ADVANCED MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY

UNIT 1:CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION

Manufacturing Processes can be classified as
i) Casting
ii) Welding
iii) Machining
iv)Mechanical working
v) Powder Metallurgy
vi)Plastic Technology etc.,

In Mechanical working Process the raw material is converted to a given shape by the application
of external force. The metal is subjected to stress.It is a process of changing the shape and size of
the material under the influence of external force or stress.Plastic Deformation occurs.

Classification of Metal Working Processes

1. General classification
i. Rolling
ii. Forging
iii. Extrusion
iv. Wire Drawing
v. Sheet Metal Forming

2. Based on Temperature of Working

i. Hot Working
ii. Cold Working
iii. Warm Working

3. Based on the applied stress

i. Direct Compressive Stress
ii. Indirect Compressive Stress
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iii. Tensile Stress

iv. Bending Stress
v. Shear Stress

Classification of Metal Working based on temperature.

Hot working: It is defined as the mechanical working of metal at an elevated (higher)
temperature above a particular temperature. This temperature is referred to RCT(Re
Crystallization Temperature).

Cold Working: It is defined as the mechanical working of metal below RCT.

Warm Working: It is defined as the mechanical working of metal at a temperature between that
of Hot working and Cold Working. Ingot is the starting raw metal for all metal working process.

Molten metal from the furnace is taken and poured into metallic moulds and allowed to cool or
solidify. The cooled solid metal mass is then taken out of the mould. This solid metal is referred
to as Ingot.This Ingot is later on converted to other forms by mechanical working.

What is a Cast Product?

It is a product obtained by just pouring molten metal into the mould and allowing it to solidify to
room temperature.
It will have the final size and shape. Engine block ,Piston etc.,

What is a wrought Product?

It is a product obtained by subjecting the hot ingot to mechanical working process to get a
variety of products.Ex., spanner, screw driver, connecting rod, crank shaft etc.,

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Characteristics of a Wrought Product

*Grains are oriented in a particular direction.
*The metal will show flow lines which are due to the presence of inclusions present between the
metal layers.. The Metal will shows higher properties in the direction of metal flow. The defects
get welded due to mechanical working.

Difference between Cast and Wrought product.

Cast Product Wrought Product

1.It is obtained by conversion of liquid 1. It is obtained by subjecting the metal

metal to solid state, to get the required to external load or mechanical working
shape of the component in one step. The to get the shape.
cast product may undergo machining It may be subjected to further operation.
operation.

2. The wrought product will have

2. The cast product will have uniform directional properties
properties. . Properties are enhanced
The product is Isotropic in nature. . The Product is anisotropic in
Properties are same in all directions. nature. ie., properties are different in
different directions.

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3. The product will have uniform grain 3. The product will have directional
structure. properties and the grain structure will be
oriented. Grains get altered.

4. The product will have small amount 4. Due to mechanical working the
of porosity which cannot be eliminated porosity level is almost zero.
completely.

5. Cast product will have any shape size 5. Wrought products are smaller in size
and complexity. Small to very huge but large size and moderately complex
components can be produced easily. shapes can also be produced with some
difficulty.

Based on the type of applied stress

Direct compression stress: Rolling and Forging

Indirect Compression: Extrusion and Wire drawing.

Tensile stress: Stretch forming

Bending stress: Sheet bending/ roll bending

Shear stress: Cutting of sheet

Advantages of metal working process

* Product with consistent high quality can be manufactured.
* Defects such as porosity and discontinuities are minimized.
* Inclusions get distributed evenly throughout the product.
* Grains are oriented in a particular direction and directional properties are obtained.
* In hot working the grains will be uniform and the properties are also uniform.

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* In cold working the properties are enhanced due to strain hardening effect.
* Large tonnage can be easily produced.
*The process can be easily mechanized.

Limitations of Mechanical working process

*The product becomes highly anisotropic in nature.
*Final product has to be obtained after machining of the wrought product except in the case of
structural components.
*Needs additional equipment and machinery for metal working process. Hence, initial
investment is high.
*Maintenance cost is high.
*More safety precautions are to be exercised as hot metal and additional equipments are used.

Concept of cold working

Consider a cylindrical metal piece with a known height, H and diameter, D. Let us subject the
piece to compressive load at room temperature. We shall take that the height is reduced by
10%,20%,30% ….. etc., Each of these reduction in height represents %cold working. For each of
these the diameter the Tensile strength, hardness, yield strength, %elongation were measured. It
is seen that the %elongation decreases with increase in %cold working whereas other properties
UTS, YS, Hardness increases and the diameter of the specimen also increases. Similarly the
specimen can be subjected to tensile load also. The changes that take place in the material due to
cold working is an important aspect which needs to be born in mind while designing various
steps in MW process

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Effect of Mechanical Working on the properties of the Metal

Due to working of the metal there will be changes in the grain structure. The grains may be
elongated in one direction from its equiaxed shape. The pores are reduced and the inclusions are
fragmented and distributed evenly in the metal. In hot working the coarse equiaxed grains will
become fine equiaxed. The changes obtained in cold working is appreciable.

The behaviour of the metal with changes in grain size is shown in the figure. As grain size
becomes coarse the strength property comes down and ductility increases.

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As the percentage of cold working increases the material becomes strain hardened, the hardness
and strength properties are increased but the ductility property decreases as shown in the figure
It can be summarized as follows. Equiaxed grains will give uniform properties in all
directions. Deformed grains show higher strength properties in the elongated direction.

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Concept of strain hardening

Straining of the metal/alloy occurs when subjected to cold working process. The metal will
show more and more resistance for the external load as the cold working is Continued. At some
it may become very difficult to deform the metal. This phenomenon is referred to as strain
hardening effect. This can be explained in simple terms as given below.

All metals have atoms arranged in a repetitive manner in three dimensions referred to as
crystalline structure. The structure is associated with imperfections in the form of dislocations.
These dislocations starts moving towards the grain boundary region under the influence of
external load. The dislocations get piled up near the grain boundaries. The density of
dislocations increases due to Frank Reed source and may reach a value as high as 10 8-1012/cm2.
Since, dislocations pile up near the grain boundary the density increases and the mean free path
for the movement of dislocations decreases. The metal offers more resistance to external force.
The metal will realize higher strength and this goes on building up till all the dislocations are
brought near the grain boundary. Then annihilation of like and unlike dislocations takes place.
The net existing dislocations will then become effective. During this period the load required for
deformation increases. This phenomenon is referred to as”Strain Hardening”. If the cold working
stress exceeds this range the metal will fracture.

To take care of this the metal is subjected to annealing before further working. In Mechanical
working of metals, the metal is subjected to external load and is deformed plastically. The given
shape is obtained and is retained even after the removal of the load. The metal is subjected to
stress and is strained. Hence, to understand the different mechanical working process, it is
necessary to understand the stress strain relationship of metals, types of stress and strains,
deformation process, theories used for the prediction of plastic deformation etc.,
For easy mechanical working of metals the nature of stress strain curve needs to be
reviewed. The factors associated with stress strain needs to be studied.

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Different stress- strain curves

Some typical stress strain curves are shown below. Different stress strain curves. There exists
relationship between stress and strain for all materials and it is very useful information for a
design engineer and metallurgist alike. It clearly exhibits the behavior of the material. In order to
understand the same we shall now look into stress strain curves of various materials. A study of
these will help us in understanding the mechanical working process in a better way. The
following figures represents pictorially the features of stress and strain behavior.

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Typical stress strain curves for easy deformation

In Mechanical working of metals it is important to know that efforts are to be made to make the
metal undergo deformation easily with less effort. The following figures illustrate what are the
typical characteristics involved in the material.

For easy deformation of metal the stress strain curve should have:
1. Lower yield point.

2. Gentle slope.

3. Larger elongation behavior.

Stress strain curve should have Lower yield point.

The load required for deformation is directly proportional to the yield point. Hence, if the yield
point is high, higherload is required and lower the yield point of the material, lower is the loads
required for deformation.The material with lower yield point can be easily shaped.
In the figure material 2 has the lower yield point as compared to 1. Hence, it is easier to deform
material 2. Whenever a material is heated to higher temperature the yield point is reduced and it
becomes easier to deform.

2. Stress strain should have Gentle slope.

The stress strain curve should have lower gradient ie., gentle slope. It means the stiffness of the
material must be low. Stress strain curve with lower gradient will have gentle slope. Gentle
slope needs lesser strain rate and hence lower rate of loading.
In figure material 1 has lower slope as compared to 2. Hence, material 1 is easier to deform.

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Stress Strain curve should have Larger elongation behavior.

A material with larger elongation will undergo more deformation without undergoing
fracture, and it is extremely to shape the material. In the figure material 1has larger
elongation as compared to2. Hence, material1 can be easily deformed.

Strain hardening Type:

Some materials undergo strain hardening which means higher loads are required for
deformation and more resistance is offered by the material. In the stress strain curve the strain
hardening portion is represented by 12. If the slope12 is high, strain hardening of the material is
more and it becomes difficult to deform.
By heating the material it can be softened and strain hardening is eliminated.

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