protection of Monuments and Places and Objects of National
Importance.
• Article 50 – Separation of Judiciary from Executive. (SOP) (March 2023 Shift 1)
• Article 51 – Promotion of International Peace and Security. (Only Article Dedicated to
Foreign Affairs)
• Article 51 (A) – Eleven Fundamental Duties.
• Article 52 – President of India. (June 2019)
• Article 54 – Election of President.
• Article 61 – Impeachment process of President.
• Article 63 – Vice President of India. (Shift 1 2022)
• Article 64 – Vice-President to be Ex-officio chairman of Rajya Sabha.
• Article 66 – Election of Vice President.
• Article 72 – Pardoning Power of President.
• Article 74 – Council of Ministers (CoM) to aid and advise the President. (Shift 2 2021)
(March 2023 Shift 2)
• Article 76 – Attorney General of India.
• Article 79 – Composition of Parliament – The President, Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha.
• Article 80 – Composition of Rajya Sabha. (December 2019)
• Article 81 – Composition of Lok Sabha. (Shift 1 and 2 2021)
• Article 83 – Duration of Parliament.
• Article 93 – Speaker and Deputy Speaker of Lok Sabha.
• Article 110 – Definition of Money Bills. (Shift 1 2022)
• Article 112 – Annual Financial Budget.
• Article 114 – Appropriation Bills.
• Article 123 – President’s Power to issue Ordinance. (December 2019)
• Article 124 – Establishment of Supreme Court of India. (June 2019)
• Article 126 – Appointment of Chief Justice of India. (CJI).
• Article 129 – Supreme Court to be court of Record.
• Article 141 – Decision of Supreme Court to be Binding on All Courts.
• Article 148 – Comptroller and Auditor General of India. (CAG).
(December 2018) (Shift 2 2022)
• Article 153 – Governors of State. (December 2018)
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• Article 161 – Pardoning Power of Governor. (June 2023 Shift 1)

• Article 165 – Advocate General of State.
• Article 213 – Governor’s Power to issue Ordinance.
• Article 214 – High Courts for States. (December 2019)
• Article 215 – High Courts to be a Court of Record.
• Article 226 – Power of Hight Courts to issue Writs. (Writ Jurisdiction of HCs is greater
than SC).
• Article 263 – Inter-State Council (formed in 1990, appointed by President, headed by
Prime Minister).
• Article 266 – Consolidated Fund of India.
• Article 267 – Contingency Fund of India.
• Article 280 – Finance Commission. (Shift 1 2021)
• Article 300A –Right to Property (As a result of 44th Amendment, 1978- is a Legal Right)
• Article 312 – All India Service. (Here, Rajya Sabha enjoys more power than Lok Sabha).
(2020)
• Article 315 – Public service commissions for the union and for the states.
• Article 324 – Election Commission (Shift 1 2021) (Shift 2 2022)
• Article 338 – National Commission for SC (June 2019)
• Article 338A – National Commission for ST (June 2019)
• Article 338B – National Commission for OBC
• Article 343 – Official Languages of the Union. (22 Recognized Languages. 8th Schedule.)
• Article 352 – National Emergency.
• Article 356 – State Emergency (President’s Rule).
• Article 360 – Financial Emergency.
• Article 368 – Amendment to Constitution Procedure.

Emergency Provisions –
• National Emergency –
o Article 352 –
o Grounds – National Emergency is declared – when the Security of India or a
part of it - is threatened by War or External aggression or Armed Rebellion.
o Duration – If approved by both the Houses of Parliament, the emergency
continues for six months, and can be extended to an indefinite period with an
approval of the Parliament for every six months.
o All articles except Article 20 and 21 can be suspended during National
Emergency.
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• State Emergency – President’s Rule –

o Article 356 –
o Grounds – State Emergency is declared – in a situation has arisen in which the
government of a state cannot be carried on in accordance with the provisions
of the Constitution.
o Duration – If approved by both the Houses of Parliament, the President’s Rule
continues for six months. It can be extended for a maximum period of three
years with the approval of the Parliament, every six months.
o After declaration of President’s Rule – She/He can declare that the powers of
the state legislature are to be exercised by the Parliament.
• Financial Emergency –
o Article 360 –
o Grounds – Financial Emergency is declared – if he is satisfied that a situation
has arisen due to which the financial stability or credit of India or any part of
its territory is threatened.
o Duration – Once approved by both the Houses of Parliament, the Financial
Emergency continues indefinitely till it is revoked.
o Once approved, repeated parliamentary approval is not required for its
continuation.

Important Terms Related To Judiciary –

• Judicial Review – Article 13 , and , Judicial Activism – Article 21. (2020)
• Writs Power of Supreme Court – Article 32 , and , High Court – Article 226.
• Judicial Activism was initiated by P.N. Bhagwati & Krishna Iyer in India. (March
2023 Shift 1)
• Public Interest Litigation (PIL) – Public Interest Litigation (PIL) is litigation that can be
filed by any member of the public In which the public interest is a subject. PIL is the
Last Resort of Citizens.
The concept of PIL started with the aim of bringing Justice within the reach of the poor,
vulnerable masses, and helpless victims of injustice. PIL cases are granted exception
from Locus Standi. (Shift 2 2021)
• Famous cases involving PIL are :-
o Bondhua Mukti Morcha case v. Union of India.
o Narmada Bachao Andolan v. Government of India.
o Ayodhya Disputes.
o MC Mehta v. Union of India.
o Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan.
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Parliamentary Committees –
Committee Name Year Composition Work
Public Accounts 1921 15 LS + 7 RS = Examines Public Expenditure.
Committee (PAC) (oldest) TOTAL 22 members Submits Reports to the CAG.
(December 2018)
(2020)
Estimates Committee 1921 30 Members Examines Estimates in the
(December 2018) from LS only Budget and Checks Economic
(2020) Policies.
Public Undertaking 1964 15 LS + 7 RS = To Check Governmental
Committee (PUC) TOTAL 22 members Undertakings
(2020)
Committee on 1953 15 LS + 10 RS = To check Promises & Assurances
Government TOTAL 22 members of Ministers
Assurances
(December 2018)
Committee on - 15 LS (separately) To study about Bills and General
Petition 10 RS (separately) Matters
Committee on - 15 LS (separately) To examine Breaches of
Privileges 10 RS (separately) Privileges
Committee on Private - 15 LS (separately) -
Members’ Bill
Rules Committee - 15 LS (separately) To check Rules of the Houses
16 RS (separately)
Business Advisory 1952 15 (separately) To check Business of the Houses
Committee 11 (separately)
(December 2018)

Landmark Judgements of India –

Year Landmark Case – Case Theme –
1951 Shankari Prasad v. ● Theme : Amenability of Fundamental Rights.
Union of India ● - Supreme Court said that the Parliament’s
power to amend under Article 368 also includes
the power to amend the Fundamental Rights
guaranteed in Part III of the Constitution.
1960 Berubari Union Case ● Theme : Article 3 – Berubari Union related.
(March 2023 Shift 1) ● - Supreme Court examined Article 3 in detail
and held that the Parliament cannot
make laws under this article in order to execute
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the Nehru-Noon agreement.

● - The Parliament does NOT have power to give
away any territory of India without amending
the Constitution first.
1967 Golak Nath v. ● Theme : Right to Property – is it a
State of Punjab Fundamental Right?
(June 2023 Shift 1) ● - Supreme Court ruled that Parliament
doesn’t have the power to restrict any of the
Fundamental Rights enshrined in the
Constitution. Right to Property was deemed to
be a fundamental right.
1973 Kesavananda Bharati ● Theme : Basic Structure of Indian
v. State of Kerala Constitution.
(March 2023 Shift 1) ● - The record 13 judge bench ruled in 7:6 ratio
(June 2023 Shift 1) in the final judgement.
● - Kesavananda Bharati introduced the Basic
Structure doctrine.
● - This doctrine of Basis Structure - becomes
the basis from 1973 onwards in Indian law – by
which the judiciary can strike down any
amendment passed by Parliament that violates
the Basic structure of the Constitution.
1975 State of Uttar Pradesh ● Theme : Election Malpractices.
v. Raj Narain ● Allahabad High Court found Indira Gandhi
guilty of electoral malpractices. HC declared the
election verdict in the Rae Bareilly constituency
"null and void", and barred I.Gandhi from
holding elected office for 6 years.
● The Representation of People (RoP) Act of
1951 lists out the grounds on which the election
of a candidate can be called into question.
1975 Indira Gandhi v. Raj ● Theme : Basic Structure Norms and Election.
Narain ● This was the first case where Basic Structure
doctrine was applied and it struck down an
amendment in verdict.
● When the 39th Amendment was passed by
the Indira Gandhi Government, most of the
members of the Parliament were absent and
arrested under Preventive detention. It was
seen that this amendment destroyed separation
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of powers and judicial review which also are an

integral part of the basic structure of the
Constitution.
● After this verdict, 39th Amendment act, 1975
was struck down as it was unconstitutional and
violative of the basic structure of the
Constitution.
1978 Maneka Gandhi ● Theme : ‘Personal Liberty’ under Article 21.
v. Union of India ● - SC gave its verdict that the term ‘Personal
(June 2023 Shift 1) Liberty’ has a wide implication and constitutes a
variety of rights which constitute the personal
liberty of a man.
● - ‘Procedure Established by Law’ was
highlighted in this case.
1980 Minerva Mills ● Theme : Balance btwn DPSPs and
v. Union of India Fundamental Rights.
(Shift 1 2022) ● - Case related to Judicial Review.
(June 2023 Shift 1) ● - Harmony and Balance between DPSP and
Fundamental Rights was highlighted.
1981 Waman Rao v. Union of ● Theme : Date of Basic Structure Application.
India ● Waman Rao case verdict made :- April 24th,
1973 i.e., the date of the Kesavananda Bharati
judgement, as the date from which The Courts
will examine the cases and apply Doctrine of
Basic Structure to it. Earlier cases than April 24th
– will not be looked at retrospectively.
1985 Shah Bano Begum Case ● Theme : Right to Alimony.
● The SC upheld the Right to Alimony for a
Muslim woman and said that the Code of
Criminal Procedure, 1973 is applicable to All
Citizens - Irrespective of their religion.
1986 MC Mehta v. Union of ● Theme : Environmental Protection.
India ● A PIL (Public Interest Litigation) by MC Mehta
in 1986 enlarged the scope of Articles 21 and 32
to include – Right to Healthy and Pollution-free
Environment.
1992 Indra Sawhney v. Union ● Theme : On Reservations.
of India ● Rule of Law.
● Reservation shall not exceed 50%
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● SC said that Caste could be a factor for

identifying Backward Classes.
1993 Kihoto Hollohan v. ● Theme : Role of Speaker & Anti-Defection
Zachilhu Laws.
● Free and Fair Elections
● Sovereign, Democratic, Republican structure
1994 S.R. Bommai v. Union of ● Theme : Centre-State Relations and
India Federalism.
● Article 356 – This verdict puts an end to the
practice of arbitrary dismissal of State
governments under Article 356 by giving out
Restrictions on President’s Rule.
● Power of the President to dismiss a State
government is not absolute.
● Floor-test is required in Vidhan Sabha.
1997 Vishaka v. State of ● Theme : Sexual Harassment at Workplace.
Rajasthan ● Vishaka and other women groups filed a PIL
against State of Rajasthan to enforce
Fundamental Rights for working women under
Articles 14, 19, 21.
● This case resulted in the Vishaka Guidelines
against Sexual Harassment at Workplace in
India.
2006 Kuldip Nayar v. Union of ● Theme : Domicile & Secrecy factor in
India Elections.
● Democracy
● Free and Fair Elections
2007 I.R. Coelho v. State of ● Theme : Ninth Schedule case.
Tamil Nadu ● The court gave the verdict that the Indian
judiciary has the right to review any law, which
destroy or damage the basic structure as
indicated in fundamental rights, even if they
have been put in 9th schedule.
● Separation of Powers
● Essence of Fundamental Rights
● Principle of Equality
2013 NOTA Judgement ● Theme : Right to Reject a Candidate in
Elections.
● - In 2013, SC introduced the concept of
Negative Voting – for the country’s electorate.
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● - After this verdict, Voters have the option of

not voting for any of the candidates (NOTA) if
they don’t find any of the candidates’ worthy in
the ballot.
2014 Nirbhaya Case ● Theme : Reforms in Anti-Rape Laws.
● Introduction of the Criminal Law
(Amendment) Act, 2013 and definition of rape
under the Protection of Children from Sexual
Offences Act, 2012.
● Under this change, new offences such as
stalking, acid attacks, and voyeurism were
added into the definition of rape. Even the
threat of rape is now a crime and the person will
be punished for the same.
● The Criminal Amendment Act, 2013 is also
popularly referred to as the Anti-rape Act. The
minimum sentence was changed from 7 years to
10 years considering the increase in the number
of rape cases.
2014 Madras Bar Association v. ● Powers of the High Court under Articles 226
Union of India and 227.
2017 Shayara Bano v. Union of ● Theme : Triple Talaq Judgement.
India ● Supreme Court in a landmark 3-2 verdict, had
struck down instant triple talaq.
2017 Puttaswamy v. Union of ● Theme : Right to Privacy.
India ● In November 2012, Justice K.S. Puttaswamy
(Retired) filed a petition in the Supreme Court
(Shift 1 2021) challenging the constitutionality of Aadhaar on
the grounds that it violates the right to privacy.
● The SC declared the right to privacy as a
Fundamental Right protected under the Indian
Constitution.
● Right to Privacy now comes under Article
21(A) of the Constitution.
2018 Navtej Singh Johar ● Theme : Repealing Section 377.
v. Union of India ● Supreme Court of India decriminalized all
consensual sex among adults, including
homosexual sex.
● The verdict was hailed as a landmark
decision for LGBTQ+ rights in India
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2019 M Siddiq v. Mahant ● Theme : Ayodhya Dispute case.

Suresh Das ● Supreme Court ordered the disputed land
(2.77 acres) to be handed over to a trust (to be
created by the Govt. of India) to build the Ram
Janmabhoomi temple.
● The court also ordered the Govt. to give an
alternative
5 acres of land in another place to the Uttar
Pradesh - Sunni Central Waqf Board for the
purpose of building a mosque as a replacement
for the demolished Babri Masjid.
2022 Janhit Abhiyan ● Theme : 10% Reservation EWS.
v. Union of India ● SC gave verdict – Upholding validity of the
103rd Constitutional Amendment.
● With a 3:2 ratio, the Supreme Court held that
the 103rd Amendment and EWS Reservations
are constitutionally valid.

Panchayati Raj (PRIs) –

Year Name Details
1957 Balwant Rai Mehta ● Appointed by? → Govt of India appointed
Committee Balwant Rai Mehta Committee.
● Purpose - To examine working of :–
1). Community Development Programme and
2). National Extension Services
● Recommendations = 3 TIER STUCTURE OF
GOVT.

1977 Ashok Mehta Committee ● Appointed by? → Janata Govt in appointed

(March 2023 Shift 2) (June 1977 Ashok Mehta Committee
2023 Shift 2) ● Recommendations = 2 TIER STRUCTURE OF
GOVT.
1). District Level Zilla Parishad, and
2). Mandal Panchayat
3). Total 132 Recommendations to revive and
strengthen the Declining Panchayati Raj System.
● Ashok Mehta Recommended =>
Mandal Panchayats.
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1978 Dantwala Committee ● Dantwala = Block Level Planning.

1982 Hanumantha Rao ● Appointed by? → Planning Commission.

Committee
● Hanumantha Rao = District Level Planning.

1985 GVK Rao Committee (June ● Appointed by? → Planning Commission.

2023 Shift 2) ● Purpose - for
1). Rural Development and
2). Poverty Alleviation Programmes.
● Recommendations = Zilla – as the most
important point in Democratic Decentralization.
1986 LM Singhvi Committee ● Appointed by? → Rajiv Gandhi govt
(June 2023 Shift 2) appointed LM Singhvi Committee.
● Purpose-For Revitalisation of Panchayati Raj
Institutions.
1988 Thungon Committee (June ● P.K. Thungon to examine the political and
2023 Shift 2) administrative structure in the District for the
purpose of District Planning.
1988 Gadgil Committee ● Appointed by? → Congress Party.

● Recommendations = 3 TIER STRUCTURE

1). 3 Tiers at - (Village, Block, District Level)
2). The term of PRIs should be fixed at 5 years
1992 73rd Constitutional ● Main Outcomes of the 73rd Constitutional
Amendment Act Amendment –
(December 2023)
1. Organization of GRAM SABHA.

2. Creation of 3 TIER Structure at

✓ District (Zilla) Level
✓ Block Level
✓ Village Level
3. DIRECT ELECTIONS for Almost All Posts in
Panchayats -
But Exception – 1. Post of Chairman at District
Level and
2. Chairman at Block Level should be Indirect
Election.
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4. Reservation :-
Mandatory Reservation :-
1. Reservation of seats for SCs & STs (on
Population-wise)
2. Reservation of seats for Women (1/3rd seats)
Not Mandatory, It is Voluntary Reservation :-
3. Reservation of OBCs

5. State Election Commission to conduct

Elections of PRIs.
6. State Finance Commission to be setup for 5
years

7. Tenure of Panchayats - 5 years

if dissolved earlier, Fresh Elections - within 6
months.
1994 Bhuria Committee Bhuria Committee was constituted in 1994 to
formulate law for extending the provisions of
the Part IX to the Scheduled areas and to
suggest modifications in other acts relevant to
the Fifth (V) schedule in order to further
strengthen the local self-governing areas.
1996 PESA Act • The recommendation of Bhuria
(June 2023 Shift 2) committee culminated in the enactment
of the Panchayats (Extension to the
Scheduled Areas) (PESA) Act 1996,
which came into effect on 24th
December 1996.
• The PESA Act has led to the extension of
the panchayats act to the tribal areas of
Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Gujarat,
Chhattisgarh, Himachal Pradesh,
Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Madhya
Pradesh, and Rajasthan.
• This enables the tribal society to
effectively take control of their
traditional rights over natural resources.

• Articles of Panchayats ↓ (June 2019)

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• Articles of Municipalities ↓
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● Mayo's resolution of 1870:

o Its resolution pertained to financial decentralization that was a legislative devolution
inaugurated by the Indian Council Act of 1861.
o Lord Mayo's Resolution in 1870 made the first systematic attempt to make Provincial
Governments responsible for the development of Local Self Government with the policy of
decentralization for the management of their own local finances and functions. (June 2023
Shift 2)
o Mayo’s resolution of 1870 started the process of decentralization of finances. He
authorized provincial governments to resort to local taxation to balance their budgets.
o This was done in the context of the transfer of certain departments of administration
such as medical services, education, and roads to the control of provincial governments.
o This was the beginning of local finance in India. Mayo is called as the father of local
government in India.

● Parliamentary Proceedings (June 2023 Shift 2)

o Question Hour: The first hour of every parliamentary sitting is slotted for this. During
this time, the members ask questions and the ministers usually give answers. The questions
are of three kinds, namely, starred, unstarred and short notice:
1. A starred question (distinguished by an asterisk) requires an oral answer and hence
supplementary questions can follow.
2. An unstarred question, on the other hand, requires a written answer and hence,
supplementary questions cannot follow.
3. A short notice question is one that is asked by giving a notice of less than ten days. It is
answered orally.
o Closure Motion: It is a motion moved by a member to cut short the debate on a matter
before the House. If the motion is approved by the House, debate is stopped forthwith and
the matter is put to vote. There are four kinds of closure motions:
(a) Simple Closure: It is one when a member moves that the ‘matter having been sufficiently
discussed be now put to vote’.
(b) Closure by Compartments: In this case, the clauses of a bill or a lengthy resolution are
grouped into parts before the commencement of the debate. The debate covers the part as
a whole and the entire part is put to vote.
(c) Kangaroo Closure: Under this type, only important clauses are taken up for debate and
voting and the intervening clauses are skipped over and taken as passed.
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(d) Guillotine Closure: It is one when the undiscussed clauses of a bill or a resolution are also
put to vote along with the discussed ones due to want of time (as the time allotted for the
discussion is over).
o No-Confidence Motion: Article 75 of the Constitution says that the council of
ministers shall be collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha. It means that the ministry stays
in office so long as it enjoys confidence of the majority of the members of the Lok Sabha. In
other words, the Lok Sabha can remove the ministry from office by passing a no-confidence
motion. The motion needs the support of 50 members to be admitted.
o Privilege Motion: It is concerned with the breach of parliamentary privileges by a
minister. It is moved by a member when he feels that a minister has committed a breach of
privilege of the House or one or more of its members by withholding facts of a case or by
giving wrong or distorted facts. Its purpose is to censure the concerned minister.
o Motion of Thanks: The first session after each general election and the first session of
every fiscal year is addressed by the president. This motion must be passed in the House.
Otherwise, it amounts to the defeat of the government.
o Calling Attention Motion: It is introduced in the Parliament by a member to call the
attention of a minister to a matter of urgent public importance, and to seek an authoritative
statement from him on that matter. Like the zero hour, it is also an Indian innovation in the
parliamentary procedure and has been in existence since 1954. However, unlike the zero
hour, it is mentioned in the Rules of Procedure.
o In the Indian parliamentary proceedings, the Zero Hour starts immediately after the
Question Hour and lasts until the agenda for the day is taken up.
o No-Day-Yet-Named-Motion: It is a motion that has been admitted by the Speaker but
no date has been fixed for its discussion. The Speaker, after considering the state of business
in the House and in consultation with the leader of the House or on the recommendation of
the Business Advisory Committee, allots a day or days or part of a day for the discussion of
such a motion.
o Censure Motion: It should state the reasons for its adoption in the Lok Sabha. It can
be moved against an individual minister or a group of ministers or the entire council of
ministers. It is moved for censuring the council of ministers for specific policies and actions. If
it is passed in the Lok Sabha, the council of ministers need not resign from the office.
o Half-an-Hour Discussion: It is meant for discussing a matter of sufficient public
importance, which has been subjected to a lot of debate and the answer to which needs
elucidation on a matter of fact. The Speaker can allot three days in a week for such
discussions. There is no formal motion or voting before the House.
o Short Discussion: It is also known as two-hour discussion as the time allotted for such
a discussion should not exceed two hours. The members of the Parliament can raise such
discussions on a matter of urgent public importance. The Speaker can allot two days in a week
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for such discussions. There is neither a formal motion before the house nor voting. This device
has been in existence since 1953.
o Point of Order: A Member can raise a point of order when the proceedings of the
House do not follow the normal rules of procedure. A point of order should relate to the
interpretation or enforcement of the Rules of the House or such articles of the Constitution
that regulate the business of the House and should raise a question that is within the
cognizance of the Speaker. It is usually raised by an opposition member in order to control
the government. It is an extraordinary device as it suspends the proceedings before the
House. No debate is allowed on a point of order.
o Special Mention: A matter which is not a point of order or which cannot be raised
during question hour, half-an hour discussion, short duration discussion or under
adjournment motion, calling attention notice or under any rule of the House can be raised
under the special mention in the Rajya Sabha. Its equivalent procedural device in the Lok
Sabha is known as ‘Notice (Mention) Under Rule 377’.
o Adjournment Motion: When there is an urgent matter of public importance then a
member may propose that the business of the house be adjourned for discussing that matter.
This motion can be moved only with the consent of the Speaker. Generally, such motions are
discussed in the afternoon at 4.00 p.m.
o Lame Duck Session: It refers to the last session of the existing Lok Sabha, after a new
Lok Sabha has been elected. Those members of the existing Lok Sabha who could not get re-
elected to the new Lok Sabha are called lame-ducks.
o Budget Motions: Three types:
1. Policy Cut: Reduces demand to one rupee to discuss policy in detail and propose alternative
suggestions.
2. Economy Cut: Substantial reduction in demand amount aimed at achieving expenditure
economy.
3. Token Cut: Reduces demand by Rs. 100 to address specific grievances within the
government's responsibility.

Supreme Court (June 2023 Shift 2)

● Justice Chandrachud is the 50th CJI and has taken over the post from Justice U.U Lalit.
(Article 145 of the Constitution gives the right to the Chief Justice of India to allocate the
respective matters of relevance to the bench of judges.)
● Composition: Including the CJI, there are 34 judges in the Supreme Court. The judges
sit in benches of 2 or 3 (called a Division Bench) or in benches of 5 or more (called a
Constitutional Bench) when there are matters of fundamental questions of the law is to be
decided.
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● Appointment: Every Judge of the Supreme Court shall be appointed by the President
by warrant under his/her hand and seal after consultation with such of the Judges of the
Supreme Court and of the High Court in the States as President may deem necessary for the
purpose and shall hold office until he attains the age of 65 years.
● Removal: ▪A judge of the Supreme Court can be removed from his Office by an order
of the President. The President can issue the removal order only after an address by
Parliament. The Judges Enquiry Act (1968) regulates the procedure relating to the removal
of a judge of the Supreme Court by the process of impeachment –A removal motion signed
by 100 members (in the case of Lok Sabha) or 50 members (in the case of Rajya Sabha) is to
be given to the Speaker/ Chairman. (June 2023 Shift 1)
● Original Jurisdiction: (March 2023 Shift 2)
o The Supreme Court of India does not have original jurisdiction over all courts and
tribunals.
o Its original jurisdiction is limited to specific types of cases as mentioned in the
Constitution of India.
o Like cases between the Government of India and one or more States, cases involving
the violation of fundamental rights, and disputes between the States themselves.
o In addition, it has the power to hear appeals from lower courts and tribunals in both
civil and criminal cases, as well as to issue advisory opinions on questions of law and
constitutionality referred to it by the President of India.
● Appellate Jurisdiction: The Supreme Court is the highest court of appeal in the
country. It hears appeals from judgments of High Courts and other lower courts in civil,
criminal, and constitutional cases. However, there are certain types of cases where the appeal
does not lie to the Supreme Court.
● Advisory Jurisdiction: The President of India can seek the opinion of the Supreme
Court on any question of law or fact of public importance. Although the opinion of the
Supreme Court is advisory and not binding, it holds significant weight.
● Writ Jurisdiction: The Supreme Court has the power to issue writs for the enforcement
of fundamental rights guaranteed by the Constitution. These writs include habeas corpus,
mandamus, prohibition, certiorari, and quo warranto.
o Habeas Corpus: This writ is issued to ensure the release of a person who has been
unlawfully detained or imprisoned. It commands the detaining authority to produce the
detained individual before the court and justify the legality of their detention.
o Mandamus: Mandamus is issued to compel a public official, corporation, or lower
court to perform a duty that they are legally obligated to perform. It ensures that public
authorities fulfil their statutory duties and prevents them from acting beyond their
jurisdiction.
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o Prohibition: This writ is issued to prohibit lower courts, tribunals, or administrative

bodies from exceeding their jurisdiction or acting in an unlawful manner. It prevents them
from proceeding with a case or taking a particular action.
o Certiorari: Certiorari is issued to quash the decision of a lower court, tribunal, or quasi-
judicial body if it is found to be in excess of jurisdiction, erroneous on the face of the record,
or violative of the principles of natural justice. It is essentially a remedy for judicial review.
o Quo Warranto: Quo warranto is issued to inquire into the legality of a person holding
a public office and to challenge their authority to continue holding that office. It ensures that
public offices are not occupied by ineligible individuals.
● Guardian of the Constitution: The Supreme Court acts as the guardian of the
Constitution and has the power of judicial review. It ensures that the laws passed by the
legislature and actions of the executive do not violate the provisions of the Constitution.
● Interpretative Jurisdiction: The Supreme Court interprets the Constitution and laws
of the country to ensure uniformity and consistency in their application throughout the
nation.
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UNIT 8 – POLITICAL PROCESSES IN

INDIA
Civil Society Organisations
• Civil Society Organisations are organisations and associations set up by the citizens of a
country to pursue certain interests. (Shift 1 2022)
• Civil society can be understood as the "Third sector" of society. It is distinct from the State
in the Public Sphere, and from Family in the Private sphere.
Civil Society Organisations in India – Examples –

• Child Relief and You (C.R.Y.)

• National Foundation of India (NFI)
• Rajiv Gandhi Foundation
• Self Employed Women’s Association (SEWA)
• Bachpan Bachao Andolan (2020)

Interest Groups
• Interest Group is a group of those persons who are bonded with each other by particular
interest or gain motive and remain conscious of these bonds.
Interest Groups in India – Examples –

• Institutional Interest Groups: These groups are formally organised which consist of
professionally employed persons. They are a part of government machinery and try to
exert their influence.
Example: IAS Association, IPS Association, State civil services association, etc.
• Associational Interest Groups : These are organised specialised groups formed for interest
articulation, but to pursue limited goals.
Examples of Associational Interest Groups in India are : Indian Chamber of Commerce, Trade
Unions such as AITUC (All India Trade Union Congress), Teachers Associations, Students
Associations such as National Students Union of India (NSUI), etc. (Shift 1 2022)
• Anomic Interest Groups: By anomic pressure groups we mean more or less a spontaneous
breakthrough into the political system from the society such as Riots, Demonstrations,
Assassinations and the like.
• Non-Associational Interest Groups: These are the Kinship and lineage groups and ethnic,
regional, status and class groups that articulate interests on the basis of individuals, family
and religious heads. These groups have informal structure. These include caste groups,
language groups, etc.
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Pressure Groups
• A pressure group is an organised social group whose members share common attitudes,
beliefs or interests.
• It seeks to influence public policies without ever trying to take over any responsibility for
government actions. (Shift 1 2022)
• In the context of India, pressure groups also emerged in the form of social movements on
issues like protection of environment, corruption, human rights, education, health,
livelihood etc.
• For instance, groups like Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA) or India Against Corruption (IAC)
have propagated public awareness on issues of environment protection and corruption
respectively while pressuring the government for a better policy outcome. (2020)
Pressure Groups in India – Examples –
Different types of pressure groups in India are :
(i) Business Groups : The Bengal Chamber of Commerce and Industry (BNCCI) – 1834;
Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of India (ASSOCHAM) – 1920;
Federation of Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industry (FICCI) – 1927.
(ii) Trade Unions : All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) – 1920; Indian National
Trade Union Congress (INTUC) – 1947; Hind Mazdoor Sabha (HMS) – 1948; Bhartiya
Mazdoor Sangh (BMS) – 1955. (Shift 1 2022) (March 2023 Shift 2)
(iii) Student Organisations : All India Students Federation (AISF) – 1936; Akhil Bhartiya
Vidyarthi Parishad (ABVP) – 1949; National Students’ Union of India (NSUI) – 1971.
(iv) Agrarian Groups : All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS) – 1939; Bhartiya Kisan Union (BKU)
– 1987.
(v) Women Groups : Women’s Indian Association (WIA) – 1917; All India Women’s
Conference (AIWC) – 1927; Vimochana – 1979; The Forum Against Oppression of
Women – 1980; Stree Shakti Sangthan (SSS) – 1989. (Shift 1 2022)

Social Action Group

• Social actions groups can be defined as "a group that is formed to take social action which
is essentially non-violent, though it may be militant”. (Shift 1 2021)
• The work of social action groups is to create transformative change. (Shift 2 2021)
• Social action groups take the shape of “both public and people - centred”
advocacy designed “to influence public policies or public attitudes in order to empower
the marginalized”.

Social Reforms (June 2023 Shift 1)

● Social Action encompasses intentional efforts to drive social change or address
issues.
● Social Reforms are organized endeavours to alter existing social structures for
societal improvement.
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● Both are driven by normative ends, like equality or justice.

● Social Reform is a subset of Social Action, focusing on specific societal aspects,
whereas Social Action includes activism, advocacy, volunteering, etc.
● The scope of Social Action is broader, offering various avenues for societal
transformation beyond just reform.
● Examples-
o Mahila Mukti Morcha – Dalli Rajhara,
o ‘Chetna’ march in Panchmahal and Sabrakantha districts of Gujarat by DISHA

Electoral Politics In India

- IMPORTANT TERMS IN ELECTORAL POLITICS –
• 1). One Party Dominance –
• When one party dominate for the longest time is known as the one party dominance.
• Example – Indian National Congress (INC) maintained its one-party dominance
continuously from Independence 1947 to 1967. However, in 1967 Elections - the Congress
Party won a majority with just over 40% of the votes, and saw a consolidation of
opposition parties from then onwards in more and more States. This phase till 1967 is
termed as One-Party Dominance in State Politics of India.

• 2). Coalition Government – In a parliamentary system, when no party wins an election

with a clear majority of votes, then different political parties choose to cooperate and form
a government – this arrangement is called Coalition government. (Shift 1 2021)

• 3). EVM – Electronic Voting Machine (EVM) is an electronic device for recording votes.
(Shift 1 2021)
• EVMs were first used in 70-Parur Assembly Constituency of Kerala in the year 1982.

• 4). VVPAT – Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT) is an independent system attached
with the Electronic Voting Machines that allows the voters to verify that their votes are
cast as intended.
• VVPATs with EVMs were used for first time in a bye-election from 51-Noksen (ST) Assembly
Constituency of Nagaland. (Shift 2 2022)

• 5). NOTA – NOTA, or "None of the Above", is the option which enables the voter to
officially register a vote of rejection for all candidates who are contesting.
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• If a voter chooses to press NOTA it indicates that the voter has not chosen to vote for any
of the party.
• In Landmark Judgement of Supreme court of India on 27 September, 2013 ruled that the
right to register a "none of the above" vote in elections should apply.
• This symbol appears in the last panel on all Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs).
• The main objective of the 'NOTA' option is to enable electors who do not wish to vote for
any of the candidates to exercise their right to reject without violation of the secrecy of
their decision.

- SIX NATIONAL POLITICAL PARTIES OF INDIA –

PARTY PARTY SYMBOL PARTY FOUNDER PARTY
PRESIDENT/LEADER
Indian National 1885 Mallikarjun Kharge
Congress (INC)
AO Hume,
WC Bonnerjee,
SYMBOL – Surendranath
Hand Banerjee

Bhartiya Janata 1980 J.P. Nadda

Party (BJP)
(June 2023 Shift 2)
L.K. Advani,
SYMBOL – Bhairon Singh
Lotus Shekhawat

Communist Party of 1964 Sitaram Yechury

India Jyoti Basu,
- Marxist (CPI-M) E.M.S.
(June 2023 Shift 2) SYMBOL – Namboodiripad
Hammer, Sickle and
Star
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Bahujan Samaj Party 1984 Mayawati

(BSP) Kanshi Ram

SYMBOL –
Elephant

National People’s 2013 Conrad Sangma

Party (NPP) PA Sangma
(March 2023 Shift 2)

SYMBOL –
Book

Aam Aadmi Party 2012 Arvind Kejriwal

(AAP) Arvind Kejriwal,
Prashant Bhushan,
SYMBOL – Yogendra Yadav
Jhaadu

- MAJOR STATE POLITICAL PARTIES OF INDIA –

PARTY PARTY SYMBOL PARTY FOUNDER PARTY
PRESIDENT/LEADER
Samajwadi Party 1992 Akhilesh Yadav
(SP) Mulayam Singh
(June 2023 Shift 2) SYMBOL - Yadav
Cycle (Shift 1 2022)

All India Trinamool 1998 Mamata Banerjee

Congress (AITC or Mamata Banerjee
TMC)
SYMBOL –
Twin Flowers And
Grass
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Nationalist Congress 1999 Sharad Pawar

Party (NCP) Sharad Pawar,
Tariq Anwar,
SYMBOL – PA Sangma
Clock

Rashtriya Janata Dal 1997 Lalu Prasad Yadav

(RJD) Lalu Prasad Yadav Tejashwi Yadav
SYMBOL –
Lantern

Janata Dal (United) 2003 Nitish Kumar

SYMBOL – Sharad Yadav
Arrow

DMK 1949 MK Stalin

(Shift 1 2022) CN Annadurai
(March 2023 Shift
SYMBOL –
1)
Rising Sun

AIDMK 1972 E. Madhusudhanan

(March 2023 Shift MG
1) SYMBOL – Ramachandra n
Two Leaves
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Telegu Desam Party 1982 N

(TDP) NT Rama Rao Chandrababu Naidu

(Shift 1 2022) SYMBOL –

(March 2023 Shift Bicycle with Yellow
1) Background (Shift 1
2022)

Assam Gana 1985 Atul Bora

Parishad (AGP)
Prafulla Kumar
SYMBOL – Mahanta
Elephant with RED
WHITE & BLUE

Shiv Sena 1966 Uddhav Thackrey

(June 2023 Shift 2) Bala Saheb Thackrey
SYMBOL –
Bow and Arrow
(Saffron)

Shiromani Akali Dal 1920 Sukhbir Singh Badal

(SAD) Sardar Sarmukh Singh
SYMBOL – Chubbal,
(Shift 1 2022) Beam Balance Master Tara Singh

Jharkhand Mukti 1972 Hemant Soren

Morcha (JMM) Binod Bihari Mahato

SYMBOL –
Bow and Arrow
(Green)
Biju Janata Dal 1997 Naveen Patnaik
Naveen Patnaik
(Shift 1 2022)
SYMBOL –
Conch
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Famous Commentators of Indian Politics

Thinkers Concept + Views Books

Rajni Kothari Concept : ● Caste in Indian Politics

● Congress System (December 2018) (1970)
(2020) ● Politicisation of Caste (December 2023)
● Parties of Pressure (June 2023 Shift 1)

Views : ● Politics in India (1970)

● Caste in India function as a Pressure
Group.
● He terms social movements as the
“Non-Party-Political Formations”.
Founder of ‘Lokayan’.
● He gave the statement that, “In course
of time, however (while Nehru was still
alive), the Congress party ceased to be a
movement and became a party and
government” (June 2023 Shift 2)
Rudolph & Concepts : ● The Modernity of
Rudolph ● Bullock Capitalism Tradition : Political
● Modernity of Tradition Development in India
(Shift 2 2022)
● 3 Types of Mobilization :-
● Horizontal mobilization of Caste ● In Pursuit of Lakshmi:
● Vertical mobilization of Caste The Political Economy of
● Differential mobilization of Caste the Indian State

Views : ● Postmodern Gandhi

● India is a Weak-Strong State and Other Essays:
Gandhi in the World and
at
Home

Myron Weiner Concepts : ● Politics of Scarcity:

● Politics of Scarcity Public Pressure and
Political Response in
Two Types Political Culture - India
● Elite Culture
● Mass Culture ● Party Building in a
New Nation: The Indian
Views : National Congress
● Myron Weiner Focused on State
Politics of West Bengal.
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● The Indian Paradox

(December 2018) (Shift
1 2022)
Morris Jones Concepts : ● The Government and
● Bargaining Federalism Politics of India (June
(2020) (June 2023 Shift 1) (December 2023) 2019) (2020)

● India's Political
Miracle
Morris Jones ● Saintly Idioms
● There are 3 different languages - ● Politics Mainly Indian
Language of traditional politics
Language of modern western politics
Language of Saintly Idioms

Views :
● Vinoba Bhave represents Saintly Idiom.
Indian Party system from 1947-67 is
Dominant-Party System.

Partha Chatterjee Concepts : ● Nationalist Thought

● Political Society concept. and the Colonial World:
● Derivative Discourse concept. A Derivative Discourse?
● Anti-Colonial Nationalism concept.
● The Nation and its
3 Stages of Colonial Nationalist thought - Fragments: Colonial and
1. Moment of departure Postcolonial Histories
2. Moment of Manuever
3. Moment of Arrival ● The Politics of the
Governed: Popular
Views : Politics in Most of the
● Partha Chatterjee - founder of World
Subaltern Studies Collective in India.

● Chatterjee favoured Political Society

and criticised Civil Society.

● Partha Chatterjee gave the idea of -

Thematic & Problematic.

Subaltern School Subaltern Thinkers - Ranajit Guha –

Thinkers - Dominance without
● Partha Chatterjee Hegemony: History and
● Ranajit Guha Power in Colonial India
● Gayatri Spivak Chakravarty
Gayatri Spivak –
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Can The Subaltern Speak? :

Reflections On The History
Of An Idea

Ranajit Guha & Gayatri

Spivak –
Selected Subaltern Studies
Amartya Sen Concepts : ● Poverty and Famines:
● Capability Approach to Justice. An Essay on Entitlement
(June 2019) ● Helped to create Human Development and Deprivation
Index (HDI) with Mahbub ul Haq.
● Inequality Re-
Views : examined
Sen gave the idea – ● Development as
● " Instrumental Freedom ". Freedom
● The Argumentative
● Five types of Freedom to Sen - Indian
Political freedom ● Identity and Violence
Economic freedom ● The Idea of Justice
Social freedom
Transparency guarantees
Protective Security
Granville Austin Views : ● Working Democratic
● Granville Austin said - Nehru-Patel- Constitution : Indian
Azad-Prasad team was 'the oligarchy.’ Experience
(June 2023 Shift 1)
● The Indian
● "Constituent assembly was Congress Constitution:
and Congress was Constituent assembly". Cornerstone of a Nation
(June 2019) (June 2023
● "Both DPSP & Fundamental Rights are Shift 2)
Conscience of Constitution".

Atul Kohli Concepts : ● The State and Poverty

Crisis of Governability in India

Views : ● Democracy and

For Atul Kohli, Crisis of Governability is Discontent
the breakdown of the Congress-System
and inability of any other political party ● The Success of India's
to take its place. Democracy (December
2023)

● Poverty Amid Plenty in

the New India
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Paul Brass Concepts : ● Factional Politics in an

● Factionalism in Indian Politics Indian State: The
● Focus on – Riots, Fear, Trepidation Congress Party in Uttar
● Forms of Collective violence - Riots, Pradesh Paul Brass
Genocide in modern India
● Language, Religion
Views : and Politics in North
● Paul Brass Focused on State Politics of India
Uttar Pradesh.
Christophe Concepts : ● Religion, Caste and
Jaffrelot Politics in India
● Silent Revolution in the book –
● “India's Silent Revolution: The rise of ● Hindu nationalism: a
the lower castes in North India.” reader

Neera Chandhoke illustrates how NGOs can align their goals The conceits of civil
(June 2023 Shift 2) with grassroots movements they society, 2003
collaborate with.

Arvind Panagariya credits 1980s growth to liberalization, India in the 1980's and
(June 2023 investment, and government borrowing, 1990's: A Triumph of
Shift 2) boosting economic efficiency and Reforms, 2004
industrial expansion.
M.N. Srinivas discusses the impact of modern Caste in Modern India:
technology and representational politics And Other Essays, 1962
(June 2023 Shift 2) on caste politics in India. He notes
horizontal and vertical solidarity among
castes, along with economic competition.
Contrary to belief, modern technology
actually fostered caste solidarity by
enabling communication and awareness.

Social Movements
• Social Movement is defined as sustained collective action which is directed against the
state and takes the form of demanding changes in state policy or practice.
• The term Social Movement was introduced by Lorenz von Stein.
• M.S.A. Rao wrote, “Social Movements and Social Transformation: A Study of two
backward Classes movements in India” in the year 1979.
• Ghanshyam Shah works on Social Movements include –
o Social Movements in India (1990)
o Social Movements and the State (2002)
o Dalit Identity and Politics (2001)
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• TRIBAL MOVEMENTS –
• There are three phases of Tribal Movements in India-
o First Phase (1795-1860)
o Second Phase (1860-1920)
o Third Phase (1920-1947)
• Major Tribal Movements –
• 1. The Chuar Revolt (1768-1799) –
o It was against the huge imposed tax by zamindars on Chuars who were inhabitant
of north western Midnapur.
• 2. The Kol Revolt (1829-1839) –
o The Kol tribe was the inhabitant of Chotanagpur.
o The Kols resented against taxes and a few officials were killed by them. (Shift 2
2021)
• 3. The Santhal Revolt (1855) –
o It was a massive tribal revolt which took place in 1855 against Britishers and
zamindari system as the zamindars claimed Santhals land as their own.
o In 1854, Bir Singh led first rebellion.
o In 1855, Sidhu and Kanhu led second rebellion. (Shift 2 2021)
• 4. Paralkot Rebellion (1825) –
o In 1825, the Paralkot rebellion was a symbol of protest against foreign rules by
Abujhmarias, who were the inhabitants of the present day state of Chhattisgarh.
• 5. Khondh Uprising (1846-1855) –
o They retaliated against the Britishers for putting an end to the Kandh’s practices
of human sacrifice initially through persuasion and later through force.
• 6. Mundane Ulgulam (1899-1900) –
o The Khunkatti system was replaced by the zamindar system.
o Their leader was Birsa Munda who organised people to revolt.

• 7. Bhil Uprising (1817-1819) –

o This tribe revolted against their new masters which was the East India Company
as the company will made hardships in agricultural practices.
o One of the main leaders was Sewaram.
• 8. Halba rebellion (1774) –
o The Halba rebellion started against the Marathas and the British in the year 1774
after the decline of the Chalukyas.
• 9. Maria Rebellion (1842-1863) –
o The uprising of Maria Tribe was a prolonged rebellion in Bastar.
o It was apparently fought to preserve the practice of human sacrifice.
• 10. Tarapur Rebellion (1842-1854) –
o Tarapur rebellion is a great example of the tribal rebellions in Bastar, the present
Chhattisgarh.
o The common people of Bastar stood against the foreign rulers.
• 11. Bodo Movement (1987) –
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o The Bodos are recognized as a plains tribe in the Sixth Schedule of the Indian
Constitution.
o The major objective of the Bodo movement was to have a separate state of their
own. (Shift 2 2021)
• 12. Jharkhand Movement –
o The Jharkhand movement in Bihar is a movement of tribal communities led by
the Jarkhand Mukti Morcha consisting of settled agriculturalists who are
sensitised to Vaishnavism.
o The movement which lasted for more than five decades ended with the
formation of new separate Jharkhand State.

Rani Gaidinliu (June 2023 Shift 1)

● Rani Gaidinliu, a Naga spiritual and political leader of Manipur. She belonged to the
Rongmei tribe, one of the three Zeliangrong Tribes.
● Gaidinliu's introduction to the revolutionary world was at the age of 13 when she
joined the Heraka Movement (1920s). Although it was a socio-religious movement,
it also had political undertones against British rule.
● At the age of 17, Gaidinliu started preaching Gandhian principles and launched an
open rebellion against British rule.
● She urged the people of the Zeliangrong tribe to unite against the British by refusing
to pay taxes or cooperate with them.
● She was described as the "Daughter of the Hills" .
● She was conferred with the Tamrapatra (1972), Padma Bhushan (1982), Vivekananda
Sewa Summan (1983), and the Bhagwan Birsa Munda Puraskar (posthumously) in
1996.

• DALIT MOVEMENTS –
• List of Dalit Movements in India –
• Nair Movement (1861) –
o Started under the leadership of CV Raman Pillai, K Rama Krishna Pillai and M.
Padmanabha Pillai in 1861.
• Satyashodhak Movement (1873) –
o Jyotiba Phule founded in 1873 (Maharashtra)
• Justice Party Movement (1916) –
o Started under the leadership of Dr. T.M Nair, P. Tyagaraja Chetti and C.N Mudalair
in 1916.
o The South Indian Liberation Federation (SILF) was formed in 1916.
• Self-Respect Movement (1925) –
o Started under the leadership of EV Ramaswamy Naicker or Periyar in 1925.
o Kudi Arasu journal was started by Periyar in 1910.
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• Depressed Classes Movement (Mahar Movement) (1924) –

o Started under the leadership of BR Ambedkar in 1924.
o Depressed Classes Institution was founded in 1924.
o Marathi fortnightly Bahiskrit Bharat was started in 1927.
o Establishment of Samaj Samta Sangh in 1927.
• Congress Harijan Movement (1932) –
o Establishment of All-India Anti-Untouchability League in 1932.
o Weekly Harijan was founded by Gandhi in 1933.
• Independent Labour Party (1936) –
o In 1936, B.R. Ambedkar formed the ILP which includes all the depressed sections
of the society – Dalits, non-brahmins, peasants and workers but was unable to
consolidate and resolve differences between Dalits and Non – Brahmins.
• Dalit Panther (1972) –
o With the emergence of Dalit Panthers in 1972, the first wave of the new anti- caste
movement came into existence, which comprised of ex-untouchables youth of
Maharashtra. Dalit Panthers was founded by Namdeo Dhasal in 1972.
• Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) (1984) –
o In 1984 (BSP) came into existence as the party of Dalits, backwards and minorities.
BSP emerged as a political wing of the Backward and Minority Communities
Employees Federation (BAMCEF) – launched by Kanshi Ram.

• Dalit feminist literary movement (June 2023 Shift 1)

o "Samvadini-Dalit Stree Sahitya Maanch" is a pioneering literary platform
amplifying the voices of Dalit women.
o It sparked the Dalit feminist literary movement (1960s), offering a space for
diverse perspectives and raising crucial questions often overlooked. These
discussions challenged Brahmanical norms in feminism, critiqued the Indian
women's movement, and revitalized Phule/Ambedkarite feminist thought in
India.

• PEASANT MOVEMENTS –
• Some of the important struggles of farmers or peasants during the British period were:
o Bhil Revolt (1822,1823,1837-60)
o Deccan Peasant Revolt (1875)
o Mopilla Revolt (1921)
o The Muslhi Satyagraha (1921-24)
o Struggle of Warlis (1945)
o Birsa Munda revolt (1830-33) (Shift 2 2021)

• Three Important Movements led by Gandhi –

o Champaran Satyagraha (1918-19)
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o Bardoli Satyagraha (1925)

o Kheda Satyagraha (1918)

• Post-independent India Farmers’ Movements –

o Telangana Movement (1946-51)
o Tebagha movement (1946-1949)
o Kagodu Satyagraha (1951)
o Naxalbari Movement (1967)
o Lalgarh movement (2009)

o Farmer’s Protest (2020) –

Farmers in India protested against the three new agriculture-related laws
which were as follows-
✓ 1. Farmer’s Produce Trade and Commerce (Promotion and Facilitation) Bill.
✓ 2. Farmer’s (Empowerment and Protection) Agreement of Price Assurance
and Farm Service Bill, 2020.
✓ 3. Essential Commodities (Amendment Bill) 2020.

• WOMEN’S MOVEMENTS –
• The Important National Women’s Organisations are :-
o Sakhi Samiti (1886) (June 2023 Shift 1)
o Bharat Mahila Parishad (1904),
o Bharat Stri Mahamandal (1909),
o Women’s Indian Association (1917), (June 2023 Shift 1)
o National Council of Women in India (1925) (June 2023 Shift 1)
o All India Women’s Conference (1927) (June 2023 Shift 1)
o Kasturba Gandhi National Memorial Trust
o The Special Marriage Act, 1954.
o The Hindu Marriage and Divorce Act, 1955.
o The Adoption Act, 1956.
o Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961.
o The Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1986.
o The Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987
o Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005
o The Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (PREVENTION, PROHIBITION and
REDRESSAL) Act, 2013
o The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013

Chipko Movement (March 2023 Shift 1 and 2)

● The Chipko movement emerged in Uttarakhand in 1973 when villagers protested
the forest department's refusal to fell ash trees.
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● Led by Gandhian activist Sunderlal Bahuguna and Chandi Prasad Bhatt, the
movement spread as villagers demanded local control over natural resources and
economic development without ecological harm.
● Women played a significant role, combating alcoholism among forest workers.
● The movement's success led to a 15-year ban on tree felling in the Himalayan
regions and inspired similar grassroots movements across India, reflecting rural
discontent with distant government policies.

Reorganisation of States
• Three Important Commissions –
• Dhar Commission 1948 –
o Chairman – S.K. Dhar.
o Members – Jagat Narain Lal and Panna Lal.
o On June 17, 1948, Constituent assembly appointed the Linguistic Provinces
Commission which was headed by Justice SK Dhar. (December 2023)
o Recommendation – Rejected the idea of creation of States on the basis of
Language.
• JVP Committee 1948 –
o Members – Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel,
and Pattabhi Sitaramayya. (JVP).
o Recommendation – Rejected language as the foundation for the
reorganisation of States.

• Fazl Ali Commission 1953 –

o Chairman – Fazl Ali.
o Members – K.M. Panikkar and H.N. Kunzru.
o Recommendation – Fazl Ali Commission for the first time accepted Language
as the basis for Reorganisation of States.
o But it rejected the idea of “One language, One state”.

• On the Basis of Recommendations of 1956 State Reorganisation Commission,

14 states and 6 UTs were created.
• States Reorganisation Commission
Some of the important recommendations of the Commission were:
o Preservation of unity and integrity of the country
o Preservation of linguistic and cultural homogeneity,
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o Financial, economic and administrative viability

• Chronology of Reorganisation of States in India :-

o 1953 - Andhra Pradesh becomes first State to be created on basis of language.
o 1960 - Bombay state split into Maharashtra and Gujarat. (December 2019)
(June 2023 Shift 2)
o 1963 - Nagaland carved out of Assam state.
o 1966 - Haryana and Himachal Pradesh carved out of Punjab state (PEPSU).
(June 2023 Shift 2)
o 1972 - Meghalaya , Manipur and Tripura were formed.
o 1975 - Sikkim became part of Indian union. (December 2019)
o 1987 - Goa and Arunachal Pradesh became States. (December 2019)
o 2000 – 3 New States – Uttaranchal (out of UP), Jharkhand (out of Bihar) and
Chhattisgarh (out of Madhya Pradesh) were formed.
o 2014 – Telangana (out of Andhra Pradesh) became India's 29th state.
(December 2019) (June 2023 Shift 2)
o 2019 – 5th August 2019 – Jammu & Kashmir became a UT with legislature and
Ladakh became a UT without legislature. (June 2023 Shift 2)
• Today as per 2024, India has total = 28 States and 8 UTs.
• Proposed Demand of Statehood –
o Awadh from – Uttar Pradesh
o Harit Pradesh from – Uttar Pradesh (June 2019)
o Purvanchal from – Uttar Pradesh
o Bagelkhand from – Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh
o Bundelkhand from – Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh
o Malwa from – Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan
o Maru Pradesh from – Rajasthan
o Bodoland from – Assam
o Garoland from – Meghalaya
o Chakmaland from – Mizoram
o Gorkhaland from – West Bengal
o Jungle Mahal from – West Bengal
o Kodagu from – Karnataka
o Kongu Nadu from – Tamil Nadu
o Kosal from – Odisha
o Rayalaseema from – Andhra Pradesh
o Saurashtra from – Gujarat
o Vidarbha from – Maharashtra (June 2019)
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UNIT 9 – PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Evolution of Public Administration
Public Administration as an independent and separate subject occur in 1887
and the credit for this goes to Woodrow Wilson. To understand where it stands today, we
need to look at how it has evolved over time.

Wilson outlined four stages of Public Administration's development:

• Phase I: The analytic distinction of politics from administration
• Phase II: The concrete distinction of politics from administration.
• Phase III: A science of management.
• Phase IV: The pervasive orientation toward public policy.

However, looking at it logically, Public Administration's growth as a field can be seen in five
stages:

Phase I: The Politics/Administration Dichotomy (1887-1926); also the time period between
1887-1910 is known as the “Exploratory Period”. (June 2023 Shift 2)
Phase II: The Principles of Administration also known as Golden Era of Public Administration
(1927-1937) (June 2023 Shift 2)
Phase III: Criticism and Challenges (1938-1950)
Phase IV: Crisis of Identity (1950-1970)
Phase V: Public Administration as an Independent Discipline (1970 Onwards)

Events/Conference of Public Administration (June 2023 Shift 2)

▪ Major events/conferences of Public Administration:

➢ Publication of “The Elements of Administration” by Urwick – 1944

➢ The Philadelphia Conference – 1967

The Philadelphia Conference on the Theory and Practice of Public Administration was held
in 1967.
The conference was attended by a group of public administration scholars and practitioners
who were interested in discussing the future of the field.
The conference resulted in a number of publications that helped to shape the development
of New Public Administration.

➢ First Minnowbrook Conference – 1968

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One of the most important events was the Minnowbrook Conference, which was held in
1968 at the State University of New York at Albany.
The conference was attended by a group of young public administration scholars and
practitioners who were dissatisfied with the state of the discipline.
They argued that public administration had become too focused on efficiency and technical
expertise, and that it had lost sight of its broader purpose of serving the public interest.

➢ Publication of book “Public Administration in a time of Turbulence” by Waldo - 1971

The First Minnowbrook Conference (1968) resulted in the publication of a book called Public
Administration in a Time of Turbulence, in 1971 which edited by Dwight Waldo.
It was a seminal work that helped to define the field of New Public Administration.

Scientific Management Theory:-

➢ The term “scientific management” was first coined by Louis Brandies (1910).
➢ Frederick Winslow Taylor propounded Scientific Management with a systematic
explanation. (December 2018)
➢ He came to be known as the “Father of Scientific Management” and Scientific
management is also known as “Taylorism”. (December 2023)
➢ Basic Theme: management is a true science as it rests on clearly fixed laws, rules and
principles, which have universal applicability in all types of organizations. (December
2023)
➢ The primary goal of Scientific management is to increase efficiency. (December 2018)
➢ The concept of ‘Mental Revolution’ given by Taylor refers to a change in the attitude of
both management and workers towards each other. (June 2023 Shift 2)
➢ He believed that for scientific management to be successful, there must be a
fundamental change in the way that both parties think about their roles and
responsibilities.
➢ Thus, the Mental Revolution involves a combination of Cooperation and Harmony
between workers and management. (March 2023 Shift 2)
➢ four principles of scientific management:-
1 Develop a science for each element of a man’s work
2 Scientifically select and then train workmen
3 Management should fully cooperate with workers
4 Equal division of work and responsibility
➢ Important Techniques:-
1) Functional Foremanship: a worker is supervised by eight functional foreman
(four are responsible for planning, four are responsible for execution).
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Taylor advocated the concept of functional foremanship under which a worker is

supervised and guided by eight functional foreman (i.e., specialised supervisors).

Thus, he rejected the system of single foremanship (also known as unity of

command or linear system or military type of organisation) under which a worker
recieves orders from only one superior.

Of the eight functional foremen, four are responsible for planning and sit in the
planning room.

They are— (i) Order-of-work-and-route clerk, (ii) Instruction-card clerk, iii) Time-
and-cost clerk, and (iv) Shop disciplinarian.

The other four functional foremen are responsible for execution, and serve on
the shop floor. They are - (i) Gang boss, (ii) Speed boss, (iii) Inspector, and (iv)
Repair boss. In effect, each worker, will have eight functional bosses.

Thus, it will facilitate specialisation as well as separation of planning from

execution. (June 2023 Shift 2)

2) Motion Study: observation of all the motions comprised in a particular job and
then determination of the best set of motions. (December 2023)

3) Time study: used to determine the standard time for completion of work.
(December 2023)
4) Differential Piece Rate Plan: pay by piece rates on the basis of standards set by
motion and time studies. (December 2023)
5) Exception Principle: setting up a large daily task by the management,

Taylor’s Major works:- (Shift 2 2021)

➢ A Piece Rate System (1895)
➢ Shop Management (1903)
➢ Art of Cutting Metals (1906)
➢ Principles of Scientific Management (1911)

Bureaucratic Theory:-
➢ The term “bureaucracy” was first coined by Vincent de Gourney, in 1745.
➢ Morstein Marx classified bureaucracy in 4 types:-
1 Guardian Bureaucracy
2 Caste Bureaucracy
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3 Patronage Bureaucracy
4 Merit Bureaucracy, (Jan 2017)
➢ The credit for systematic formulation of the bureaucratic theory goes to Max Weber.
➢ Max Weber called his formulation of bureaucracy as ‘ideal type’ thus considered as a
‘utopia’. (December 2023)
➢ Theory of Authority: authority is ‘authoritarian power of command’ and he called it
‘domination’. He stated that, “all administration means domination.”
➢ Types of Authority:-
- Traditional Authority
- Charismatic Authority
- Legal-Rational Authority (July 2018)
➢ He defined six characteristics of bureaucracy:-
- Formal hierarchical structure
- Management by rules
- Division of labour
- Achievement focused advancement
- Efficient organization
- impersonality
➢ He identified five mechanisms to control over bureaucracy:-
- Collegiality
- Separation of powers
- Amateur administration
- Direct democracy
- Representation bodies
Main work:- (Shift 1 2022)

➢ The Theory of Social and Economic Organization (1947)

➢ Economy and Society (1968)

Managing Conflict in the Organization

➢ Mary Parker Follett is regarded as a bridge between the classical and the behavioral-
human relations approach.
➢ She was the first thinker to advance the idea of worker’s participation. (July 2018)
➢ According to her, conflicts should be conceived as a normal process in organization
and should be handled in a constructive way.
➢ For Follett "Conflict is not warfare, but is only an appearance of difference -
difference of opinions, of interests not only between employer and employee but
also between managers, between directors or wherever differences appear".
(Shift 2 2021)
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➢ Follett propounded the concept of ‘constructive conflict’.

(Shift 1 2021) (Shift 1 2022) (March 2023 Shift 2) (December 2023)
➢ Follett suggested three ways for resolving conflict in the organization:-
(i)Domination—Victory of one side over the other.
(ii)Compromise—Both sides surrendering some part of what they want.
(iii)Integration—Finding a new solution which satisfies the ‘real needs’ of both sides
and neither side sacrifices anything. (June 2019) (Shift 1 2021)
➢ Follett considered integration as the best way of resolving conflict
➢ Concept of Power:-
o ‘Power-over’ it means asserting oneself and forcing another to do
one’s will.
o ‘Power-with’ a superior does not share power with his immediate
subordinates. However, he can give them opportunities for
developing their powers.
She postulated four fundamental principles of coordination:- (June 2023 Shift 2)
i) Coordination by Direct Contact
ii) Coordination in the Early Stages
iii) Coordination as a Continuing Process
iv) Coordination as the Reciprocal Phenomena
M.P. Follet’s Main works:-

➢ The Speaker of the House of Representatives (1896)

➢ The New State (1920)
➢ Creative Experience (1924)
➢ Dynamic Administration (1941)

The Human Relations Theory

➢ The Human Relations Theory of organization came into existence in 1930s as a
reaction to the classical approach. (Shift 1 2021) (December 2023)

➢ Elton Mayo is regarded as the ‘father of human relations theory’.

➢ He called this approach as “clinical method”.
➢ He undertook the first research programme in 1923 in a textile mill near Philadelphia
and named it “The First Enquiry”.
➢ The Hawthorne experiments (1924-32) formed the basis for the rise of human
relations theory. (July 2018)
➢ The Hawthorne experiments can be divided into 5 major parts.
- Experiments on Illumination. (Shift 2 2021) (March 2023 Shift 1)
- Relay Assembly Experiment. (March 2023 Shift 1)
- Mass Interviewing Programme. (March 2023 Shift 1)
- Bank Wiring Observation Room. (Shift 2 2021)
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- Personnel Counseling.
➢ Some conclusions of the Hawthorne studies are:-
o The social and psychological factors at the workplace determine the
employees’ morale and output.
o The organization is a social system.
➢ Three elements Human Relations Theory: (i) The Individual (ii) Informal
Organization (iii) Participative Management
➢ One who communicates detrimental information about other to the supervisor
known as “Squealer” (Jan 2017)
Elton Mayo’s Main works:-

➢ The Human Problems of an Industrial Civilization (1933) (December 2023)

➢ The Social Problems of an Industrial Civilization (1945)

➢ The Political Problems of an Industrial Civilization (1947)

Decision Making Theory:-

➢ Herbert A. Simon is the foremost decision-making theorist. (Shift 1 2021)
➢ Simon was very critical of the classical approach and described them as
“proverbs”.(July 2018)
➢ He defined decision-making as “the optimum rational choice between alternative
courses of action.” (December 2018)
➢ Every aspect of administration revolves around decision-making.
➢ According to Simon, every decision is based upon two premises— Fact (statement of
reality), and Value (expression of preference)
➢ Stages of Decision-Making:-
i. Intelligence Activity: involves finding occasions for making a decision.
ii. Design Activity: inventing, developing and analyzing possible courses of action.
iii. Choice Activity: selecting a particular course of action. (December 2023)
➢ His model of rational decision-making is also known as Behavior Alternative Model.
➢ Simon believed that total rationality is impossible in administrative behavior.
➢ Therefore, he characterized human behavior by bounded rationality (limited
rationality)
➢ By which a decision maker chooses an alternative, which is satisfactory or good
enough. (December 2018)

Herbert Simon’s Major works:-

➢ Proverbs of Administration (1946), (Jan 2017)
• Administrative Behavior (1947) (December 2023)
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Communication –
➢ Chester I. Bernard defined formal organization as cooperative system which has
three elements:-
(i) Communication
(ii) Willingness to cooperate
(iii) Common purpose (June 2020)
➢ He defined informal organization as a natural system, which give rise to formal
organization.
➢ Acceptance Theory of Authority: a subordinate will accept a communication in four
conditions:-
i. understands the communication
ii. Communication is not inconsistent with the purpose.
iii. Communication is compatible with his personal interest.
iv. mentally and physically comply with the communication (Shift 1 2022) (Shift
2 2022)
➢ The acceptance of authority, according to Barnard, is facilitated by the zone of
indifference. (Shift 2 2021)
➢ He said that, “The communication of intangible facts, opinions, suggestions and
suspicions that cannot pass through formal channels are communicated through
informal channels”. (June 2023 Shift 2)
➢ Barnard suggested seven principles of communication.
Chester Barnard’s Major works :-
➢ The Futhonctions of Executive (1938), (Jan 2017) (Shift 2 2021)
➢ Organization and Management (1948)
Other thinkers:-
➢ Henry Fayol : first thinker to introduce the problem of communication in an
organization.
- Provided a meaningful solution in the form of ‘gang plank’.
- Implies the system of horizontal communication to avoid delay in the disposal of
business.
➢ Herbert Simon :
- Simon stresses the informal channels of communication (grapevine) for the
transmission of information.
- According to him, the informal communication system is built around the social
relationships of the members of the organization.

Ecological Approach : F.W. Riggs

➢ explain three administrative theories (i) ecological approach (ii) structural-functional
approach; and (iii) ideal models
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➢ Ecological approach: interaction between administrative system and its

environment. (Shift 1 2021)
➢ Structural-functional approach: explaining the administrative systems from
ecological perspective. (first suggested in 1955 by Dwight Waldo)
➢ Based on the structural-functional approach, Riggs has constructed two ‘ideal
models’- (i) agraria-industria model (ii) fused-prismatic-diffracted model.
➢ agraria-industria model (1956), (July 2018) (December 2018)
- distinguished between two types of societies — societies dominated
by agricultural institutions (agraria) and societies dominated by
industrial institutions (industria).
- According to him, all societies move from agraria stage to industria
stage.
- In the following year (1957), postulated an intermediate model called
‘transitia’ bears the features of both and represents a transitional
society.
➢ Fused-Prismatic-Diffracted Model (1959)
- Represents the underdeveloped, developing and developed societies
respectively.
- Underdeveloped societies: the fused model, and developed
societies: the refracted model. (December 2019)
- Intermediate between these polar extremes is the prismatic model,
- Prismatic society is a transitional society and combines the features of
both.
➢ Prismatic-Sala Model
- ‘Prismatic’ represents the transitional society and ‘sala’ represents the
administrative sub-system of a prismatic society.
- Three features of prismatic-sala model—Heterogeneity, Formalism,
Overlapping. (June 2020)
➢ Change in a Prismatic Society
- External change: ‘exo-genous change’
- internal change: ‘endo-genous change’
- both external and internal change: ‘equi-genetic change’

➢ When discussing a Prismatic Society, “Heterogeneity" refers to the coexistence of

diverse structures.
➢ This means that within such a society, various elements with contrasting
characteristics exist side by side. This diversity extends to viewpoints and practices,
even those that are diametrically opposite.
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➢ The consequence of such parallel existence is that any societal change occurring
within this prism of diversity tends to be inconsistent, lacking in completeness, and
unresponsive to uniform transformation.
➢ Riggs points out that one might observe the coexistence of highly modernized
structures alongside deeply traditional ones. (June 2023 Shift 2)

▪ For instance, Urban areas, influenced by Western patterns and trends, undergo a different
trajectory compared to rural regions, where traditional ways of life persist. This coexistence
results in an uneven developmental landscape.
▪ All these complexities give rise to challenges and intricacies within the society's fabric
where the level of social change taking place within a prismatic society would be
inconsistent, incomplete and unresponsive from place to place.

In his book Administration in Developing Countries: The Theory of Prismatic Society

(1964), Riggs mentioned the following points:
A. The structures of a modern society are typically functionally specific.
B. A structure is defined as any pattern of behaviour, which has become a standard
feature of a social system.
C. Agraria will move towards Industria through the process of transition in the society.
D. Although the "image" of Agraria resembles the 'model' of a fused society, the two
constructions are by no means identical. (December 2023)
Major works:-
➢ The Ecology of Public Administration (1961)
➢ Administration in Developing Countries: The Theory of Prismatic Society (1964)
(December 2023)

Rational Choice Theory

➢ Also known as Public Choice Theory.
➢ The term public choice approach was coined in the late 1960s.
➢ Vincent Ostrom, the chief protagonist of this approach advocated for replacement of
‘bureaucratic administration’ by ‘democratic administration’.
➢ The theory postulates that an individual will perform a cost-benefit analysis to
determine whether an option is right for them.
o Rational Choice Theory of Public Administration encourages research in
policy analysis because it aligns with the theory's core assumption that
individuals are rational actors who carefully assess their options to maximize
their interests. (June 2023 Shift 2)
➢ Policy analysis helps decision-makers identify optimal policies by providing a
systematic framework to evaluate alternatives, anticipate consequences, and
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ultimately make more informed and effective choices in the realm of public
administration.
➢ Main assumptions:-
- individuals are driven by self interest.
- Individuals act rationally with adequate information and order of
preference.
- Individuals are utility maximisers.
➢ Public choice emphasizes the following: -
- Anti-bureaucratic approach
- Institutional pluralism
- Diverse democratic decision-making centres
- Application of economic logic to the problems of public service
distribution
- Decentralization
- Popular participation in administration.
Major work:-
➢ “The Intellectual Crisis in American Public Administration”1974 (June 2019)

Management By Objectives (MBO) –

➢ Also known as management by planning, or management by results was first
popularized by Peter Drucker in 1954. (Shift 2 2021)
➢ Management by Objective (MBO), also called Management by Results (MBR), is a
theory of management developed by Peter Drucker in his book Practice of
Management (1954). (Shift 1 2022)
➢ Defines roles and responsibilities for the employees and help them chalk out their
future course of action in the organization.
➢ It forces the manger to simplify the plan and activities for the best result.
➢ Guides the employees to deliver their level best and achieve the targets within the
stipulated period.
➢ The process of management by objective focuses more on results rather than the
activities involved.
➢ Process of management by objective:-
1. Define the goal of the organization
2. Define the objectives of employees
3. Continuously monitoring performance and progress
4. Performance evaluation
5. Providing feedback
6. Appraisal of performance
. Peter Drucker also coined the term ‘Knowledge workers’ in his book, The Landmarks of
Tomorrow (1959). (Shift 1 2022)
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o ▪ According to Peter Drucker’s Management by Objectives (MBO): (June 2023

Shift 2)
▪ Peter Drucker believed that management has a specific role to perform within an
organization. He defined management as the process of planning, organizing, directing, and
controlling an organization's resources to achieve its goals and objectives.

▪ Peter Drucker advocated for the democratization of management. He believed that

management principles should not be reserved for a select group of experts or elites but
should be accessible and applicable to individuals from all walks of life.

▪ According to Peter Drucker, management is not subjective. In fact, he emphasized that

management is a discipline that can be studied, learned, and practiced objectively. Drucker
believed that there are principles and practices that can be applied universally to achieve
effective management.

▪ Peter Drucker was critical of the mechanistic model of organizational management. He

believed that organizations should be more flexible, adaptive, and people-centered. He
advocated for a more organic and human-centered approach to management, which is in
contrast to the rigid and hierarchical nature of the mechanistic model.

“Sins” of non-performance (June 2023 Shift 1)

▪ According to Peter Drucker, the following are the Six 'Sins' which contribute to non-
performance:

▪ 1. Dogmatism – Dogmatism refers to a rigid adherence to beliefs, ideas, or methods

without considering alternative viewpoints or being open to new information. According to
Drucker, dogmatism can hinder performance because it limits innovation, creativity, and
adaptability.

▪ 2. Having lofty objectives – While having ambitious goals can be motivating, Drucker
cautioned against setting overly lofty objectives that are unrealistic or unattainable.

▪ 3. Attempting to do several things – Drucker argued that trying to do too many things at
once, without prioritizing them can lead to non-performance.

▪ 4. Fat is beautiful - Drucker believed that over-staffing is a sure way for non-performance
and focuses on ‘administration’ than on ‘results’.

▪ 5. Failure to learn from ‘experience’.

▪ 6. Belief in immortality and inability to abandon and continue the policies, programme and
institutions long after they are unnecessary and their need disappeared.

Peter Drucker’s Major works :- (Shift 1 2022)

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➢ The Practice of Management (1954)

➢ The Effective Executive (1966)
➢ The Landmarks of Tomorrow (1959)

System theory:-
➢ A system as, “A set or arrangement of things so connected as to form a unity or
organic whole.”
➢ A system has a number of parts. These parts are called sub-systems.
➢ The system has a defined boundary through which it interacts with its environment.
This external environment is called a supra-system.
➢ A system consists of five basic parts: input, process, output, feedback and
environment.
➢ Systems are of two categories:-
- Open systems: social and biological systems, interaction with their
environment.
- Closed systems: mechanical and physical systems, do not interact
with environment.
➢ Organization falls in the category of open social systems consisting of seven sub-
systems.
➢ The systems approach to the study of organizations was developed after 1950.
➢ It is also known as the Modern Organization Theory.
➢ Ludwig Von Bertalanffy, a biologist, developed the General Systems Theory.
(December 2018)
➢ M.P. Follett viewed organization as a social system.
➢ Chester Barnard gave the first comprehensive explanation of organization from the
systems point of view. He described an organization as a “cooperative” social
system. (June 2020)
➢ Norbert Wiener pioneered in the field of cybernetics and gave the first clear view of
an organization as a system consisting of inputs, process, outputs, feedback and
environment.
➢ Herbert Simon’s decision-making model is based on the systems approach.

➢ There are three models of organization:-

- Closed model: bureaucratic, hierarchical, formal, rational.(December
2018)
- Open model: collegial, competitive, free-market, informal, natural
- Newer tradition model: tries to synthesize both closed and open
models. (called by James D. Thompson)
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Theories of Leadership:-
➢ Trait Theory (great man theory): This theory says that a person becomes a leader
because of the traits possessed by him.
➢ Behavioral Theory: concentrates on what leaders ‘do’ (leadership functions and
styles)
➢ Situational Theory: This theory believes that the leadership is influenced by
situational variables and differs from situation to situation.
➢ M.P. Follett distinguished between the following three types of leadership:-
- Leadership of position
- Leadership of personality
- Leadership of function
➢ Chester Barnard’s leadership depends on three things: the individual, the followers,
and the conditions.
➢ John French and Bertram Raven have proposed five sources of power bases of
leadership.
- Coercive Power
- Reward Power
- Legitimate Power
- Expert Power
- Referent Power
➢ There are three basic styles of leadership: autocratic, democratic and laissez faire.
➢ According to George R. Terry ‘Leadership is the activity of influencing people to strive
willingly for mutual objectives.’ (Shift 2 2022)
➢ According to Koontz and O’Donnell – Leadership is the ability of a manager to induce
subordinates to work with zeal and confidence. (December 2019)

Theories of Motivation:-
➢ Traditional Theory:
- Also known as (a) Monistic Theory of Motivation, (b) Economic Theory of
Motivation, (c) Carrot and Stick Approach to Motivation.
- This theory says that people working harder when adequate material rewards
are available or when there is a strong fear of punishment
- F.W. Taylor was the first major exponent of this approach.

➢ Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs:- (Shift 1 2022) (June 2023 Shift 1)

- In his classic paper, A Theory of Human Motivation (1943) propounded the
‘Need Hierarchy’ theory of human motivation. (Shift 2 2021)
- He said “behavior in administration should be studied through psycho analysis”
(July 2018)
- The first systematic conceptual model of human motivation.
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- Maslow’s need hierarchy concept consists of five levels of human needs

1) Physiological needs ➢ Considered as Lower
2) Security needs order needs
3) Social needs

4) Esteem needs ➢ Considered as Higher

5) Self- Actualization order needs

- The prepotency (urgency) of a satisfied need decreases and another unsatisfied

need emerges to replace it.
Maslow’s Major works:-
- Motivation and Personality (1954)

➢ Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory (Shift 2 2021) (Shift 1 2022) (June 2023 Shift 1)
- Also known as motivation-hygiene theory or motivation-maintenance theory.
- He found two sets of factors for motivation and dissatisfaction (both are
different from each other):-
1) ‘satisfiers’ (motivators or growth factors) like achievement, recognition,
responsibility, advancement, growth
2) ‘dissatisfiers’ (hygiene factors or maintenance factors) like company
policy, supervision, salary, interpersonal relations, working conditions etc
- Herzberg has divided people working in organizations into two categories called
‘hygiene seekers’ and ‘motivation seekers’.

Herzberg’s Major works:-

- The Motivation to Work (1959)
- Work and the Nature of Man (1966)
- Managerial Choice : To Be Efficient and To be Human (1976)
Articles:-
- One more time: How do you motivate employees? (1968)
- Job enrichment pays off (1969), along with W J Paul and K B
Robertson (Jr).

➢ Douglas McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

- According to McGregor, management holds two different sets of assumptions
about human nature in organizations.
- He as Theory X and Theory Y. calls sets of assumptions.
Theory X Theory Y
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• Dislike their work Human • Happy to work and

and avoid Nature in accept responsibility.
responsibility Organization
• Autocratic/Directive Leadership • Democratic/Participative.
• External and rigid Control • Internal and based on
self-control.
• Punitive/Coercive Motivation • Rewarding/Praising.
• Fault-finding Appraisal • Solve problems creatively
and imaginatively.

- Central principles which derives from Theory X, has been called ‘the scalar
principle’ and Theory Y, has been called Principle of Integration.
- Theory X is work-centred, while Theory Y is both work and people-centred.
- McGregor concluded that managerial strategy based on Theory Y assumptions
would be more beneficial and participative.
- According to Douglas McGregor – In Theory Y - the integration of behaviour - is
seen as the key process in management. (June 2023 Shift 1)
- This means that managers should strive to create an environment that
encourages the active participation and engagement of employees.
- The assumption is that when employees are given the opportunity to contribute
and be involved in decision-making processes, they will feel a sense of ownership
and responsibility towards their work.
- Theory Y results in the creation of conditions that are conducive to employees
achieving their own goals while also contributing to the success of the
organization.
- This means that when employees are given autonomy and trust, they are more
likely to align their personal goals with the goals of the enterprise.

McGregor’s Major work:-

- The Human Side of Enterprise (1960). (Shift 1 2021)

Comparative Public Administration – Ferral Heady (March 2023 Shift 1)

According to Ferrel Heady, the comparative public administration addresses five 'motivating
concerns' as an intellectual enterprise. These are:
(i) The search for theory;
(ii) The urge for practical application;
(iii) The incidental contribution of the broader field of comparative politics;
(iv) The interest of researchers trained in the tradition of administrative law; and
(v) The comparative analysis of ongoing problems of public administration.
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Fred Riggs mentions there are three trends in Comparative Public Administration:
(i)A shift from Normative studies (which deal with what ought to be) to Empirical Studies
(which deals with what is).
(ii) A shift from Ideographic studies (which focuses on one nation studies/ individualistic
studies) to Nomothetic studies (which focuses on universal studies).
(iii) A Shift from Non-ecological studies (which focuses on administrative phenomena as an
isolated activity) to Ecological studies (which examines on Administrative phenomena in
relation to its External environment). (March 2023 Shift 2)

Behavioural Approach (March 2023 Shift 2)

The behavioural approach in the study of organizations focuses on understanding how
people behave within an organizational context.
This approach draws on theories and concepts from psychology, sociology, and other
behavioural sciences to analyse and explain individual and group behaviour within
organizations.
The key features of the behavioural approach include the use of empirical research to
identify patterns and trends in organizational behaviour, the emphasis on the importance of
organizational culture and values in shaping behaviour, and the use of interventions and
techniques to change behaviour and improve organizational outcomes.

New Public Administration (March 2023 Shift 1) (June 2023 Shift 2)

▪ New Public Administration advocates a client-focused approach. It stresses not only on

providing goods and services to the clients but also giving them a voice in how and when
and what is to be provided.
▪ It requires positive, proactive and responsive administrators rather than authoritarian and
ivory-tower bureaucrats.
▪ The Anti-Goals of New Public Administration (NPA) are the opposite of the traditional goals
of public administration.
▪ They are:
A. Anti-Positivism: This means rejecting the idea that there is only one objective truth that
can be discovered through scientific methods. NPA argues that multiple perspectives and
interpretations of reality exist, and they should be taken into account in public
administration.
B. Anti-Technical: This means rejecting the idea that public administration is a technical
process that can be solved through the application of expertise and rational analysis alone.
NPA argues that public administration is a complex social process that involves value
judgments, politics, and conflicting interests.
C. Anti-Hierarchical: This means rejecting the idea that public administration is a
hierarchical system in which power is concentrated at the top. NPA argues that public
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administration should be a more collaborative and participatory process that involves

citizens, community groups, and other stakeholders. (March 2023 Shift 2)

New Public Management (June 2023 Shift 1 and 2)

▪ New Public Management (NPM) is an approach in public administration that applies

knowledge and experience gained in the world of management and other disciplines to
improve the efficiency and effectiveness of public service performance in modern
bureaucracies. It focuses on public sector management that is performance-oriented, not
policy-oriented. (December 2023)
▪ It is an approach to public administration and governance that emerged in the 1980s and
1990s. It aimed to introduce principles and practices from the private sector into the public
sector to improve efficiency, effectiveness, and accountability.
▪ New public management has emerged out of the Thatcherism and Reaganism (USA) of the
1980s.
▪ The emphasis of new public management is on performance-appraisal, managerial
autonomy, cost-cutting, financial incentives, output targets, innovation, responsiveness,
competence, accountability, market-orientation, quality improvement, contracting out,
flexibility, competition, choice, information technology, de-bureaucratisation,
decentralization, down-sizing and entrepreneurialism.
▪ The new public management involves a shift from direct provision of services by
government to indirect methods like policy-making, facilitating, contracting, providing
information and coordinating other actors.
▪ Attributes of NPM are:
▪ 1. Decentralization: Giving more decision-making power and autonomy to lower-level
units and managers.
▪ 2. Performance Measurement: Emphasizing the use of performance indicators and
metrics to evaluate the success of public organizations.
▪ 3. Results-Oriented: Focusing on achieving measurable outcomes and results in the
delivery of public services.
▪ 4. Customer Focus: Placing emphasis on meeting the needs and demands of citizens and
customers.
▪ 5. Competition and Market Mechanisms: Introducing competition or market-like elements
in the provision of public services.
▪ 6. Accountability: Holding public officials and organizations accountable for their
performance.

Harold Lasswell – Policy Cycle (March 2023 Shift 1)

According to Harold Laswell, in his book (the Decision Process, 1986) –
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There are Total Seven Stages in the Policy Process:

 Intelligence
 Promotion
 Prescription
 Invocation
 Application
 Termination
 Appraisal

Robert Dahl - Cross-Cultural Studies (March 2023 Shift 1)

The statement suggests that Robert Dahl has suggested for cross-cultural studies in Public
Administration.
In his book "Who Governs?"(1961), Dahl argued that public administration is not immune to
the effects of political, cultural, and environmental systems in which it operates.
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UNIT 10 – GOVERNANCE AND

PUBLIC POLICY IN INDIA
MAJOR TOPICS OF GOVERNANCE AND PUBLIC POLICY IN INDIA

TOPIC – KEY POINTS –

1. RTI • Right to Information Act, 2005. (June 2023 Shift 2) (March

2023 Shift 2)
(Right to • RTI Enacted on June 15th, 2005 – by Parliament of India.
Information Act, • RTI Commenced on October 12th, 2005 – became fully
2005) operational. (NET 2016)

• It was introduced by Second Administrative Reforms

Commission which has submitted a total of 15 reports and
‘Right to Information : Master Key to Good Governance’ was
among them. (NET 2018)

• It replaced the former Freedom of Information Act, 2002.

(NET 2016)
• RTI is an act that sets out the rules and procedures regarding
citizens right to information.
• RTI is a redressal mechanism of grievances as it empowers
the citizens to ask questions from the government, seeks
information, observe government policies and schemes.
(NET 2021)
• This act was enacted in order to consolidate the fundamental
right in the Indian Constitution ‘Freedom of Speech’.
• RTI have been introduced traits like caution, care and
vigilance in the politico-administrative system.
(NET 2019)

• To Receive Public Information Under RTI – 3 cases are

important to note :-

• (1). In Normal Course – any information to an applicant is to

be supplied within 30 days from the receipt of application by
the public authority – the PIO
(Public Information Officer).
• (2). If information concerns the life or liberty of a person, it
shall be supplied within 48 hours.
• (3). In case the application is sent through the Assistant Public
Information Officer or it is sent to a wrong Public Authority,
FIVE Days shall be added to the period of 30days/48hrs, as
the case may be.
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• Central Information Commission (CIC): (June 2023 Shift

2)
A. CIC was constituted through an official gazette notification
under the provisions of the RTI Act 2005.
B. When CIC was constituted initially, it has five
commissioners including Chief Information Commissioners.
C. The Chief Information Commissioner holds office for a
period of three years from the date on which he enters upon
office.
• Central Information Commission (Amendment Bill 2019)
- The RTI Act was amended in 2019 with the following
changes:
o There is no longer a fixed term of five years for
Commissioners (CIC & ICs).
o There cannot be more than 10 Central Information
Commissioners.
o Salaries and Allowances of Commissioners are now decided
by the Central Government.
o The age of retirement for the Chief Information Commissioner
is 65 years.

2. Citizens • The Citizens Charter is a voluntary and written document

Charter which states a service provider’s efforts taken on their
commitment towards fulfilling the needs of their
citizens/customers.
• Citizens Charter includes the ways in which citizens can
redress any grievances. It includes what the citizens can
expect out of their service provider.

• The concept of Citizens Charter first started in UK in 1991

under the then British Prime Minister John Major.
(December 2023)
• In 1998, in the UK, the concept was renamed as
‘Services First’.

• In India, the concept of Citizens Charter was first adopted in

1997 at the ‘Conference of Chief Ministers of various States
ansd Union Territories’ in New Delhi.
• One Key Component of Citizens Charter in India is that it is
NOT Legally enforceable here. This has made the
mechanism of Citizens Charter ineffective in a real sense.

• In India, the task of coordination, formulation and

operationalisation of Citizens Charter is done by the
Department of Administrative Reforms and Public
Grievances (DARPG).
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• Therefore, we can see the Indian Model of Citizens Charter is

an adaptation from the UK model. One additional component
of the Charter here in the Indian version is the inclusion of the
point ‘expectation from clients’.

• On 31st May 2002, a comprehensive Website of Citizens'

Charter in Government of India (www.goicharters.nic.in)
was developed and launched by the Department of
Administrative Reforms and Public Grievances
(DARPG). (June 2023 Shift 2)

• Six Principles of ‘Citizen’s Charter Movement’

- The basic objective of the Citizen's Charter is to
empower the citizen in relation to public service
delivery. The six principles of the Citizen's Charter
movement as originally framed were:
(i) Quality: Improving the quality of
services;
(ii) Choice: Wherever possible;
(iii) Standards: Specifying what to expect
and how to act if standards are not met;
(iv) Value: For the taxpayers' money:
(v) Accountability: Individuals and
Organisations; and
(vi) Transparency:
Rules/Procedures/Schemes/Grievances
(March 2023 Shift 1)
3. Consumer • First implemented on December 24th, 1986.
Protection Act • The Consumer Protection Act covers all the Goods and
Services of All Public, Private or Cooperative Sectors,
except those exempted by the central government.
• The purpose of this Act is that this provides a platform for a
consumer where they can file complaint and the forum then
takes action against the concerned supplier and compensation
is granted to the consumer for the inconvenience, he/she has
encountered.

• An Amendment was brought on the Consumer Protection Act,

1986 – on August 9th, 2019. (NET 2020) (June 2023 Shift 2)

• Consumer Protection Act, 2019 :-

• It widened the definition of consumer and recognize mediation
as an alternate disputes resolution mechanism.
• It established the Central Consumer Protection Authority
(CCPA) whose primary task is to promote, protect and enforce
the rights of consumers. Previously, no such central regulator
was present in India. (NET 2020)
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• The CCPA can take suo-moto actions, recall products, order

reimbursement of the price of goods/services, cancel licenses,
impose penalties and file class-action suits.
• The CCPA has an investigation wing to conduct independent
inquiry or investigation into any consumer law violations.

• The 2019 Act, also has established the Consumer Disputes

Redressal Commission (CRDC) – at the national, state and
district levels.
• The Consumer Protection Act, 2019 also allows E-Filing of
Complaints. Now with this Act, a consumer in India can file a
complaint into a consumer court where the complainant
resides or works (anywhere in India). (NET 2020)

• The CCPA may impose a penalty on a manufacturer or an

endorser, for a false or misleading advertisement.

• First President of National Consumer Disputes Redressal

Commission
o In India the NCDRC is a quasi-judicial commission which
was set up in 1988 under the Consumer Protection Act of
1986. Its head office is in New Delhi. The commission is
headed by a sitting or retired judge of the Supreme Court
of India. The commission is presently headed by Justice R
K Agrawal, former judge of the Supreme Court of India.

o Justice V. Balakrishna Eradi was the first President of

National Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission from
1988 to 1993. (March 2023 Shift 2)

4. Lokpal • The word Lokpal was coined by L.M. Singhvi in 1963.

It is derived from the Sanskrit word meaning “protector of
Lokayukta people”.

(Ombudsman • At First, the ARC 1 – Administrative Reforms Commission

System in India) of India (1966–1970) recommended the setting up of two
special authorities designated as ‘Lokpal’ and ‘Lokayukta’ for
the redressal of citizens’ grievances in India. (June 2023 Shift
2)

• The first Lokpal Bill was introduced in Parliament in 1968.

(NET 2022)

• After ten official attempts, from 1968 to 2011 the Government

of India finally passed the Lokpal
and Lokayuktas Bill, of 2011 was passed in the year 2013.
• In 2011, the famous Anna Movement for Lokpal took place
at Jantar Mantar, Delhi.
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• The Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act, 2013 came into force

w.e.f. 16.01.2014. (June 2023 Shift 2) (March 2023 Shift 2)
• This established the institution of Lokpal at the Centre and the
Lokayukta at the State level.
• Justice (Retd) Pinaki Chandra Ghose became the first
appointed Lokpal of India, along with eight judicial and non-
judicial members, on March 19, 2019.
The term of Lokpal is - 5 years or till the age of 70 years.

• Composition of Lokpal :-
• Under the 2013, Act, the Lokpal should consist of a
chairperson and such number of members, not exceeding 8.
Of the members, 50% should be Judicial members.
Also, not less than 50% of the members should be from among
persons belonging to the SCs, the STs, OBCs, minorities and
women.

• Who selects the Chairperson and members of Lokpal?

• Selection Committee – consisting of the Prime Minister,
Speaker of Lok Sabha, Leader of Opposition of Lok Sabha,
Chief Justice of India (CJI) or a sitting Supreme Court Judge
nominated by the CJI and an eminent jurist to be nominated by
the President of India on the basis of recommendations of the
first four members of the selection committee.

• Powers and Limitations :-

• Lokpal of India will have the power of superintendence and
direction over any investigating agency, including the CBI.
• But, Lokpal cannot suo-motu proceed against any public
servant. Also, under this system, Anonymous complaints are
not allowed – i.e., no complaint will be taken up without the
supporting documents.

• Lokayukta – The Lokayuktas are the State equivalents of the

central Lokpal.
• Maharashtra became the first state in India to introduce
Lokayukta in 1971.
• Ombudsman – In India Lokpal and Lokayukta is also known
as Ombudsman.
• The concept of Constitutional Ombudsman was proposed by
Ashok Kumar Sen in Parliament in India. (NET 2022)

5. MGNREGA • The Parliament of India passed the MNREGA Act

Act, 2005 on August 23rd, 2005.
• MNREGA Act was enacted on September 7th, 2005.
• It came into force on February, 2nd 2006 in 200 backward
districts of rural India.
• Earlier it was known as NREGA.
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• Framing of NREGA
o Jean Dreze is an Indian-Belgian economist and social
activist who is known for his work on poverty, hunger, and
social inequality in India. He has made significant
contributions to the design and implementation of various
social welfare programs in India, including the National
Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA). (March
2023 Shift 1)

• Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee

Act 2005; which was earlier known as NREGA (National
Rural Employment Guarantee Act) is an Indian labour law and
social security measure that aims to guarantee the ‘right to
work’.

• The MNREGA Act, 2005 passed during the tenure of PM

Manmohan Singh aims to enhance livelihood security in rural
areas by providing at least 100 days of wage employment in a
year for unskilled manual work.
(NET 2021)
6. RTE • RTE was enacted on August 4th 2009.
• This act came into force on April 1st 2010. (June 2023 Shift
(Right to 2)
Education Act)
• The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education
Act or Right to Education (RTE) Act which describes
importance of free and compulsory education for children
between 6-14 years in India under Article 21(a) of the Indian
Constitution.
• Indian became one of 135 countries to make education a
fundamental right of every child.
• The Act makes education a fundamental right of every child
between the ages of 6-14 years and specifies minimum norms
in elementary schools.

7. NITI AAYOG • Established on January 1, 2015. (June 2023 Shift 2)

• Replaced Planning Commission
• The first chairman of NITI Aayog in India was Prime
Minister Narendra Modi. (NET 2020)
• The Narendra Modi Government scrapped the 65 year old
Planning Commission on 13th August 2014 and announced
Sthat it would be replaced by a new body; which is NITI
AAYOG (National Institution for Transforming India).
• NITI Aayog is the government policy of ‘Think Tank’ of
India provides both directional and policy inputs.
• It is neither a constitutional body nor a statutory body
rather it is an extra-constitutional body.
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• The objective of this scheme is to evolve a shared vision of

national development priorities, sectors and strategies with the
active involvement of states.
• The working principle of NITI AAYOG is to foster
cooperative federalism through structured support initiatives
and mechanisms with the states on a continuous basis.
• NITI Aayog published many reports; one of them is National
Multidimensional Poverty Index. (NET 2022)

8. Jan Sunwai • No official date; but Jan Sunwais were organised by an

organisation known as Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan
(MKSS) between December 1994 and April 1995 in
Rajasthan. (December 2023)
• Jan Sunwai is a phrase of Hindi language which means ‘Public
Hearing’ or ‘to hear people’.
• It is a democratic way to familiarise local people with
government policies and the activities of the public
authorities so that they can understand that what the
government is doing for them.
• The practice of Jan Sunwai is an instrument of a social audit.
Social audit is device of people that keeps them in the loop
regarding the government’s future activities.
9. • First major step towards e-governance in India was taken in
e-Governance 1997 with establishment of the National Informatics Centre
(NIC).

• E-Governance means the usage of Information and

Communication Technology (ICT) by the government to
provide and facilitate government services, exchange of
information and so on.

• In simple words, it is the use of technology to perform

government activities and achieve the objectives of
governance.

• Major Examples of E-Governance Initiatives in India :-

• Digital India (2015) : It aims to empower the country

digitally.

• Aadhar (UIDAI) : A unique identification number that serves

as a proof of identity.
• UMANG : A Unified Mobile Application which provide
access to government services.
• Digital Locker : It helps citizens digitally store important
documents.
• myGov.in : A national citizen engagement platform where
people can involve in matters of governance.
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• Government 2.0 : It refers to Government policies that aim

to harness interactive Internet tools to create an open source
computing platform. (NET 2022)
• Nine Pillars of Digital India : 1. Broadband Highways,
2. Universal Access to Mobile Connectivity, 3. Public
Internet Access Programme, 4. e-Governance – Reforming
Government through Technology, 5. e-Kranti (NeGP 2.0) –
Electronic delivery of services, 6. Information for All, 7.
Electronics Manufacturing, 8. IT for Jobs, and 9. Early
Harvest Programmes (NET 2022)

10. NHM • The National Health Mission (NHM) was launched in 2013.

(National Health • National Health Mission was launched by the Government of

Mission) India (GOI) in 2013 subsuming the National Rural Health
Mission (Launched in 2005) and the National Urban Health
Mission (Launched in 2013).

• The vision of NHM is the “Attainment of Universal Access

to Equitable, Affordable and Quality health care services,
accountable and responsive to people’s needs; with effective
inter-sectoral convergent action to address the wider social
determinants of health”.

• NHM focuses on decentralized health planning , service

delivery, creating knowledge hubs within district hospitals,
strengthening secondary level care at district hospitals,
strengthening secondary level care at district hospitals,
expanding outreaching services and so on.

• The main aim is to create a full functional, decentralized and

community owned system with greater inter-sectoral
coordination so that wider social determinant factors affecting
health of people like water, sanitation, nutrition, gender and
education are also equally addressed.

11. National • The National Food Security Act 2013 has the following salient
Food Security features:
Act 2013 • 1. The Act aims to provide food and nutritional security to the
(March people by ensuring access to adequate quantity of quality food
2023 Shift at affordable prices.
2) • 2. The Act provides for the identification of eligible
households and the distribution of foodgrains to them through
the Public Distribution System (PDS).
• 3. Pregnant women and lactating mothers are entitled to meals
under the Act.
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• 4. The eldest woman of the household is the head of the

household for the purpose of issuing a ration card.
• 5. Children in the age group of 6 months to 14 years are entitled
to free meals in schools.
• 6. The Act also provides for the setting up of grievance
redressal mechanisms to address any complaints related to the
implementation of the Act.
12. • The First Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC)
Administrative (June 2023 Shift 2)
Reforms o The First Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC) as
Commission a Commission of Inquiry was set up in January,1966, to
examine the public administration of the country and make
recommendation for reform and reorganisation when
necessary, involving the following aspects:

- The Administrative Reforms Commission was

initially Chaired by Shri Morarji R Desai, MP, and
later on Shri K. Hunmanthaiya, M.P became its
chairman when Shri Morarji R Desai, MP, became the
Deputy Prime Minister of India.
- The Commission was empowered to devise its own
procedures, appoint Committees and Advisors to
assist it. The Commission had set up 20 Study Teams,
13 Working Groups and one Task Force. The Working
Groups made detailed studies of specific agencies and
organisations such as Customs & Central Excise, Post
& Telegraphs, Life Insurance, Income Tax, Police and
Developmental Control and regulatory organisations
o The Commission submitted the following 20 reports
before winding up in mid- 1970 -
1. Problems of Redress of Citizens Grievances (Interim)
2. Machinery for Planning
3. Public Sector Undertakings
4. Finance, Accounts & Audit
5. Machinery for Planning (Final)
6. Economic Administration
7. The Machinery of GOI and its procedures of work
8. Life Insurance Administration
9. Central Direct Taxes Administration
10. Administration of UTs & NEFA
11. Personnel Administration
12. Delegation of Financial & Administrative Powers
13. Centre-State Relationships
14. State Administration
15. Small Scale Sector
16. Railways
17. Treasuries
18. Reserve Bank of India
19. Posts and Telegraphs
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20. Scientific Departments

The above 20 reports contained 537 major recommendations.

Based on inputs received from various administrative
Ministries, a report indicating implementation position was
placed before the Parliament in November,1977.

• The Second Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC)

- The Second Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC)
was constituted on 31.08.2005, as a Commission of
Inquiry, under the Chairmanship of Shri Veerappa Moily
for preparing a detailed blueprint for revamping the public
administrative system.
- The Commission was requested to suggest measures to
achieve a proactive, responsive, accountable, sustainable
and efficient administration for the country at all levels of
the Government. It had presented the following 15
Reports to the Government for consideration:
1. Right to Information: Master Key to Good Governance
2. Unlocking human capital: Entitlements and Governance – a
Case Study)
3. Crisis Management: From Despair to Hope (March 2023
Shift 2)
4. Ethics in Governance (March 2023 Shift 2)

5. Public Order: Justice for each … Peace for all (March 2023
Shift 2)
6. Local Governance (March 2023 Shift 2)
7. Capacity Building for Conflict Resolution – Friction to Fusion
8. Combating Terrorism
9. Social Capital – A Shared Destiny
10. Refurbishing of Personnel Administration – Scaling New
Heights
11. Promoting e-Governance – The Smart Way Forward
12. Citizen Centric Administration – The Heart of Governance
13. Organisational structure of Government of India
14. Strengthening Financial Management System
15. State and District Administration

The procedure prescribed for processing of the recommendations

made by ARC is that the recommendations are first considered by
the concerned administrative ministries/departments. Their views
are then considered by the Core Group on Administrative
Reforms (CGAR) headed by the Cabinet Secretary.
Subsequently, they are placed before the Group of Ministers
(GoM) for its consideration. The views and recommendations of
the GoM are then submitted for the information/directions of the
Prime Minister.
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13. Bhadigari • The Delhi Government established the Bhagidari Program in

Approach to the late 99/early 2000 to promote democratic citizenship,
Deevelopment organizational humanism, and community involvement. This
(June 2023 Shift initiative fosters a partnership between citizens and the
1) government, encouraging joint responsibility and shared
governance. Inspired by Gandhi's principles of self-
governance and decentralization – Bhagidari ensures active
citizen engagement and equal participation in local
development efforts.
• It was initiative of the former Chief Minister (CM) of Delhi
– Smt. Sheila Dikshit who started the Bhagidari process of
interaction, dialogue, consultation and partnership with the
citizens groups to improve the quality of administration and
civic life in Delhi.
• The Four Basic Elements of Bhagidari are:
▪ Partnership and Participation
▪ Governance
▪ Citizens /Resident Welfare Associations (RWAs)
▪ Public Utility Departments (PUDs) and Civic Service
Agencies (CSAs) - which impact citizens lives most at the day-
to-day ground level.
14. Social Audit • Meghalaya became first state in India to operationalize The
Law Meghalaya Community Participation and Public Services
Social Audit Act, 2017, a law that makes Social Audit of
Government Programmes and Schemes a part of government
practice.
• It was launched by Chief Minister Mukul Sangma at a
national convention in Shillong. (March 2023 Shift 1)
15. Good • Union Minister of Home Affairs and Minister of
Governance Index Cooperation, Mr Amit Shah released the Good Governance
(March 2023 Shift Index 2021 prepared by DARPG on Good Governance Day at
1 and 2) Vigyan Bhawan, New Delhi.
• Good Governance Index, GGI 2021 Framework covered ten
sectors and 58 indicators.
• The sectors of GGI 2020-21 are:
1) Agriculture and Allied Sectors,
2) Commerce & Industries,
3) Human Resource Development,
4) Public Health,
5) Public Infrastructure & Utilities,
6) Economic Governance,
7) Social Welfare & Development,
8) Judicial & Public Security,
9) Environment, and
10) Citizen-Centric Governance.

• The GGI 2020-21 categorises States and UTs into four

categories:
(i)Other States Group A;
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(ii) Other States - Group B;

(iii) North-East and Hill States; and
(iv) Union Territories.

REVISION OF MAJOR GOVERNMENT SCHEMES SINCE 2014 –

Name of Short Form Date of Related Ministry Purpose of the

Government Scheme Scheme
Scheme
2014
Namami Gange NG June, 2014 Ministry of ● The purpose of this
Water Resources scheme is to
accomplish the twin
objectives of
effective abatement
of pollution,
conservation and
rejuvenation of
National River
Ganga.

● The implementation
of the program has
been divided into
entry-level activities
(for immediate
visible impact),
medium term
activities (to be
implemented within 5
years of time frame)
& long-term activities
(to be implemented
within 10 years).
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Pradhan Mantri PMJDY August 28, Ministry of ● The purpose of this

Jan Dhan 2014 Finance scheme is to enable
Yojana the citizens to
(NET 2022) understand financial
operations and
conduct them without
difficulties.

● This scheme is part

of the National
Mission on Financial
Inclusion to provide
all households in the
country with financial
services with
particular focus to
empower the
economically weaker
sections of society,
including women,
small and marginal
farmers and labourers
both rural and urban.

Make in India MI September Ministry of ● The purpose of this

25, 2014 Commerce & scheme is to
Industry recognise ‘ease of
doing business’ as the
single most important
factor to promote
entrepreneurship.

● This scheme has

been built on layers of
collaborative effort of
Union & State
governments.

Swachh Bharat SBA October 2, Ministry of ● The purpose of this

Abhiyan 2014 Housing & Urban scheme is to achieve a
(March 2023 Affairs Swachh Bharat,
Shift 1) Swachh Prayatan &
bring focus on
hygiene and
sanitation.

● Under this mission,

all Districts, States &
UTs in India declared
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themselves “open-
defecation free”
(ODF) by 2nd
October, 2019.

Pandit PDUSJY October 16, Ministry of ● The purpose of this

Deendayal 2014 Labour & scheme is to create a
Upadhyay Employment conducive
Shrama Jayate environment for
Yojana industrial
development & doing
business with ease.

● This scheme also

expands government
support to impart skill
training for workers.

2015
Beti Bachao, BBBPY January 22, Ministry of ● The purpose of this
Beti Padhao 2015 Women and scheme is to make
Yojana Child sure of the better
(NET 2022) Development employment facilities
for the girl child and
to give them a
reputation in society.

● The government
wanted to ensure
equal employment
and equal pay scale
with equal respect for
the girl child in the
nation.

Atal Mission for AMRUT January 25, Ministry of ● The purpose of the
Rejuvenation & 2015 Housing and scheme is to establish
Urban Urban Affairs Infrastructure that
Transformation could ensure
adequate robust
sewage networks and
water supply for
urban transformation.

Atal Pension APY May 9, Ministry of ● The purpose of this

Yojana 2015 Finance scheme is to focus on
(NET 2019) unorganized sector
workers.
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(March 2023
Shift 1) ● At the age of 60,
guaranteed minimum
pension will be given
according to
contribution by the
citizens/subscribers.

Digital India DI July 1, 2015 Ministry of ●

The purpose of this
Electronics and scheme is to
Information transform India into a
Technology digitally services,
knowledge &
information.
Skill India SI July 15, Ministry of Skill ● The purpose of this
2015 Development and scheme is to allow
Entrepreneurship aspirant candidates to
register for skill
training, learning &
employment
opportunities through
the online portal.

● It focuses to build
on such skill that will
enable Indians to
enhance their
contribution in
nation-building.

Pradhan Mantri PMKVY July 15, Ministry of Skill ● The purpose of this
Kaushal Vikas 2015 Development and scheme is to
Yojana Entrepreneurship encourage & promote
skill development in
the country by
providing free short
duration skill
training.

● The training under

this scheme ensures
that the youth of India
get a proper
educational job in the
near future.

Deen Dayal DDUGJY July 25, Ministry of ● The purpose of this

Upadhyaya 2015 Power scheme is to provide
Gram Jyoti continuous power-
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Yojana supply to the entire

(NET 2019) rural India.

2016
Startup India Startup India January 16, Ministry of ● The purpose of this
2016 Commerce & scheme is to promote
Industry and support the start-
ups in India by
providing bank
finances.

● It is a platform
which gives multiple
opportunities,
recognition & support
to all the start-ups.
Pradhan Mantri PMFBY February Ministry of ● The purpose of this
Fasal Bima 18, 2016 Agriculture scheme is to
Yojana safeguard farmers by
providing them crop
subsidy insurance.

● It aims to reduce the

burden of insurance
premiums on farmers.

Standup India Standup India April 5, Ministry of Social ● The purpose of this
2016 Justice & scheme is to facilitate
Empowerment easy loans to
scheduled caste,
scheduled tribe &
women borrowers.

Pradhan Mantri PMUY May 1, Ministry of ● The purpose of this

Ujjwala Yojana 2016 Petroleum and scheme is to
Natural Gas safeguard the health
of women and
children by providing
them with a clean
cooking fuel – LPG.

● Under this scheme,

LPG connections are
targeted to provide to
BPL (below poverty
line) families.

Pradhan Mantri PMGKY December Ministry of ● The purpose of this

Garib Kalyan 16, 2016 Finance scheme is to allow
individuals to deposit
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Yojana money that is not

(NET 2022) taxed.

2017
Saubhagya- SAUBHAGYA September Ministry of ● The Pradhan Mantri
Pradhan Mantri 25, 2017 Power Sahaj Bijli Har Ghar
Sahaj Bijli Har Yojana - Saubhagya
Ghar Yojana aims to bring
electricity to every
(March 2023 household, whether in
Shift 1) rural or urban areas.
● It ensures that all
homes, even those
without electricity,
get connected to the
power grid.
● This involves
setting up electricity
connections by
extending cables
from nearby poles to
households, installing
energy meters,
providing wiring for a
light point with an
LED bulb, and
including a mobile
charging point.
● If there's no
electricity pole
nearby, the scheme
also covers installing
additional poles and
the necessary
equipment.
Unified Mobile UMANG November Ministry of ● The purpose of this
Application for 2017 Electronics & scheme is to develop
New-age Information a common, unified
Governance Technology platform and mobile
app to facilitate a
single point access to
all government
services.

● Itsaim is to act as a
master-application,
which will integrate
major government
services from various
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sectors such as
Agriculture,
Education, Health,
Housing, among
others.

2018
Ayushman AB - PMJAY September Ministry of ● The purpose of this
Bharat – 23, 2018 Health & Family scheme is to provide
Pradhan Mantri Welfare accessible &
Jan Aarogya affordable healthcare
Yojana to the common man.

● This scheme is
“world’s largest
government funded
healthcare program”
targeting more than
50 crore
beneficiaries.

● Ayushman Bharat
adapts a continuum of
care approach,
comprising of two
inter-related
components – which
are :-

✓ Health & Wellness

Centres (HWCs).
✓ Pradhan Mantri Jan
Aarogya Yojana
(PM-JAY).

2019
PM – Pradhan PM-KUSUM March 08, Ministry of New ● The purpose of this
Mantri Kisan 2019 & Renewable scheme is to ensure
Urja Suraksha Energy energy security for
evam Utthaan Indian Farmers along
Mahabhiyan with cutback
dependency of
farmers on fossil
fuels.

● This scheme will

help farmers to install
solar pumps, grid
connected solar &
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other renewable
energy power plants.

2020
Prime PM CARES March 28, Ministry of Home ● The purpose of this
Minister’s Fund 2020 Affairs, Defence scheme is to provide
Citizen Minister, fund during
Assistance & & COVID-19
Relief in Finance Minister pandemic.
Emergency
Situation Fund
Aarogya Setu April 2, Ministry of ● The purpose of this
2020 Electronics & scheme is to ensure
Information the utmost safety for
Technology its citizens from
corona virus through
application.

● This application
connects Indian
health services to its
people at this
unpredictable time.

Survey of SWAMITVA April 24, Ministry of ● The purpose of this

Villages & 2020 Panchayati Raj scheme is to ensure
Mapping with financial stability to
Improvised villagers by letting
Technology in them use their
Village Areas property to take loans
to form banks and
financial institutions.

● This scheme aims to

create a survey
structure and GIS
maps (geographic
information system)
that will allow other
departments to use
these documents as
per their requirement.
Mission Sagar May 10, Ministry of ● The purpose of this
2020 External Affairs scheme is to provide
essential aid and
supplies to pandemic-
hit countries in the
Indian Ocean Region
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through Indian Navy

ships.

● The Indian Navy

ships provided
rescue, medical care
and relief to friendly
foreign countries.

Atmanirbhar May 12, ● The purpose of this

Bharat Abhiyan 2020 scheme is to promote
(NET 2021) Indian goods in the
global supply chain
markets and help the
country achieve self-
reliance.

● This scheme aims to

determine adequacy
of each sector (e.g.,
defence, agriculture,
healthcare,
infrastructure, etc.)
and in this mission
India to achieve self-
reliance.
Prime Minister PMSVANidhi June 1, Ministry of ● The purpose of this
Street Vendor’s 2020 Housing & Urban scheme is to help
Atmanirbhar Affairs formalize the street
Nidhi vendors open up new
opportunities to this
sector to move up the
economic ladder.

● It aims to provide
micro-credit facilities
to street vendors
affected due to
Covid-19.
National Digital NDHM August 15, Ministry of ● The purpose of this
Health Mission 2020 Health & Family scheme is to develop
Welfare the backbone
necessary to support
the integrated digital
health infrastructure
of the country.

● It creates a seamless
online platform
through the provision
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of a wide-range of
data, information &
infrastructure
services.
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Changes in 2nd Edition

Units Update New
1. Political Theory • Feminism - Post • Post-
Colonial Behaviouralism
Feminism, Black • Normative tradition
Feminism of political theory
• Democracy – • Zionism
Cosmopolitan • Philosophical
Democracy anarchism
• Equality – • Communitarianism
Amartya Sen
• Socialism –
Syndicalism
• Democracy -
Cosmopolitan
democracy
• Functions of
State for
Individualism
• Rights –
Hobhouse
• Multiculturalism
- Internal
restriction and
external
restriction
• Ecologism - Ernst
Haeckel, C.
Andrew Dobson
2. Western • Hegel – Absolute
Political Thought Consciousness
• Gramsci –
Difference
between
Progress and
Becoming
• Plato – Ascetic
Communism
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3. Indian Political • Ambedkar – • Jyotiba Phule

Thought Lothian
Committee
• JP Narayan - Plan
of reconstruction
of Indian polity
• Gandhi –
Satyagraha as a
dialogue
• MN Roy – Radical
Humanism
4. Comparative • Social
Politics Movements – • Mancur Olson - The
Process Model Logic of Collective
by Doug Action
McAdam • Types of Welfare
• USA State Models given
Constitutional by Richard Titmuss
Development • Democratic
• Nationalism - Eric Transition and
Hobsbawm’s Consolidation by
theory of Juan Linz and
nationalism in Alfred Stepan
Europe • Breakdowns of
• Polarized Modernisation by
multiparty S.N. Eisenstadt
system • Role of
• Political Culture – Representative by
Converse and John Wahlke
Robinson
principle
• New
Institutionalism
• Colonialism – 12
types of
colonialism by
Nancy
Shoemaker
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• Party System –
Scholars (Katz,
Schumpeter,
Lipset, Robert
Dahl)
5. International • Neo-Realism • Modern Global
Relations • Security – Capitalism
Security • Problem Solving
Dilemma Theory
• SDGs and MDGs
• Peacekeeping
Operations
• Just War
• Globalisation,
Three-part
typology of the
theories of
globalization
developed by Held
and McGrew
• Humanitarian
Interventions
• Beijing consensus
6. India’s Foreign • NAM – Summits, • India’s Extended
Policy Members, Neighbourhood
Membership • Alternative
criteria, Perspectives on IFP
• India – USA – • Sagar Panchayat
Open Skies • Stephen Cohen, the
Agreement, U.S. three forms of
– India Peaceful Nehruvianisms
Atomic Energy
Co-operation Act
• India – China -
Henderson-
Brooks Report
7. Political • Amendment Acts • Lord Mayo’s
Institutions in Resolution, 1870
India
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• Indian Council • Linguistic Provinces

Act, 1892 – Commission
Limited Franchise • Parliamentary
Proceedings
• Supreme Court
8. Political • Tribal • Chipko Movement
Processes in Movements - • Neera Chandhoke
India Rani Gaidinliu • Arvind Panagariya
• Social Action • M.N. Srinivas
Group – Social
Reforms
• Dalit Movements
- Dalit feminist
literary
movement
9. Public • Peter Drucker – • Events/Conferences
Administration Management, of Pub.Ad.
“Sins” of non- • Behavioural
performance Approach
• Taylor- • Harol Lasswell –
Functional Policy Cycle
foremanship • Robert Dahl – Cross
• Prismatic Society Cultural Studies
• NPA
• NPM
• Rational Choice
Theory of Pub. Ad.
• Theory Y by
McGregor
• Comparative Public
Administration –
Ferral Heady
10. Governance • Citizens Charter – • National Food
and Public Policy Official Website, Security Act 2013
in India Six principles of • Administrative
‘Citizen’s Charter Reforms
Movement’ Commission
• Consumer • Bhagidari Approach
Protection Act - to Development
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First President of • Social Audit Law

National • Good Governance
Consumer Index
Disputes
Redressal
Commission
• Government
Schemes -
Saubhagyam
Yojana
• RTI – Central
Information
Commission,
Amendment Bill
2019
• MGNREGA –
Framing of
NREGA