CHAPTER

Introduction to Manufacturing
1 Processes and Properties of Metals

1.1 INTRODUCTION:

Since last three to four decade developments in manufacturing process has progressed well the one of the
causes is continuous research. Metals are made from different purification process and after that metals are shaped
in different commercial form and then it is used for making components. These components are used for
manufacturing machine, vehicles, construction of ship, vessels. The process used to develop such kind of component
are metal working, metal casting, welding, soldering and brazing.

In this chapter we discuss different process, important properties and conditions affecting manufacturing process.

1.2 MANUFACTURING PROCESS:

(a) Definition :

Manufacturing process means process of converting raw materials into useful final products; the raw materials
can be metal or non-metal.

(b) Role and scope of manufacturing processes :

The standard of living in any country depends on the goods and services available to its people. Today we
live in latest technology era and that helps us to manufacture latest machine with economic cost. All the components
can be manufactured with different process and engineers played a vital role in that. Today we require higher
quality, good surface, finish, intricate shape with smaller size and great hardness. To fulfil this requirements,
development and modification in existing process is must for new design, greater shape and good productivity
process. This also helps in cost and time saving. All the above requirements only possible by studying all
manufacturing process. The classification of manufacturing process is given as under :

(c) Classification of manufacturing process:

(1) To change shape (Metal shaping): (2) To join (Metal joining):

(i) Casting (i) Welding

(ii) Rolling (ii) Soldering

(iii) Forging (iii) Brazing

(iv) Drawing (iv) Riveting

(v) Extrusion (3) To cut (Metal cutting):

(vi) Forming
(i) Turning

(vii) Embosing
(ii) Planning

(viii) Bending
(iii) Shaping
(ix) Spinning
(iv) Drilling
(x) Shot peening (v) Boring

(xi) Coining (vi) Reaming

Manufacturing Engineering-I/2023/1
 Manufacturing Engineering-I

(vii) Broaching (4) To finish (Metal finishing):

(viii) Milling (i) Lapping

(ix) Grinding (ii) Honning

(x) Hobbing (iii) Polishing

(xi) Threading (iv) Buffing

(xii) Slotting (v) Electroplating

(xiii) Gear cutting (vi) Metal spraying

(xiv) Shaving (vii) Anodysing

(viii) Park rising.

We will study the details of above manufacturing process.

1.3 PROPERTIES OF METAL :

Following are different properties of metals which played a vital role in manufacturing process. These are
mechanical, chemical, physical and electrical. Study of properties are important and its effects during manufacturing
is also important to study.

1.3.1 Mechanical Properties of Metal :

During manufacturing of components metal has face external force, temperature etc. and under these
conditions behaviour of metals is also to be studied, that called mechanical properties of metal. Important mechanical
properties are:

(a) Strength:

It is defined as the property of a metal by virtue of which it can withstand or support an external force
or load without rupture.

(b) Ductility:

It is defined as the property of a metal by virtue of which it can be drawn into wires or elongated with

the application of a tensile force, before rupture takes place.

Metal having good ductility can be machined and formed easily.

(c) Malleability:

It is defind as the property of a metal by virtue of which it can be rolled or hammered into thin sheets
without cracking.

Rolling and forging is easily done on malleable metals.

(d) Toughness:

It is defined as the property of a metal by virtue of which it can absorb maximum energy and impact load
before fracture takes place.

(e) Hardness:

It is defined as the property of material by virtue of which it is able to resist wear, scratching, indentation
(or penetration), deformation and machinability. It also means the ability of a metal to cut another metal. There
are several tests used to determine the hardness of metal. These are Brinell hardness test, Rockwell hardness
test. Vicker's hardness text, Knoop's hardness test.
Metal having high hardness is difficult to manufacture.
 Introduction to Manufacturing Processes and Properties of Metals 3

(f:
) Machinability

It is defined as the property of a metal which indicates the ease with which it can be cut or removed by
cutting tools in various machining operations such as turning, drilling, boring, milling etc. The machinability of
a metal depends upon mechanical and physical properties of a metal, chemical composition of metal, microstructure
of the metal and the cutting conditions.

To measure machinability the following points are to be considered tool life, tool wear, cutting force and
surface finish.

(g) Resistance to deformation:

It is defined as changing of metal shape by applying external force on metal. This change is possible in

two ways (1) Elastic deformation (2) Plastic deformation.

(h) Brittleness:

It is defined as the property of a metal by virtue of which it will fracture or breaks without any appreciable
deformation.

Glass and cast iron having this property.

(i) Elasticity:

It is defined as the property of a metal by virtue of which it is able to retain its original shape and size
after the removal of the load. In nature, no metal is perfectly elastic, over the entire range of stress, up to rupture.
Stiffness: It is the property of a material due to which it is capable of resisting detection or elastic deformation

under applied loads. It is also known as rigidity.

1.4 CONDITIONS AFFECTING MANUFACTURING PROCESS:

1.4.1 Residual Stress:

(a) Definition :

Residual stress in the surface layer of a machined piece is a result of the removal of machining load that

caused plastic deformation in it. During manufacturing for shaping of metal as to change properties of metal it
is processed under machining, cold working, welding, heat treatment. After processing still some stresses are there
which called residual stress.

During above said processes metal faces temperature difference, phase transformation, volume and density
change and due to that non-uniform plastic deformation occurs. This is happen due to residual stress in metal.

(b) Effects of residual stress:

The following effects are possible due to presence of residual stress in metal :

(i) Residual stress improves corrosion resistance and fatigue behaviour.

(ii) During manufacturing of component measurement accuracy cannot be possible and component can be
twist after machining.

(iii) If precausion is not taken during heat treatment and casting the residual stress may propagate crack and
twisting defects.

(iv) Presence of residual stress may change safe stress limit. From the above points, presence of residual
stress decreases strength of metal, life of metal. So it is beneficial to remove residual stress before using
the components.
 Manufacturing Engineering-

(c) Effect of temperature on residual stress:

Cold working process generates residual stress due to metal deformation. To remove the residual stress the
metal again heated below the recrystalisation temperature. It effects grain structure and physical properties of metal
So under this process residual stress is removed from components.

1.4.2 Recrystalisation Temperature :

(a) Definition :

It is a process by which distorted grains of cold worked metals are replaced by new strain free grains during
heating above a specified minimum temperature called recrystalisation.

b) Effects of recrystalisation temperature on working

(of metals:

At normal temperature, mobility of atoms is very less so the driving force cannot produce the movement
necessary to destroy the distortion. When the metal is heated, there is increase in mobility of atoms which further
increases the driving force. Now the driving force is sufficient to destroy the destortion. So the temperature at
which atoms arrange themselves into non-distorted lattice is recrystalisation temperature.

(c) Factors affecting recrystalisation temperature:

Following factors affect recrystalisation temperature :

(i) Grain size: Fine grain structure have low recrystalisation temperature while course grain structure have
higher recrystalisation temperature.

(ii) Presence of dessolved elements: Presence of desolved elements have higher recrystalisation temperature
then pure metals.

(iii) Degree of cold work: Metals recrystalisation temperature go down due to higher degree of cold working.

(iv) Time for which the deformed metal is heated: If metal is heated for longer time during annealing
process then its recrystilisation temperature decreases.

(v) Temperature of annealing process: If metal processed by annealing under lower temperature then it
requires longer time for recrystalisation.

(vi) Degree of plastic determation: Higher degree of plastic deformation metal is heated at above
recrystalisation temperature before being processed under hot working. Lower degree of plastic deformation

metal is heated at below recrystalisation temperature before being processed under cold working.

1.4.3 Grain Growth :

Grain growth is an increase in grain size. Grain growth is there because of large grains have lower free energy
than small grains and lower free energy states are more stable. So the growth of grain at the expense of surrounding
recrystalised grains is called grain growth.

POINTS TO REMEMBER

1. Strength, ductility, hardness, toughness, malleability, brittleness are important properties in manufacturing
process.

2. Selection of manufacturing process depends on properties of metals.

3.
Classification of manufacturing process is as under:
-
Metal shaping Metal cutting
-
Metal joining Metal finishing
 Introduction to Manufacturing Processes and Properties of Metals 5

4. Strength, ductility, malleability, toughness, machinability, brittleness, resistance to deformation, clasticity.

plasticity, hardness.
5. During manufacturing presence of stress called residual stress.
6. Residual stress affects strength of metal.

7. Recrystalisation: It is a process by which distorted grains are replaced by new strain. Free grains during
heating above a specified minimum temperature called recrystalisation temperature.
8. Factors affecting recrystalisation temperature:
- Grain size

- Presence of desolved elements

- Degree of cold work

Time for which the deformed metal is heated.

- Temperature of annealing process

-
Degree of plastic deformation.

EXERCISE

1. Define the following terms:

(a) Strength (October 1997, 1999, 2000, February 2022)
(b) Ductility (October 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, May 2001)
(c) Malleability (April, 1998, October 2000, May 2001)
(d) Toughness (April 1998, October 1998, 1999, 2000, May 2001, February 2021, Sept. 2021)
(e) Hardness (October 1997, April 1998, October 2000, May 2001, February 2022, June 2022)
(f) Machinability (October 1997, 1999, 2000, May 2001)
(g) Resistance to deformation
(h) Residual stress (April 1998, October 1998, May 2001, September 2021)

(i) Recrystalisation temperature (February 2021, 2022)

(j) Brittleness (May 2001)

(k) Elasticity.

2. How is manufacturing affected by following properties of metal ?

(a) Ductility (b) Hardness.
3. State the effect of residual stresses on the manufacturing of components. (April 1998, October 1999)

4. List any four factors on which influence recrystaline temperature of a metal. (October 1997, Sept. 2021)

5. List the various factors affecting recrystalisation temperature of metals. Explain the influence of any one of
them on the recrystalisation temperature of metal. (April 1998, October 1999)

6. What is recrystallisation temperature ? List various factors on which recrystalisation temperature of metal
depends. (October 1998)

7. Explain the effect of temperature on residual stress. (May 2001)

8. What is grain growth in metal ? State the factors on which the grain growth depends.
9. Define recrystalisation temperature and explain its importance in hot working process.
10. State the effects of recrystalisation temperature on working of metals. (October 1999)

11. Define the term "Manufacturing Process" and classify the manufacturing process.
(October 2000, February 2021, September 2021, February 2022, June 2022)

*
 CHAPTER

Metal Forming Processes

2

2.1 INTRODUCTION :

Metal working process is also known as mechanical working or metal forming process.

2.1.1 Mechanical working or metal forming:

(a) Definition :

Mechanical working is defined as process of getting permanent changes in the shape of a body, by plastic
deformation under the action of external forces. This process can be done under hot and cold conditions of metal
and desired accuracy can be obtained.

(b) Purpose of Metal Forming:

(i) To get desired shape of component from ingot to save further machining cost, time and materials.

(ii) To improve mechanical properties of metal, this can be possible with refinement of grain structure by
directional control of flow lines.

(iii) To reduce blow holes, voids and cavities.

(iv) To divide impurities in equal parts in metal.

(c) Classification of metal working :

Metal forming or metal working is divided in two groups, these are:

(i) Hot working of metals

(ii) Cold working of metals

2.2 HOT WORKING OF METALS :

2.2.1 Definition and Explanation:

Hot working can be defined as the plastic deformation of metals and alloys under conditions of temperature
and strain rate, such that recovery and recrystallisation takes place simultaneously with the deformation. The hot
working is carried out above the recrystallisation temperature of the materials (Typically 0.7 to 0.9 times the melting
point temperature), and after hot working, a fine refined grained recrystalized structure is obtained.

2.2.2 Advantages of Hot Working on Metals :

(i) Physical properties like strength, ductility, toughness can be improved.

(ii) Density can be increased by removing voids.

(iii) Plastic deformation at law pressure is possible to get desired shape.

(iv) Inpurities can be divided uniformly so negligible effect of that is possible.

(v) Refined grain structure achieved.

(vi) Better than machining process.

(vii) Atoms are arranged in unidirection so maximum strength possible to be achieved.
6
 7
Metal Forming Processes

2.2.3 Disadvantages of hot woking on metals:

(i) Better surface finish is not possible due to oxidation at high temperature.

(ii) Desired accuracy sometimes not possible in component size and shape.
(iii) Process is done at high temperature so tools life is minimum.

(iv) Handling cost is high.

2.2.4 The Principal Methods of Hot Working:

(i) Hot Rolling (iv) Hot Extrusion

(ii) Hot Forging (v) Hot Spinning

(iii) Hot Drawing (vi) Hot Piercing

2.3 COLD WORKING OF METALS:

2.3.1 Definition and Explanation :

Cold forming or working can be defined as the plastic deformation of metals and alloys under conditions
of temperature and strain-rate, such that the work hardening or strain-hardening is not relieved. Theoritically, the
working temperature for cold working is below the recrystalisation temperature of the metal/ alloy (which is about
one-half the absolute melting temperature). However, in practice cold working is carried out at room temperature.

2.3.2 Advantages of Cold Working of Metals :

(i) It improves physical properties like hardness, strength.

(ii) Better surface finish.

(iii) Desired accuracy is possible to get.

(iv) Heating of metal is not required so cost and time is minimum.

2.3.3 Disadvantages of Cold Working of Metals :

(i) It increases strength and hardness but decreases ductility so it is difficult to work on it.

(ii) External force is required more to get desired shape.

(iii) It produces internal stresses and residual stresses.

(iv) It decreases resistance to corrosion.

(v) Distortion takes place in atomic structure.

(vi) Cold working is difficult to metal having low ductility.

(vii) Annealing is done on metal for second time cold working so the cost is increases.

2.3.4 The Principal Methods of Cold Working :

(i) Cold rolling

(ii) Cold drawing

(iii) Cold extrusion

(iv) Cold spinning

(v) Other mechanical working like squeezing, bending, peening, coining, hobbing etc.
 Manufacturing Engineering-

2.4 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HOT WORKING AND COLD WORKING:

Hot Working Cold Working

(i) Process is done at above recrystallization tempe- (i) Process is done at below recrystallization tempe.
rature on metal. rature on metal.

(ii) Work is done on hot metal so low force is required. (ii) Work is done at room temperature so high force is
required.

(iii) Corse grains are converted to fine grains. (iii) Metal grains are distorted.

(iv) No residual strees generated. (iv) Residual stresses are produces.

(v) It improves mechanical properties like ductility, (v) It improves mechanical properties like strength,
stiffness, toughness. hardness.

(vi) Greater accuracy in surface finish is not received (vi) Greater surface finish and accuracy is possible due
due to oxidation. to minimum oxidation.

(vii) Tooling and handling cost is high. (vii) No furnace require and tooling, handling cost is
minimum.

2.5 ROLLING PROCESS:

BLOOMING AND
SLABBING MILL
BELLET MILL

000

INGOT
FROM SOAKING PIT

SLABS BLOOMS

BILLETS

PLATES STRUCTURAL RAILS ROUNDS WIRE BARS

SHEETS SHAPES

STRIPS (I-BEAMS,
SKELP CHANNELS, ETC.)

FIG. 2.1 TYPICAL STEEL ROLLING PROCEDURE

2.5.1 Rolling Process: Definition and Explanation:

Rolling is the process in which the metals and alloys are plastically deformed into semi-finished or finished
condition, by passing these between circular or centoured rotating cylinders (rools). The metal is drawn into the
opening between the rolls by frictional forces between the metal and the roll surface. In deforming metal between
 Metal Forming Processes 9

rolls, the workpiece is subjected to high compressive force

ROLL e ANGLE OF CONTACT
from the squeezing action of the rolls. From the Fig. 2.2 C NO-SLIP POINT

it can be seen that workpiece and roller are in contact at DIRECTION OF

arc AB length. Arc AB is known as arc of contact and TRAVEL

it makes angle with centre of roller known as angle of

contact. Angle of contact is calculated by this equation. V2

4-1
cose = 1-
2R

Where, 4₁ = thickness before rolling ZONE OF

DEFORMATION

t₂ = thickness after rolling FRICTION FORCE

R Radius of roll
RADIAL OR NORMAL FORCE

0 = angle of contact or angle of bite FIG. 2.2 ROLLING PROCESS

When workpiece comes in contact with roll, at that time two forces are acting on it. As shown in Fig. 2.2
first force at direction of radius and second perpendicular to it. First force known as radial or normal force and

second as friction force. Workpiece and rolls gets friction and coefficient of friction μ, angle of friction ẞ can
be identified with this equation :
Friction force
με = tan ẞ
Radial force

The maximum permissible angle of bite depends upon the value of 'u' which in turn depends upon the materials
of the rolls and the job being rolled, the roughness of their surfaces, and the rolling temperature and speed.

Daring rolling process at the beginning, work piece can move smoothly and should not come back from
roller the angle of contact '0' should be lower than angle of friction 'B'.

Workpiece motion is minimum between B and C then roller motion. At point C, motion of workpiece and
roller is equal and maximum between C and A point. From the Fig. V, is velocity before process and V, after
rolling process. If peripheral velocity is V, then relation between these three are V₂ > V > V₁. Rolled portion with
reference to peripheral velocity, at what velocity it is going ahead is known as forward slip.

V₂ -V
Forward slip = × 100
V

Increasing in roll radius, forward slip can be increased and workpiece thickness is decreased. With rolling
process the following cross section of work piece is produced circular, square, Hexagone, angular, I channel.
strip, sheet, pipe, special section like railway track, wheel, ball bearing etc. Generally 75 percent steel products
are made from rolling in earlier age. During rolling, steel becomes strengthen and improvement in shock absorbing
property. Machine used in rolling process is known as rolling mill.

2.5.2 Types of Rolling :

There are two types of rolling :

(i) Hot rolling
(ii) Cold rolling

2.5.3 Hot Rolling :

Hot rolling can be defined as plastic deformation of metals under conditions of temperature and strain rates,
such that recovery and recrystallized takes place simultaneously with the deformation. This process is carried out
above the recrystallization temperature of metals between two rollers.

Manufacturing Engineering-1/2023/2
 10
Manufacturing Engineering
This process is carried out at uniform temperature and NO SLIP POINT
OR POINT OF
the distance between two roller is less than the ingot MAX. PRESSURE
UPPER ROLL

thickness so that when it passes through roller the cross

ORIGINAL
UNWORKED GRAINS
section decreases and it increases the length.
REFINED GRAINS
(a) Advantages of hot rolling process:

(i) Course grains becomes the fine grains and it

increases mechanical properly of metal.
DIRECTION OF
TRAVEL
(ii) It improves productivity.
ELONGATED GRAINS
(iii) Due to high pressure, cavities and voids are PRESSURE
LOWER ROLL
DISTRIBUTION
removed. CURVE

FIG. 2.3 HOT ROLLING PROCESS

(iv) Uniformity in size and shape is possible.

(v) Effect of impurities is minimum because homogeneous distribution and so that strength is increased
(vi) Entire process is economic.

) Disadvantages of hot rolling process:

(i) Entire process is carried out under temperature so metal gets contact with air and due to that
meta
oxidised. This oxidation deteriorate surface finish.

(ii) Due to high temperature material handling and tooling cost is high.
(iii) Measurement accuracy is not possible in this process.

2.5.4 Cold Rolling :

Cold rolling process is carried out at below

the
UPPER ROLL
recrystallization temperature or at room temperature. The
ORIGINAL GRAINS DISTORTED GRAINS
process is similar to hot rolling. Fig. 2.4 shows that during cold
rolling grains size are changing and residual stress produced

Cold rolling is carried out to improve strength, size and

DIRECTION
accuracy in measurement of hot rolled products like bloom
OF TRAVEL

ROLLED SECTION
billet, slab, channel, plates, sheets or any structural products
surface finish. Before cold rolling scales are removed from hot
LOWER ROLL rolled products, for that components or workpiece is submerged

FIG. 2.4 COLD ROLLING PROCESS

in sulphuric acid for sometime and after washing and cleaning
with water, cold working operation is carried out.

Cold rolling is basically used for soft steel, aluminium, copper and silver.

(a) Advantages of cold rolling :

(i) Polished and shined surface is achieved.

(ii) Measurement accuracy is achieved.

(iii) Minimum tooling and handling cost.

(iv) Process is carried out at below the recrystalization temperature.
(v) Porosity is reduced.
(vi) Mechanical properties is improved.
(vii) Impurities are uniformly distributted so its effect is minimum.
 11
Metal Forming Processes

(b) Disadvantages of cold rolling :

(i) This process is carried out at room temperature so higher application of force is required.
(ii) Grains are distorted.

(iii) Decreases the ductility.

(iv) It produces residual stresses.

2.6 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HOT ROLLING AND COLD ROLLING:

Hot Rolling Cold Rolling

(i) Rolling is carried out at above the recrystallisation (i) Rolling is carried out at below the recrystallisation
temperature. temperature.

(ii) Low pressure is required due to high temperature. (ii) High pressure is required due to room temperature.

(iii) During this process course grains becomes fine (iii) During this process grains are distorted.
grains (grain refinement).

(iv) Under this process no work hardening possible (iv) Under this process work hardening is possible so
so residual stresses are not generated. it produces residual stresses.

(v) Tooling and handling cost increases. (v) Minimum tooling and handling cost.
(vi) It improves mechanical properties like ductility, (vi) It improves mechanical peoperties like strength
stiffness, toughness. and hardness.

(vii) Due to oxidation on surface finish, desired accu- (vii) Better surface finish and measurement accuracy
racy is minimum. due to negligible oxidation.

2.7 MEANING OF THE TERMS: INGOT, BLOOM, BILLET, SLAB SHEET ETC. USED FOR ROLLING
PROCESS:

(A) INGOT (B) BLOOM (C) BILLET (D) SLAB

FIG. 2.5 CROSS-SECTION OF INGOT, BLOOM, BILLET AND SLAB

(i) Ingot : Metal piece having square cross-section produced by metal casting or sand casting process.
Bloom, billet or slab is produced from ingot by hot rolling (300 to 500 mm² cross-section,
1.5 to 2 M length).

(ii) Bloom : Metal piece smaller than ingot.

(200 to 300 mm² cross-section, 3.5 to 5.5 m length).

) Billet : Metal piece produced from bloom, after rolling on it wires are produced (40 to 150 mm²
cross-section, length as per requirement).

(iv) Slab : Metal piece having rectangular cross-section produced from Bloom or Billet. After rolling
sheet or plates are produced (50 to 150 mm thickness, 0.6 to 1.5 m width).
 12 Manufacturing Engineering
(v) Plate 2.64 (12 SWG) mm to 12.7 (7 SWG) mm thickness size known as plate.

:
Width 750 mm to 1200 mm

Length 1500 mm to 3000 mm

(vi) Sheet : 0.21 (35 SWG) mm to 2.64 (12 SWG) mm thickness known as sheet, width and

of sheet is equal to width and length of plate.

leng
(vii) Flat : 2.5 mm to 6 mm thickness strip known as flat.

(viii) Strip : Thickness is around 0.1 mm to 2.5 mm, width is negligible than length.

2.8 PROCEDURAL STEPS FOR PRODUCING ROUND BAR FROM SQUARE BLOOM OR BILLET
ROLLING PROCESS AND TYPES OF ROLLS:

Fig. 2.6 shows the different steps of preparing round bar from billet or square bloom. Simple and
grooved
rolls are shown in Fig. 2.7. Hot billet is passing through two rolls and due to that its cross section decrease
and length increases.

GROOVE

WABBLER COLLAR WABBLER

4
.
NECK BODY- NECK
1 1
SIMPLE ROLL
10 11 12 13 14 15 GROOVED ROLL

FIG. 2.6 PRODUCING ROUND BAR FIG. 2.7 TYPES OF ROLLS

FROM SQUARE BLOOM

After this operation the distance between two roller is decreased and direction also to be changed at the
end of final step round bar is obtained.

2.9 FACTORS AFFECTING ROLLING PROCESS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS:

The following are the factors that affect rolling process:

(i) Roller diameter

(ii) Metal friction

(iii) Presence of tension

(iv) Operation speed.

(i) Roller diameter :

Major function of roller is to make contact with workpiece. With application of pressure the cross-section
of workpiece is decreased and length is increased. Smaller diameter roller having low area of contact so, to change
its cross-section it require low power and load. Larger diameter roller having possibility of more plastic deformation
so maximum diameter in rolling process is in reference to thickness of workpiece. Fig. 2.7 shows that for
manufacturing, simple roll is used for flat section and grooved roll is used for different shapes.
 13
Metal Forming Processes

Fig. 2.2 shows the workpiece thickness before and after, angle of contact with radius is calculated by

4-12
R =
2 (1- cose)

Where, R = Radius of roll,

" = Thickness before rolling

12 = Thickness after rolling

0 = Angle of contact and (t, - t₁) is known as draft.

(ii) Metal friction:

From Fig. 2.2 it can be seen that force acting on workpiece at two directions out of that one is
friction force and ratio of two forces is known as coefficient of friction. The angle of friction ẞ can be calculated

by:
Friction force
=μ = tan ẞ [μ = coefficient of friction]
Radial force

tan ẞ is larger at the time of placing workpiece between two roller and due to that workpiece will not come out.

That means utan ẞ or 0 < ẞ.

Angle of contact is important consideration and due to that it is useful in mill drive design, number of pass,
draft and requirement power calculation.

(iii) Presence of tension :

If above mentioned equation of roller radius is not satisfied then tensile force is required. Axial tension will
decrease the radial and friction force. Generally it is possible during cold working process. During cold rolling
workpiece is pulled by stratcher to develop tensile stresses. So by giving extra tension the diameter of roll and
power is decreased.
(iv) Operation speed:

During rolling process exit velocity is higher than entrance velocity. While reducing cross-section of metal
the exit velocity is increasing, during this process roller is having uniform velocity. So at the time of entrance

of metal strip the velocity is equal to V, and the time of exit the velocity is equal to V2. If the roller velocity
is equal to V then the relation between these three are V, <V < V₂. From Fig. 2.2 it can be seen that at point C
metal velocity and roller velocity are equal. This point is known as No-slip point. Workpiece after this point is :

known as forward slip zone. Forward slip is calculated by -

V₂--V
Forward slip = × 100
V

Generally forward slip is around 3 to 10%. Forward slip is increased with increasing in roller diameter and

coefficient of friction and decrease with decreasing in that. So speed is also important in rolling process.

2.10 ROLLING MILLS USED IN ROLLING PROCESS:

(a) Two high rolling mill

-

(b) Three -
high rolling mill

(c) Four -
high rolling mill

(d) Cluster rolling mill

(e) Continuous rolling mill

(f) Special mill
 14
Manufacturing Engineering.
high rolling mill :

abopdo
1st PASS

Hove 2nd PASS

2-HIGH PULL OVER MILL

3rd PASS

2-HIGH REVERSING MILL

FIG. 2.8 TWO-HIGH ROLLING MILL

Fig 2.8 shows that two rollers rotating in opposite direction and a workpiece ingot is passing through to
decrease the cross section and increase in length, under this process.

In two high pull rolling over or drag over mill, the rolled workpiece is again placed in its original place
and second rolling is done in the same direction. If changing in the direction of roller the process is known as
two-high reversing mill, it is shown in Fig. 2.8.

During this process the handling of workpiece is easy. Two high rolling mill is used mainly for bloom, billet
or slab preparing first in rolling.

Two high rolling mill cannot decrease maximum cross-section because it require heavy load and due to that
it increase hardening and bending. So it is used for only medium change in cross-section area of workpiece.

(b) Three-high rolling mill :

Fig. 2.9 shows that three-high rolling mill which

consists of top roll, middle roll and bottom roll, rotating

TOP ROLL
in opposite direction. The gap between bottom roll and

middle roll is adjusted bigger than the gap between middle

roll and top-roll. In the first step metal ingot or bloom is LIFTING TABLE
MIDDLE ROLL
passed from bottom roll to middle roll to decrease the cross-

section, then after it is passed from top to middle roll, to

decrease 'he cross-section. Under this process in first pass

LIFTING TABLE
the workpiece moves in forward direction while in second BOTTOM ROLL

pass it moves in reverse direction. So it is also known as

back and forth rolling mill. In this process it is not required

to change direction so minimum power is required. This FIG. 2.9: THREE-HIGH ROLLING MILL
Metal Forming Processes 15

process is not flexible than two high rolling mill. In three high rolling mill different shapes like Bloom, Billet,
-

Beam, Channel, Angle and rail can be manufactured. It is cheaper method.

c) Four-high rolling mill:

Fig. 2.10 shows two smaller and two bigger diameter roller. + TOP BACK-UP ROLL

Bigger roller known as backup roller and smaller roller known as

working roller. Under this process workpicce passes through two TOP WORKING ROLL

smaller roller. Workpiece having bigger width may be slab, plate or

sheet are manufacturing. This process is done by working roller. To
decrease the deflection of working roller during process, two bigger BOTTOM WORKING ROLL

diameter backup rolls are placed that gives support and helpful in
producing bigger width section. Back and forth rolling is possible by
+ BOTTOM BACK-UP ROLL
decreasing the gap between working roller and changing direction of
roller.
FIG. 2.10 FOUR-HIGH ROLLING MILL

+ TOP BACK-UP ROLLS (d) Cluster rolling mill:

+
TOP WORKING ROLL
In cluster rolling mill, number of rolls are six or more.
This mill is having two working roll and others are back-up rolls.
+
BOTTOM WORKING ROLL
Fig. 2.11 shows that working roller are smaller in diameter. Objective
+ of this mill is to used for rolled section and sheet metals. This process
BOTTOM BACK-UP ROLLS
is used for cold working of metal.

FIG. 2.11 CLUSTER ROLLING MILL

(e) Continuous rolling mill :

In this mill, similar type of two-high rolling mill is arranged.

All the two high rolling mill are non reversible type so
workpiece passes from one to second etc. the speed of first to
second is higher, likewise second to third. In this process the speed
control of all the two high rolling is important. Generally used
for mass production because of high productivity. HORIZONTAL ROLLS VERTICAL ROLLS

(f)
Special mill
: FIG. 2.12 UNIVERSAL ROLLING MILL

(i) Universal rolling mill: In this rolling mill horizontal and vertical roll are arranged jointly on single
stand. In this process vertical roller gives accurate edges. This mill generally produces H and I section
beam, with accurate edge of flat and plates.
) Planetary rolling mill: Fig. 2.13 shows that
workpiece is forced with help of feed rolls
+ to plenctary mill and strips, produced by
decreasing cross-section of workpiece. Two -
high or four -

high mill are placed after

planetary rolling mill. It gives better and
balanced surface in the form of coil. Under
+

this mill maximum 2 meter width strips are

possible to manufacture. This mill is used

FEED ROLLS PLANETARY MILL PLANISHING MILL
basically for hot rolling process. In this
FIG. 2.13 PLANETRY ROLLING MILL
process control of speed is also important.
 16 Manufacturing Engineering-
2.10.1 Rolled Product Defects and its Causes:

Defect Causes

(0) Cracks Work heardening during rolling.

(i) Rough surface oxidation due to hot rolling process.

(i) Fin Excess material passes during rolling process between two rolls.

(iv) Lap Over filling at roll pass.

(v) Non-uniform deformation Due to non-symmetrical cross-section of complete shape like rail, channel
(vi) Blow-holl, pit-hall Gas inside the metal mould.

(vii) Pipes Due to un-even cooling.

(viii) Segregation Impurities Impurities of casting, pouring and cooling time.

(ix) Hard spot or chill surface Un-directional solidification

(x) Wrapage Due to uneven cooling and residual stresses.

2.11 BASIC ELEMENTS OF ROLLING MILLS :

(a) Rolls:

Main elements of rolling mill. Rollers are rotating against each other and provide necessary pressure during
rolling process. Shape of roller is based on rolling product. Some of the mill uses two types of roller -
working
roller and backup roller. Working roller provides necessary pressure and defined cross section while backup roller
helps working roller to minimize deflection and bending and supports to get different shapes by working roller
(b) Bearing and housing :

Bearing are used to support shaft in rolling mill. It is fixed in housing at both ends of shaft. It is arranged
on stand with proper alignment. If alignment is not proper then the product will be defective.

(c) Drive:
•

Drive is used to give rotation of rolling mill, generally gear drive or chain drive is used.

2.12 SECTIONS PREPARED BY ROLLING PROCESS AND THEIR I.S. CODE:

Section I.S. Code I.S. designation

(a) Equal angle IS: 808 1964 ISA 2020 means angle having both the leg 20 mm.

(b) Unequal angle IS 808-1964 ISA 3020, Angle having one leg 30 mm and other 20 mm.

(c) Nominal T-Bar IS 1173 1967 ISNT 20, T-bar having height 20 mm, and head width 20 mm.

(d) Deep leg T-bar IS: 1173 - 1967 ISDT 100, T-bar having height 100 and width of head is one
half of its height.

(e) Section channel IS: 808 1964 -

Junior channel ISJC-100, channel height (1) 100 mm, width
(For structural use) 45 mm

Light channel ISLC-100, channel height (D) 100 mm, width

50 mm and thickness of height part 4 mm.

Medium weight channel ISMC-100, Channel (() height 100 mm,

width 50 mm and thickness of highted part is 4.7 mm.
 17
Metal Forming Processes

(f) Section channel IS: 3954 1966 ISCG 40, channel (1) height 40 mm, width 32 mm.
(for general use)

(g) Round bar IS 1723 1971 ISRO-20, round bar with 20 mm diameter.

(h) Square bar IS 1732 1971 ISSQ 20, 20 mm size square bar cross-section.
(i) Steel flat IS: 1731 1971 10 ISF 3, steel flat having 10 mm width and 3 mm thickness.
(j) Steel strip IS: 1730 - 1961 ISST 100 x 2.5, steel strip having 100 mm width and 2.5 mm
thickness.

2.13 FORGING:

Forging may be defined as a metal working process by which metals and alloys are plastically deformed
(reduced) to the desired shapes by the application of a compressive force. Forging may be done either hot-or
cold. However, forging is always understood to be hot working, unless stated otherwise.

2.13.1 Definition and Understanding of Forging :

Forging process is carried out when metal temperature is in plastic range and impact or applying squeezing
pressure to metal for desired shapes and sizes. It differs from rolling process which also employs compressive
force to deform the metal, in that the pressure is applied intermittently instead of continuous pressure as in rolling.
The products generally are discrete piece rather than a flowing mass as in rolling. Again, the dies used to apply
pressure to the material is not a cylindrical roll (as in rolling process) but usually a rectangular block of certain
thickness. Also, the dies have a linear working motion instead of rotery motion of rolls in rolling. During forging
the metal grains are refined and fibers are continuous so strength is increasing. Machining is not required in precision
forging. Forging is applied to manufacture agriculture equipment, machine parts, automobile parts, building materials,
cutting tools, nut bolt, spanner nails, furniture and domestie, scientific, military equipment.

2.13.2 Classification of Forging Methods:

The classification of forging is given as under :

(a) According to source of energy: (c) According to application of pressure:

(i) Hand forging (i) Drop forging (iii) Machine forging

(ii) Machine forging or power forging (ii) Press forging (iv) Impact forging

(b) According to type of die : (d) According to forging machine :

(i) Open die forging (i) Hand forging (iii) Press forging

(ii) Close die forging (ii) Machine forging (iv) Roll forging

2.13.3 Forging Process :

(a) Hand forging or open-die forging:

In open-die forging which is also called 'Hammer forging' or 'flat-die forging', the work-piece is struck or
pressed between two flat surfaces. Open-die forging is used where number of components to be forged is
too small to justify the cost of impression dies as where the sizes are too large and too irregular to be
contained in usual impression dies. The shapes most commonly used by open die forging are: Bars, slubs or
billets with rectangular, circular, hexagonal as octangonal cross-sections. Weldless rings and many other components
of simple shape.

Manufacturing Engineering-1/2023/3
 18
Manufacturing Engineering
(b) Power forging :

For producing big size components where plastic deformation and compressive force is required largerthan
hand forging. In this process power hummer or press is used for getting different shapes.
In this process workpiece is heated in hearth and after reaching at desired temperature level it is hammered
by power hammer or power press. In this process the components produced are medium or large size.
(c) Impression die forging:

This process is used for intricate and complicated

components where precision is highly requirement.

Fig. 2.14 shows that the impression die is

divided in two parts. One part is attached with
machine ram and second part is attached with anvil.

Complecated shapes cannot be produced in single

stroke under this process. So, first operation is carried
out in open die and then impression die is used. Flash

is produced in component because both the parts are d=D

not in contact during process. (2)

(3) (4)

FIG. 2.14 IMPRESSION DIE

(d) Closed die forging :

Fig. 2.15 shows that under this process the component is completely trap. Both the parts of die are in contact
during process and flash is not produced. Desired shape of component is producing by providing proper cavity
in both the parts. This method is used for precision parts. Special care is taken while designing both the parts
of die, with close tolerance.

(2) (3) (4)

FIG. 2.15 CLOSED DIE

 19
Metal Forming Processes

In this process the slag volume is precisiously calculated under and over size will not give proper shape
of product under this process around 100 kg. product/component is produced.

(e) Drop forging :

In this process, the forging is made by hammering a heated bar BOARD

or billet into aligned die cavities. Fig. 2.16 shows that the equipment

used for this process.

Drop forging called 'drop hammer' a specially prepared for this
BRAKE SHOES
operation. This process is used for mass production. In this process two
FRICTION ROLLS
parts die is used, one part is attached with drop hammer and other part
is attached with envil. A hot metal blank is placed between these two
parts and impact load is applied. Series of impact of blows applied as GUIDES

per requirement of component sizes and shape.

HI
Efficiency of process is based on die design. More procession and
care is taken while designing of die. Proper surface finish, draft, billet
and radius is given to increase the life of die, and die matching is also
to be important factor.
LOWER
UPPER
Generally component under this process is not manufactured within DIE
DIE

one blow but series of impact applied, so multi impression die is required. ANVIL ANVIL

BLOCK
After each impact component is moved to other impression. Forging force BLOCK

is required is high because during operation it produces flash. Wastage

FIG. 2.16 DROP HAMMER BOARD
is possible and not useful where large cross-section to be manufactured.

Different component like gear blank, pulley blank, and connecting rod can be produced. Single impression
die is used for small and regular shape product while multi impression die is used for big and irregular shape
product. Hydraulic and pneumatic dives can be used for up to 5 KN to 300 KN.

f) Upset forging or machine forging:

HEADING STOP FIXED DIE
PUNCH STOCK Fig. 2.17 shows that when a piece of stock is worked in such
a way that its length is shortened and either or both its thickness
(i)
and width (or diameter of a circular stock) increased, the piece is

MOVING DIE said to be upset and the operation is known as upsetting. All
forgeable metals, upsetting is possible and different shape produced.
Generally round bars are manufactured. If it is used on only one

(ii) side of die, a rod is used for hollow shape. In two parts dic, a rod
is placed by opening its parts, desired length is produced by placing
stop at end. For rigid clamping stop is removed and pressure is
applied at end of piece. In this process only upset is possible, not
)
!!!(
drawing of metal.

In this process force is applied on length so limited work is

done on metal. While designing this die, the length and diameter
(iv)
(l/d) ratio is calculated and optimum dimension is obtained to
reduce buckling. The products like bolt, head of rivet, flange at end
FIG. 2.17 UPSET FORGING
of rod, valve head, liver with fork, gear blanks are produced.
 20
Manufacturing Engineering-
) Press forging :

Like drop forging, press forging also uses impression dies but the parts are made by plastically deforming
a metal blank into die cavities by a slow squeezing action. The forging pressure builds up from the start to the
end of stroke, resulting in maximum penetration and improved grain flow throughout the entire forging. Completed
forging are ejected manually or mechanically from the die cavities. Proper alignment is possible in both the pants
of die so desired accuracy is possible to get and life is also increased. High skilled operator is not required. Heavy
cross-sections like aircraft parts, large precision gear blank, connecting rod, bolt, screw and rivet are manufactured
The capacity of press is around 500 to 6000 kN and stroke length is 30 to 90 stroke/minute is possible to achieve
(h) Roll forging:

This process is basically used for manufacturing slender, and non-uniform cross section.

STOPPER

WORKPIECE
SEMI-CYLINDER-
ROLL

SEMI-CYLINDER
ROLL

(a) (b)

FIG. 2.18 SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS INVOLVED IN COMPONENTS PRODUCED BY ROLL FORGING

In this process two semi cylindrical roll die is used. Fig. 2.18(a) shows that now with the help of roll die,
products are manufactured. In this process roll die is in open condition with workpiece and workpiece is placed
on bed and stopper, this is first condition of operation. Both the roll rotate in opposite direction. Fig. 2.18(b)
shows the last operation of roll forging. In this condition workpiece is moving from left to last position. Fig.
2.18(c) shows roll die is in open condition and workpiece is just like in first condition. This process is carried
out upto final desired shape achieved.

The products like automobile drive shaft, blade, axal, gear shift lever, and leaf spring etc. can be manufactured.

2.13.4 Advantages and Limitations of Forging Process :

(a) Advantages:

(i) Gran structure refinement of metal.

(ii) Metal atoms are arranged in one direction so it improves mechanical properties like strength, coefficient
of friction, resistance to imput load.

(iii) Time and labour cost is minimum because of precision in workpiece.

(iv) Machining is not required so cost minimum.

(v) Better surface finish.

(vi) Higher production rate.

(vii) Product will be defect free, defects like porosity, blow holl and crack is minimum.
 21
Metal Forming Processes

(b) Limitations :
(i) Initial investment and handling of die and tools is high.

(ii) Oxidation is possible due to metal worked at high temperature.

(iii) Higher tolerance is provided.

(iv) Some of the metals cannot be forged.

(v) Simple products are manufactured.

(vi) Under cut and holes are difficult to manufacture.

2.13.5 Characteristics of Forged Parts :

(i) Refined metal structure is achieved.

(ii) Uniform arrangement of atoms and directional, so strength is higher.

(iii) Resistance to friction and impact load.

(iv) Crack and blow hall is minimum.

2.13.6 Applications of Forging Process:

Forging is used for below mentioned products:

(a) Locomotive and automobile parts like axle, lever, cam, link, connecting rod, crank shaft etc.

(b) Cutting tools, agriculture tools, machine parts, spring, hook, nails, screw, pin, handle etc.

(c) Furniture manufacturing.

(d) Home appliance and scientific products.

(e) Building materials like handle, bolt, hinge, etc.

(f) Military products

(g) Aircraft and missile products

2.13.7 Defects in Forgings :

Generally following defects are identified in forging products.

(a) Pitting:

Pitting of the forging surface is caused by scale, which if not removed thoroughly from the die cavities.
When this scale is cleaned from the forging, depressions remain which are known as 'scale pits'. Pitting should
be avoided as much as possible during manufacture of forging by proper control of temperature and frequent cleaning
of dies.

(b) Cold shuts or laps :

Cold shuts or laps are short cracks which usually occur at corners and at right angles of the surface. They

are caused by metal surface folding against itself during forging. Sharp corners in dies can result in hindered
metal flow which can produce lap.
(c) Die shift:

Die shift is caused by misalignment between the top and bottom forging dies. This may be caused due to
loose wedges.

(d) Dents:

Dents are results of careless work.

 22 Manufacturing Engineering.
(e) Burnt and over-heated metal :
This defect is caused by improper heating conditions and soaking the metal too long.

(f) Fins and rags :

Fins and rags are small projections or loose metal driven into the surface of forging.

(g) Ruptured fibre structure:

This is a discontinuity in the flow lines of the forging which is revealed only when observing the macrostructure
This defect is caused by working some of the alloys too rapidly during the forging operation, inadequate stock
size or improper die design.

(h) Cracks:

Cracks which occur on the forging surface may be longitudinal or transverse. Their occurence may be
duc
to bad quality of ingot, improper heating, forging at low temperature or incorrect cooling of alloy steel forgings.
(i) Hair cracks :

These are very fine surface cracks not exceeding a fraction of a milimetre in width. These can occur due
to defects in metal ingot or too rapid cooling of the forging.
(j) Slags, sand and porosity :

These defects may occur either on the surface or inside the forgings. These defects may be due to defects
in the ingot or incompleted discard of the ingot head.
(k) Flakes:

Flakes are internal breaks or ruptures occuring in some grades of alloy steel. These are caused by too rapid
cooling from forging temperature.
(1) Oxidation and decarburisation :

This defect occurs due to over heating of forging product.

(m) Tears:

Improper temperature gives this kind of defect.

(n) Incomplete forging product :

Improper metal and temperature, improper arrangement of die, incomplete blows provide this defect.

2.13.8 Forging operations :

Different forging operations are mentioned below :

(a) Upsetting or jumping :

HAMMER BLOW HAMMER BLOW

HANDS HEATED-
TONG- TONG-
END

UPSET
EDGE
ANVIL
ANVIL ANVIL WORKPIECE STRIKE BY HANDS
OR HAMMER BLOW

(a) (b) (c)

(a) AND (b) SMALL LENGTHS (c) LARGER LENGTHS

FIG. 2.19 UPSETTING

 23
Metal Forming Processes

During upseting operation, a hot rod is placed on anvil or swage block and hammering. Fig. 2.19 shows that
upsetting operation carried out on small and bigger size rod. Under this operation length is descreasing and thickness
or width is increasing. Proper temperature is given to a part on which upsetting operation is to be carried out.
(b) Drawing out :

HAMMER 0
WORKPIECE- SLEDGE HAMMER
WORKPIECE

FULLER
TONGS HORN OR ANVIL
BACK OF ANVIL

(a) FOR LIGHT WORK (b) FOR HEAVIER WORK

FIG. 2.20 DRAWING OUT

This operation is also known as drawing down. This operation is opposite to upsetting. Fig. 2.20 shows that
thickness or width of workpiece is decreased and length is increased by this operation. Proper temperature is given
to workpiece and hammering with peen hammer, swage or fuller. Metal is heated at proper level to a part on
which this operation is to be carried out and that part is only get plastic deformation. Selection of tools is based
on workpiece thickness, length, width and required surface finish.

(c) Punching:

Fig. 2.21 shows that in this operation a hole is making

on metal workpiece. Workpiece is placed on anvil, die or
swage block having hole. A hot punch is applied and inpact
load is given for producing hole. A drift is passed from
hole to enlarge its size. If the workpiece thickness is higher,
than both side holes are produced, this process is known
as drifting. (1) (2)

(3) (4)

FIG. 2.21 PUNCHING

(d) Bending:

тр o て
CURVILINEAR
ANGULAR

(1) (2) (3) (4)

FIG. 2.22 BENDING

 24
Manufacturing Engineering

This operation is done on hot wire to give curvilinear or circular or angular shape. The workpiece is placed
on edge of anvil or on hom and with hammer, required shape is produced. Fig. 2.22 show the operation ofbinding
on metal wire.

HAMMER
(e:
) Swaging
HAMMER WORKPIECE

It is one type of drawing out

pepration. A hot metal is placed TOP
in between anvil and cross- SWAGE

section is changed by top fuller

or hammering on it. Fig. 2.23 BOTTOM
SWAGE
shows the operation of swaging WORKPIECE

in which two part die is used and

(a) OPEN DIE ANVIL
(b) CLOSE DIE
required shape is produced.

FIG. 2.23 SWAGING

FLASH (f) Cutting or Trimming :

FORGING

This operation is used for cutting the required size of

workpiece in forging. This operation is also done for cutting excess

material of forged component. This operation is done with the help

of chiesel or cutting tool and hammer, trimming is done for mass
FIG. 224 CUTTING OR TRIMMING production, a special die is used for this operation.

(g) Forge welding :

Forge welding is a process of joining two pieces.

Workpiece edge is prepared as shown in Fig. 2.25 and (i) BUTT JOINT

heated at certain temp. level and pressed against each

other and two edges are joined. Both the edges are
prepared symmetrically so proper joint is achieved. (ii) LAP JOINT

Three types of joints achieved as per requirement and

these are (i) Butt welding (ii) Lap welding (iii) V
(iii) V JOINT
welding. FORGED WELDED JOINT PREPARED ENDS

FIG. 2.25 FORGE WELDING

2.13.9 Various Types of Hammers and Press Machines Used for Forging Process :

Following hammers and press machines are useful for forging:

(a) Power hammers :

(i) Spring or mechanical hammer

(ii) Pneumatic hammer

(iii) Steam or air hammer, single acting and double acting.

(iv) Board drop or gravity hammer
(b) Press machines :

(i) Hydraulic press

(ii) Mechanical press
 25
Metal Forming Processes

2.13.10 Examples of Sequence of Operations in Manufacturing of Common Engineering Components by

Forging:

(a) Manufacturing of connecting rod by drop forging :

Fig. 2.26 shows the sequence of operation to forge connecting rod by multiple impression drop forging die.

(i) First a blank from which connecting

(i)
rod is to be prepared is heated at
certain level of temperature in HOT BAR OR BLANK

furnace. The hot blank is handled

(ii)
in tongs and step-by-step moved to
FULLERING
drop forging, where multi-

impression die is fitted in two )

!!!(
parts.
EXCESS MATERIAL
EDGING
IN SPRUE
(ii) In multi impression die, different

cavities are prepared for different (iv)

operation. The blank is placed in BLOCKING

first cavity and load is applied

on it so the shape of blank is 3

changed to shape of die as shown
in Fig. 2.26(ii). This process is SIZING & FINISHING
FLASH
known as fullering. In this process
the cross-section is decreased and
(vi)
length is increased.
(iii) After fullering operation, the blank
FINAL FORGING OF CONNECTING ROD
is placed in second and third die
for edging and blocking, during FIG. 2.26: SEQUENCE OF OPERATION TO FORGE CONNECTING
ROD BY MULTIPLE IMPRESSION DROP FORGING DIE
this operation. The shape of

connecting rod is shown in Fig. 2.26(iii) and 2.26(iv). Excess part of metal is spreaded in sprue and
gutter as shown in Fig..
(iv) Fig. 2.26(v) shows the final operation of rod. During this operation accurate shape is achieved and excess
material moved like flash around the die.

(v) After this operation, connecting rod is moved to other machine to remove excess material from sprue,
and with trimming die the flash is removed as shown in Fig. 2.26 (vi), finaly forging of connecting
rod is achieved.

(b) Manufacturing of bolt head by smith forging :

Following process is done for manufacturing head:

(i) Heat the one end of rod at certain temperature.

(ii) Upseting function is done by placing heated end on anvil.

(iii) A bush is placed on square part of anvil. A workpiece is passed from bush and with application of
load by hammering a flat head is prepared.

(iv) After this process, the head of workpiece is prepared by swaging process.

(v) Finally as shown in Fig. 2.27, with the help of cupping tool a chamfer is prepared on bolt head.

Manufacturing Engineering-I/2023/4
 26
Manufacturing Engineering

(1) (3) -(4)

FIG. 2.27 STAGES IN MAKING THE HEAD OF A BOLT

(c) Making a link for a chain :

The following process is followed for making link for a chain :

(i) Rod is heated in furnace at certain temperature.

(ii) Bending operation is done on heated rod
by placing it on round shape of hom of

LULOO
anvil and hammering on it.

(iii) Required two ends are prepared for forge

welding.

(iv) The workpiece is again heated and both

the ends are pressed against each other (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

and welded. A elliptical link is prepared. FIG. 2.28 STAGES IN MAKING A LINK FOR A CHAIN

(v) Above three steps are followed for second link and all other link is passed from each other and chain
is prepared.

2.13.11 Grain Direction or Flow Line in Forged Part :

The strength of structure is based on the flow line

of grains. Fig. 2.29 shows that due to machining

‫לין‬
operation the flow line are cut and required strength is
not achieved.
MACHINED FORGED

In forging the directions of flow lines are uniform

and unbroken so it increases the strength of workpiece
structure. Basically forging is applied to bolt, screw, nut,
small machine parts, crank, shaft and handle etc.
MACHINED FORGED

FIG. 2.29 FLOW LINE OF MACHINED

AND FORGED WORKPIECE

2.14 DRAWING PROCESS:

Introduction:

Drawing is a cold working process in which the workpiece (wire, rode or tube) is pulled through a tapered
hole in a die so as to reduce its diameter. The process imparts accurate dimensions, specified cross-section and
a clean and excellent quality of surface to the work. The process may be appreciably increase the strength and
hardness of metal.
Metal Forming Processes 27

This process is used to manufacture wire, tube, cup, square or hexagone shape and home appliances. The
machine used for wire or rod is known as draw bench. A workpiece material should be neat and clean before

drawing operation. Proper lubrication is applied to increase life of drawing die. The process used to manufacture
cup is known as cupping.

2.14.1 Different Types of Drawing Operations:

Different drawing operations and details are given as under:

(i) Blank drawing

(ii) Tube drawing

(iii) Wire drawing

) Blank drawing: HEATED

HEATED
Fig. 2.30 shows that this process is used to BILLET DIE

prepare cup shape from metal work. Under this

process a hot blank is placed on die and pressure
is applied by punch and blank which forced into die
to get required die shape product. This process is
carried out in different strokes. Fig. shows that after
first stroke of punch the diemeter of blank is larger
SHALLOW DRAWING DEEP DRAWING
than its height. This is known as shallow draw. The
diameter of workpiece blank is reduced in second BLANK t

draw or third draw as per requirement. After

different draw the diameter is lower than height is
CUP

achieved and it is known as deep-drawing process.

Figure shows that t is thickness, D is the
FIG. 2.30 BLANK DRAWING
diameter of blank and h is height, d is the diameter

of cup. The D/d is the ratio and it depends on t/d. During this process the thickness is unchanged. The required
blank diameter is calculated by following equation :

D= √d² + 4dh
Application of blank drawing is used for vessels, cup shape, bullets etc.

(ii) Tube drawing:

DIES

PUNCH

HEATED
FINISHED CYLINDER
CYLINDER

FIG. 2.31 DEEP DRAWING OF THIN CYLINDERS OR TUBE DRAWING ON HORIZONTAL DRAW BENCH

Fig. 2.31 shows that tube drawing operation is carried out on horizontal bench draw. In this machine more
than one die is arranged. Its diameter is progressively in decreasing order as per required tube size. The hot blank
is placed on draw bench and with application of rim or punch a pressure is applied. After first, second or third
stroke the diameter is progressively decreased and finally tube is produced.

This process is used for tube and oxygen acetylene cylinder manufacturing.
 28
Manufacturing Engineering
(ii) Wire drawing :

DIE HOLDER WIRE

DIE

BULL BLOCK
COIL

(a) PRINCIPLE OF WIRE DRAWING

DIE

WIRE
DIE HOLDER
DOG GRIPPING

CHAIN

(b) DRAW BENCH FOR WIRE DRAWING

FIG. 2.32

Fig. 2.32 shows the wire drawing process for manufacturing wire from raw work (bar) prepared by hot
rolling
process. The bar is placed in between two die and pressure is applied to get required size of wire. The outpu
of wire from the die is tied to power operated mechanism and draw slowly and required ream is achieved.

Before this operation the coil is merged into acid and washed by water and required lubrication is placed
on it. In this process the metal deforms plastically and to get required diameter of wire it passes from one or
two dies. In this process between two process annealing is required.

2.14.2 Equipments Used in Drawing Process:

Below mentioned equipments / machines are used for drawing process:

(a) Hydraulic press
(b) Horizontal draw bench

(c) Continuous wire drawing machine

(d) Drawing die

(e) Drawing punch

2.14.3 Characteristics of Drawing Process:

Following are the characteristics of drawing process:

(a) Drawing process will not change chemical and mechanical properties of metal.
(b) Blank area can be reduced up to 50% (maximum value of D/d upto 2)

(c) Compressive test of metal is required for deep drawing.

(d) Crack in metal is minimised by intermediate annealing.

(e) Strength and hardness is increased.

(f) Accurate dimension and better surface finish is achieved.

) This is a cold working process.

Metal Forming Processes 292
2.14.4 List of Components Prepared by Drawing Process :

Following components are prepared by drawing process:

(a) Different shape of vessels

(b) Tubes (seamless tubes)

(c) Cylinders

(d) Oxygen accetylene gas cylinder

(c) Bullets

(f) Thin wires

2.14.5 Factors Affecting the Drawing Process:

Following factors are affecting the drawing process:

(a) Workpiece temperature
(b) Pressure

(c) Radius on punch

(d) Radius on die

(e) Friction

(f) Workpiece material

(g) Percentage reduction and depth of draw

(h) Drawing speed

(i) Die clearance

2.14.6 Various Stages of Drawing Process:

Drawing process is generally devided into four stages:

(a) Place the workpiece blank on die and take the blank holder or punch in contact.
(b) Punch moves progressively so workpiece moves towards die.
(c) Metal compress at punch radius and due to that blank circumference reduce.
(d) When punch moves downwards at that time the twist part of workpiece becomes straight at die radius.
Blank holder is required for smooth and wrinkle free product.

Note: For more height \ depth product annealing is required in between two drawing process.

2.14.7 The Defects Occur in Drawing Process and Their Causes :

Following are the defects and causes :

(a) Wrinkles In drawing process if pressure pad and blank holder is not used or improper punch, die
clearance creates wrinkles.

(b) Excessive reduction in work piece thickness: Improper punch or die radius or improper pressure creates
this defect.

(c) Cracks: Improper tool speed creates fracture in workpiece. Improper force on blank holder creates cracks.
2.14 EXTRUSION PROCESS:

Introduction :

This is a process of manufacturing product from metal block by passing through die with application of force.
This process is used for plastic material or at plastic level temperature. Extrusion is generally used for rod, tube.
 30
Manufacturing Engineerin
channel. I or Z. section, circular or square or rectangular solid, hollow parts. Generally this process is
used
non-ferrous materials. It can also be applied to stainless steel.

Extrustion process is divided in basically two types:

(i) hot extrusion (ii) cold extrusion

Workpiece is heated at certain degree of temperature in hot extrusion while it is heated at room temperat
known as cold extrusion.

Hydraulic press is used for extrusion process. The products like automobile components, aircraft, rail
го
steemer, building materials, oil industries pipe, chemical or nuclear power industries tube and military produc
can be manufactured.

2.15.1 Methods of Extrusion Process :

DIE
Different methods of extrusion are listed below: EXTRUDED
BAR
(a) Direct or forward extrusion CHAMBER
(b) Indirect or backward extrusion
(c) Tube extrusion
DIE
(d) Side extrusion HOLDER
RAM OF
PLUNGER
Details of each process is as under : HOT BILLET

(a) Direct or Forward Extrusion : FIG. 2.33 DIRECT OR FORWARD EXTRUSION

Fig. 2.33, the heated billet is placed in the chamber, it is pushed by the ram towards the die. The me
is subjected to plastic deformation, slides along the walls of the chamber and is forced to flow through the di
opening. At the end of the extruding operation a small piece of metal, called butt end scrap, remains in
container and cannot be extruded. To obtain a hollow section, a hollow billet is often used around a mandry
In some instances, the billet is solid and is pierced by the mandrel or an axial hole is drilled in it by mean
of a drilling machine before the extrusion cycle begins. The mandrel may be fastened to the ram. As the rat
moves in the direction towards the die, the metal is forced out through the annular clearance and form a tub
Around 10% excess material is not extruded and that will remain in chamber. Dummy block is provided to for
hot billet and die remains stationery. This process is basically used fer copper, brass and aluminium structur

CHAMBER DIE
(b:
) Indirect or Backward Extrusion
EXTRUDED
BAR
The direct extrusion is the simplest, but it is limite
by the fact that as the ram moves, the billet must slid
or share at the interface between billet and containe

These large friction forces must be overcome by ver

high ram forces, which produce very high residua
HOLLOW
stresses on the container. In the indirect method (als
PLUNGER
BILLET
called reverse, backward or inverted), the billet does n
FIG. 2.34 BACKWARD OR INDIRECT EXTRUSION
move relative to the container, instead the die moves,

shown in Fig. 2.34. The friction involved is only between the die and chamber and this is independent of th
billet length. The friction forces are lower and the power required for extrusion is less than for direct extrusio

Extruding force is 25% to 30% less than in direct extrusion.

In this process hollow plunger, over hanging extruded parts is considered while designing and selectin
equipment. Application of this process is similar to direct extrusion.
 31
Metal Forming Processes

(c:
) Tube extrusion CHAMBER
BILLET
Fig. 2.35 shows the process of tube extrusion. This is

one kind of forward extrusion. Under this process mandrel DIE HOLDER

is passed from billet and then force is applied with plunger

to billet and metal is forced out from die and mandrel.

With this process seamless tubes of aluminium, copper EXTRUDED

TUBE
PLUNGER
materials are produced.
MANDREL DIE

RAM
FIG. 2.35 EXTRUSION OF TUBE

(d) Side Extrusion :

PISTON
Fig. 2.36 shows the process of side extrusion. This
process is used for lead like non-ferrous material cable
CABLE
sheathing. Material coming from die and ram directions

DIE are perpendicular. Maximum force is applied in this

process. This process is basically used to cover soft
CONTAINER OR CAHMBER material like lead.

METAL

FIG. 2.36 PRINCIPLE OF SIDE EXTRUSION

IN CABLE SHEATHING

2.15.2 Cold or Impact Extrusion :

Fig. 2.37 shows the cold or impact extrusion.

PUNCH

In this process a flat blank of specified diameter EXTRUDED

in the die cavity and striking it by a punch with PART
SLUG-
a powerful blow. The material gets heated up and
becomes plastic and is forced to squirt up around
the punch. Thin walled tubes of low flow strength
material are rapidly formed by this method. The DIE DIE

operation is fully automatic and the production rate

FIG. 2.37 PRINCIPLE OF COLD OR IMPACT EXTRUSION
is as high as 50 tubes or more per minute when
the punch is on its upward stroke, the tube strike to it. To release the tube, either a stripper or compressed air

is directed against the tube, thus stripping it from the punch.

With this process the product like shaving cream tube, tooth paste tube, colour tube, medicine tube etc. can
be produced. This process is limited to ductile material like tin, aluminium only.

This process is faster and produce minimum scarp or wastage.

2.15.3 Advantages of Extrusion Process:

The following are the advantages of extrusion :

(1) Greater strength and dense structure can be produced because this process carried out under compressive
load and higher force.

(2) Better surface finish and close tolerance is achieved.

(3) This process is faster, and higher production rate.

 32
Manufacturing Engineering
(4) Minimum tooling post.
(5) Minimum production cost compare to other process.

(6) Intricate shape can be produced.

(7) Uniform shape produced in mass production,

2.16 FORMING PROCESS:

The following operations are done under forming process

(a) Curling operation

(b) Bulging operation

(c) Stretch forming operation

(d) Tube forming operation

a) Curling operation :

(J
JJ J Fig. 2.38 shows the curling operation. In this
process, the end of tube or sheet part is made round
shape. Sheet end is placed below the punch and with WORKPIECE

blow of punch, the sheet gets the die shape. FIG. 2.38 CURLING OPERATION

Thisvessels
or
process
can
. is This
done onprocess
ductile
is used
material.
to Thisincrease
processedges
strength
isof
generallyboundary
,used
itisfor also
homeused
appliance
for toys
, of round autombile ,
filter
and hinges.

(b) Bulging operation:

UPPER PUNCH
Fig. 2.39 shows the bulging operation. This
DIE HALF
process is used to expand the end portion of cup

shape workpiece. In this process two part die is

used. Force is applied on the top part of rubber
or elastic material in the die. Product is placed in
between rubber and die with blow of punch,
LOWER
product gets shape of die.
RUBBER

DIE HALF WORKPIECE

This operation is used for pipe, steel drum,
(a) BEFORE BULGING (b) AFTER BULGING'
tube etc. This is also used in automobile industry
and Tin factory to get irregular shape product.

SPLIT SEAL
PUNCH-

DIE SPLIT ON

SECTION LINE

WORKPIECE

LIQUID MIDIUM

BULGE AREA

CLOSED POSITION

FIG. 2.39 BULGING OPERATION

 33
Metal Forming Processes

(c) Stretch forming operation :

FORMED SHEET
This process is used to produce required
shape of sheet metal. Fig. 2.40 shows that sheet
metal is clamped between two jaws and stratched FORMING PUNCH

by punch. This stretch develops tensile stress in

sheet metal and workpiece sheets gets permanent PLATEN

deformation and required contour is produced. In

this process the material for forming punch is

STRETCHER
HYDRUALIC
wood, bonded plywood or zink alloy. JAW
CYLINDER

This process generally used to plastic

FIG. 2.40 STRETCH FORMING
material. Double curvature shape also can be

, steel, pannel, hood cover etc.

(d) Tube forming operation :

Fig. 2.41 shows the tube forming operation.

Under this process the operations like bending, ball
(a) (b) (c) (d)
mouth at tube end, reduction and increase in the
FIG. 2.41 TUBE FORMING
diameter of tube can be done.

2.17 EMBOSSING :
PUNCH

In this process, force is applied to stress sheet metal with die

and punch. Punch is forced slowly for required stress level. Fig. 2.42
BLANK
shows that sheet metal is placed in between die and punch, die and

punch is designed to required impression.

With this process different letters, figures, name can be produced DIE

on sheet metal.

EMBOSSED
COMPONENT

FIG. 2.42 EMBOSSING

2.18 BENDING:

Bending is the metal process, by which a straight length

is transferred into a curved length. It is a very common forming
PRESSURE PAD
process for changing sheet and plate into channels, drums, tanks
PUNCH WORK
etc. Design the bending operation, the outer surface of the
PUNCH
material is in tension and the inside surface in compression. The

DIE
strain in the bent material increases with decreasing radius of
WORK curvature. The stratching of the bend causes the neutral axis of

(a) END BENDING (b) V BENDING the section to move towards the inner surface. Fig. 2.43 shows

FIG. 2.43 BENDING OPERATION the bending process of end and V Bending. In this process the
spring back effect can be reduced by providing more bend angle
to to

die blank or stock length in bending process. The size of blank or stock is calculated before bending process
get desired size-shape after bending. Fig. 2.44 shows the different dimensions required on bending job.
Manufacturing Engineering-I/2023/5
 34
Manufacturing Engineering
Block length = L = A + B + C

ANGLE
A = One side straight length

BEND
C = Second side straight length

-N
TENSION
SIDE
B = Bend allowances.
NEUTRAL
AXIS
Bend allowance is depend on bend radius IR and bend
IR
angle N.
COMPRESSION
SIDE
This is calculated by

2xN
B = (IR + kt)
360

N Bend angle in degree

FIG. 2.44 NATURE OF BENDING
R = Internal radius

t = metal thickness

k = 0.33 if IR < 2t

= 0.50 it IR > 21

Application of bending :

Used to get angle on sheet, or pipe, this process is also useful in manufacturing of cupboard, table, rack,
etc. in furniture and work.

2.19 SPINNING :

Spinning is one of the oldest methods of sheet metal

BLANK
FINAL SHAPE forming. Parts that have circular cross sections can be
made by spinning from sheet metal. The method involves
the forming of a workpiece over a rotating form block
MANDREL or chuck held in a lathe machine. Fig. 2.45 shows the
BLANK schematic representation of spinning process. A smooth,
HEAD STOCK
hardend, rotating or stationary tool is held by the operator
-TO HOLD
and is pressed against the blank to progressively bend
IN PLACE
the workpiece to confirm to the chuck or mandrel. The

00000000 PIN
mode of determination of the metal during spinning is
a combination of bending and stretching, making the
process most suitable for shapping of hollow parts from
TOOL REST
ductile metals and alloys. The thickness of the spun part
is nearly the same as the thickness of the undeformed
HAND TOOL
blank. The thickness of the blank is up to 6 mm, for
soft non-ferrous metals and upto 5 mm for low carbon
FIG. 2.45 METAL SPINNING
steel. Spinning has been used to produce parts more than
3.6 m in diameter. Suitable lubricant is applied to metal surface before this process. The degree of deformation
obtainable by spinning depends upon the shape of the finished parts, the material, the lubricant, and particularly
the skill of the operator.

The following products can be manufactured by this process, these are reflectors, kitchen ware, bells on musical
instruments, light fixtures, funnels and large processing kettles, rocket motor cases.
 35
Metal Forming Processes

When the thickness of workpiece is higher, the metal is heated to plastic state and this process is carried
which is called hot spinning.

The process and equipment cost is lower and regular workpiece can be produced mentioned above.

2.20 SHOT PEENING:

Shot peening is mainly employed to increase the fatigue strength of workpieces subjected to impact and/
or fatigue loads. The other functions of shot peening are to prevent the cracking of workpieces in corrosive media

and to improve the oil retaining properties of the processed surfaces. The process is based on plastic deformation
of the surface layer and consists in subjecting the surface to impact of a jet of shots. Many overlapping indentations
are made, causing localised compressive deformation of the surface. Since bulk of the material is not affected,

compressive radial stresses are set up. Since fatigue failure occurs due to tensile stresses, the compressive residual
stresses greatly offset any tendency to fatigue failure. The surface also gets slightly hardened and strengthened
by shot peening (a cold working process). The shots are made of cast iron, steel, aluminium or glass. Cast iron
or steel shot is used in peening steel work-pieces, and aluminium or glass shot for non-ferrous alloys. The depth
of the workhardened layer obtained does not more than 2 mm. This depth increases with the diameter of shot
(0.4 to 2 mm) and its velocity (60 to 100 m/s.) and decreases with an increase in the initial hardness of the workpicce.

This operation is performed in special equipment consisting of a workpiece chamber and a shot blasting device.
Most widely air-nozzle and centrifugal wheel types are used as blasting device.

2.21 COINING:

PUNCH
Fig. 2.46 shows the coining operation. Workpiece is placed between
two parts of die and pressure is applied on it. The die impression is
BLANK
transferred to workpiece.

This process is used to get impression or projection on workpiece,

and used for coin, maddle, ornaments of ductile material. DIE

COINED

COMPONENT

FIG. 2.46 COINING

2.22 SWAGING:

In this process the shape of

DIES ROLLERS BUSHING

OSCILLATE DIES OR TUBE component is received by applying

ROTATES

pressure of impact load in definite

direction. Die is used in this

process. Fig. 2.47 shows rotary

swaging process under which ends
SPINDLE
of rod or tube are pressed and die

WOPKPIECE
is used for this operation.
DIES OR WORK TUBE
OUTER RACE
WORKPIECE FEEDS FEED
BUSHING
REVOLVE Fig. 2.47(A) shows that die is

(A) ROTARY IMPACT SWAGING (B) PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION (C) TUBE SWAGING quickly opens and close while
OF ROTARY SWAGING MACHINE workpiece rotates and moves in
FIG. 2.47 METHODS OF ROTARY SWAGING length direction. In this process die
 36

Manufacturing Engineering
is tappered and oscillate and pressure is applied. Fig. 2.47(B) shows rotary swaging and die opens and close
effect of roller. When die closes, the pressure is applied at the end of rod. If eight roller is applied in with
swaging the die open-close eight times in one revolution of ring. Die is fixed to hollow spindle. The rotary
part ог
end
ofandrodclosing
or tubeand whichever
swaging isis carried
pressedout.is fixed in die and
Fig. 2.47(C) thentherotation
shows is given here
tube, swaging, to spindle
bush isand
usedit starts
insteadopening
of
.
Rotory swaging is the cold working process. This process after few pass annealing process is required
and
in each pass reduction in diameter is about 30%. The products like screw, bolt, rivet etc. can be produced
2.23 SAND BLASTING :

This process is similar to shot peening. In this process sand is used instead of metal balls. This is
used
to clean mainly casting surface.

2.24 OTHER MECHANICAL WORKING PROCESS:

We have discussed important manufacturing process, other mechanical working processes are discussed below.
2.24.1 Shearing:

Workpiece material is pressured between punch

and die at above the plastic deformation level and
PUNCH- PUNCH
required size and shape is achieved which known as
STOCK- -CLEARANCE STOCK
shearing process.

Fig. 2.48 shows that metal workpiece is placed DIE

on die and with punch, pressure is applied on it. This BLANK

is plastic deformation process. Maximum pressure is

FIG. 2.48 SHEARING
applied at the edges of punch and die and workpiece

gets fracture and a part is separated called blank. Die hole is bigger than punch size and this difference is known
as die clearance, this clearance depends on metal, metal thickness and its properties. In this process the separated
part is final product so it is called blanking process and if the part placed on die is finished product then it is
called punching or piercing operation. This process is used for regular and irregular shape of product.

2.24.2 Piercing process: Fig. 2.49

It is a cutting operation by which various hole shape are made in sheet metal. In this process the hole is
desired product, the material punched out to form the hole being waste, 2.49(i). The useful hole size is D and
punch size dimension is also D, the clearance is maintained is C, is the clearance between die and punch.

2.24.3 Blanking: Fig. 2.49

Blanking is the operation of cutting a flat shape from sheet metal. The article punched out is called the
'blank' and is the required product of the operation. The hole and metal left behind is discarded as waste,
Fig. 2.49(ii). The useful part size is D and die size is also D and C is the clearance between die and punch.

2.24.4 Notching: Fig. 2.49

This is cutting operation by which metal pieces are cut from the edge of a sheet, strip or blank. Fig. 2.49(iii)
shows that different shapes like V, L. _ produced by notching.

2.24.5 Lancing: Fig. 2.49

This is a cutting operation in which a hole is partially cut and then one side is bent down to form a sort
of tab or louver. Since no metal is actually removed there will be no scrap, Fig. 2.49(iv).
 37
Metal Forming Processes

2.24.6 Slitting Fig. 2.49

It refers to the operation of making in complete hole in a workpiece. In this process cutting is done in length
of sheet metal. Large width sheet is processed by passing from slitting role and low width strip is prepared. Fig. 2.49(v).

PUNCH

D-2C-

WORK WORK
C
PIECE PIECE

DIE

(i) PIERCING (ii) BLANKING

(iii) NOTCHING
(iv) LANCING

SLIT
(v) SLITTING
FIG. 2.49 METAL WORKING PROCESSES

2.25 METAL WORKING EQUIPMENT: PRESS :

Different methods like forging, drawing, extrusion, forming, embossing, bending and curling are studied earlier.
In all processes press tool is used. This process is known as press working process. The detail study of press
is discussed here.

2.25.1 Types of Press:

The classification of press is difficult because some

of the press are used for different processes, so general MASS

classification is given as under : ARM

STOP COLLAR-
:
HANDLE
(i) Hand press or fly press (Fig. 2.50)
MULTI START
(ii) Mechanical press (Fig. 2.51) (NUT) THREAD GUIDE

(iii) Hydraulic press (Fig. 2.52) RAM

BODY

(B) According to design of frame :

HOLE TO PUNCH

(i) Inclinable (Fig. 2.53)

THROAT DEPTH-
(ii) Gap frame (Fig. 2.54) BED

(iii) Straight side (Fig. 2.55)

(iv) Horn frame (Fig. 2.56) FIG. 2.50 HAND PRESS OR FLY PRESS
 38 Manufacturing Engineering-

CRANK DRIVE
MOTOR
FLY WHEEL
CROWN

BRAKE
CLUTCH

PITMAN

STOCK FEEDER- RAM

COLUMN

COILED
STRIP STOCK PUNCH

SCRAP
DIE STRIP

BOLSTER
BED

FIG. 2.51 MECHANICALLY OPERATED PRESS

12

13

1 CYLINDER
2 MAIN RAM
3 SLIDING RAM
4 PULL BACK CYLINDER
5 PLATEN

6 MOUNTING SLIDE
10 7 COLUMNS
8 LOWER PLATEN
9
9 LOWER DIE
о 10 UPPER DIE

11 FOUNDATION

12 OIL INLET
13 INLET VALVE

о о

FIG. 2.52 HYDRAULIC PRESS

(C) According to mechanism used for applying power to ram (Fig. 2.57) :
(i) Knuckle joint (v) Crank
(ii) Screw (vi) Eccentric

(iii) Rack and pinion (vii) Cam

(iv) Hydraulic (viii) Toggle

(D) According to number of slides :

(i) Single action press

(ii) Double action press
(iii) Triple action press
 39
Metal Forming Processes

(E) According to type of work :

(i) Punching press (v) Coining press

(ii) Bending press (vi) Forging press

(iii) Drawing press (vii) Embossing press

(iv) Forming press (viii) Cutting press

FLYWHEEL

FRAME PITMAN

RAM

RAM

BOLSTER

PLATE
FRAME

BED

QUADRANT TO LOCK

FRAME IN ANY BASE

POSITION

FIG. 2.53 AN OPEN BACK INCLINABLE (OBI) POWER PRESS FIG. 2.54 GAP FRAME PRESS

CROWN

RAM

RAM
FRAME

PILLARS
HORN

BED BASE

FIG. 2.55 PILLAR TYPE STRAIGHT SIDE PRESS FIG. 2.56 A HORNING PRESS

Hand press is generally used for small work. These press are generally screw and nut type. Fig. 2.50 shows
a nut is on the top of frame and screw is passed from that in vertical direction. On the top of screw, arm is
provided which rotates and ram moves down-ward. Punch is attached at end of ram and workpiece is placed on
bed so with required press the product is manufactured.

Fig. 2.51 shows mechanical press which is widely used in shop. In which, with electric motor mechanism,
ram is operated. In this mechanic crank rotates eccentrically so simple harmonic motion is achieved. At midanc
 40
Manufacturing Engineering
of stroke the ram having maximum speed and then after gradually reduced. The stroke is applied when ram
movement
is maximum means at middle of stroke. Stroke length can be increased or decreased by position of crank electricity
and cam.

In knuckle joint stroke length is minimum. Coining or sizing where maximum pressure is required at
the
end of stroke, this process is used.

In rack and pinion the stroke length is higher and ram gives continuous movement.

Fig. 2.52 shows hydraulic press. This is used for close die forging. In this press cylinder 1 is placed
on
platen 5. In this cylinder main ram-2, moves up and down by hydraulic pressure, the valve-13 controls hydraulic fluid
Fig. 2.53 to 2.56 shows the press according to press frame, inclinable, gap, straight slide and horn press.
Fig. 2.57 shows the different mechanism. This mechanism provides movement to ram.

2.25.2 Main Parts of Press :

Mechanical press is widely used press tool for different operation. The different parts are discussed below.
1. Base Bottom part of press which supports all the mechanism and components of press, also known
as Bed.

2. Frame Main body of press, driving mechanism, ram, guide are arranged in frame.
3. Bolster plate Bolster plate is placed on top of base, it is flat in surface, mainly die block is fitted
on it.

FLYWHEEL

-FRICTION
C
DRIVE
་་་

ww
་་་
་་་ ་་་ ་་་ ་

w
KNUCLE JOINT SCREW RACK & PINION HYDRAULIC

PITMAN
wwwwwwwww

RAM

ww 7 YT ww
.

CRANK ECCENTRIC TOGGLE

CAM

FIG. 2.57 VARIOUS RAM DRIVE MECHANISM

 Metal Forming Processes 41

4. Ram: It is reciprocating part of press. It is fitted on frame and reciprocate in guideways. At the end
punch is attached.

5. Pitman It is used to join ram with driving mechanism. It is also known as connecting rod. Stroke
length and position is done through Pitman.

6. .
.

7. ClutchIt is used to engage and disengage the flywheel with driving shaft.

8. Brake To stop the driving mechanism whenever it is required.

9. Driving mechanism : To provide motion to ram.

2.25.3 Press Specification and Selection :

The following points are to be considered while preparing specification of press:

Length

Width and height

- Press capacity

-
Bolster Area

Shut height etc.

(1) Press capacity: The volume of press generally identified by how much pressure is achieved by ram.
25 tonne press means 25 tonne pressure is achieved, more than that is not achieved and not used for
more requirement pressure. Required pressure is calculated for metal working. The mechanical press can
give 0.5 tonne to 300 tonne and hydraulic press can give 50 tonne to 20,000 tonne. Press capacity is
known as tonnage.

(2) Bolster area: Generally bolster plate is fixed on press bed or base. Die is fixed on bolster plate, this
also support the component before and after process. So based on die size and shape, bolster plate area
can be measured. Bolster plate area is important in press selection.

(3) Shut height: The difference between bolster plate surface to the ram at downward position and pitman
used to adjust ram at last downward position. This helps us to select maximum size of die set, which
is used for press tool.

For press specification, the following points are highlighted:

(1) Press capacity (7) Stroke / minute

(2) Type of frame (8) Shut height

(3) Area of frame (9) Motor capacity

(4) Area of bolster (10) Height of press

(5) Mechanism of ram (11) Weight of press

(6) Length of stroke (12) Open height

Press selection :

The following points are to be considered while selection of press :

(1) Size and shape of workpiece

(2) Stock material thickness

Manufacturing Engineering-I/2023/6
 42 Manufacturing Engineeri
(3) Workpiece material
(4) Types of process to be done on workpiece
(5) Speed of process

(6) Types of drive for press.

POINTS TO REMEMBER

1. Metal forming is plastic deformation process.

2. Metal forming reduces cost of process, cost of material and also reduces time.

3. Hot metal forming and cold metal forming are types.

4.
Hot working is carried out at a temperature above the recrystilisation temperature and below the
point of metal. melting
5. Cold working is carried out at a temperature below the recrystilisation temperature.
6. Rolling, drawing, extrusion, forging, bending and spinning are different types of metal forming process.
7. Rolling is primary and important process of manufacturing different shape from metal ingot.

8. Rolling is carried out by rotating two rollers in opposite direction and metal workpiece is passed between the
9. Hot rolling is hot working while cold rolling is cold working process.
10. To get desired shape metal is passed from more than one set of roller.

11. Bloom, billet, slab, plate and sheet are produced by hot rolling.
12. Hot rolling required minimum power and gives metal grain structure refinement (advantage).

13. Due to metal oxidation better surface is not achieved and tooling, handling cost is increased (disadvantage
in hot working.

14. Roller diameter, metal friction, tension, operation speed are the facts that affect rolling process.
15. Different rolling mills are :
-
two high rolling mill continuous rolling mill

three high rolling mill - universal rolling mill

- four high rolling mill - planetary rolling mill
cluster rolling mill

16. Metal forging is carried out when metal temperature is in the plastic range and pressure is applied to ge
desired shape.

17. Forging process improves mechanical properties like strength and toughness.
18. Forging is classified under four categories:
Source of energy

- Types of die

- Application of force

- Types of forging equipment / machine

8

19. Different types of hammer, press and machines are used in forging.
9

20. Drawing process is carried out by processing sheet metal work with punch and die and drawing from it to

get hollow shape or material is drawed from die and wire or rod are produced.
 Metal Forming Processes 43

21. In shallow drawing the workpiece diameter is higher than its height, while in deep drawing diameter is smaller
than height.

22. Main three categories are there for drawing:

- Blank drawing

- Tube drawing

Wire drawing

23. Metal properties, die and punch design, punch pressure, metal temperature are important factors for drawing
operation.

24. Drawing can be hot or cold working.

25. Extrusion is defined as metal block is forced and passed from die to get desired shape.

26. Extrusion can be hot or cold working.

27. Following are the important extrusion process:

Direct or forward extrusion

- Indirect or backward extrusion

- Tube extrusion

- Side extrusion

- Impact extrusion
-

28. Stretch forming, curling, bulging, tube forming, embossing, bending, spinning, coining etc. or metal forming
processes.

29. Metal cutting operation is a shearing process.

30. Different press are used for metal forming.

31. Different drive mechanism used for press tool.

32. Important factors like press capacity, bolster area, and shut height are considered for selection of press.

EXERCISE

1. List advantages and disadvantages of hot rolling processes. (Oct. 1997, Feb. 2022, June 2022)

2. List the various types of rolling mill and explain any one of them. (October 1997)

3. Distinguish among bloom, billets and slabs as applied to rolling practice. (October 1997, 1998)

4. State the factors causing the defects in cold rolled parts. (October 1997, 2000, May 2001, Feb. 2021)

5. Differentiate between hot working and cold working process. (Oct. 1997, 1998, April 1999, June 2022)

6. Explain 'Hot rolling' with a neat sketch. (May 1998, October 2000, May 2001)

7. Define the terms:

(i) Ingot (ii) Bloom (iii) Billet (iv) Slab (v) Strip (vi) Plate (vii) Sheet.

8. List the factors influencing rolling operation and explain any one of them. (September 2021)

9. State the common defects in cold rolled products and also state the reasons for those defects. (May 1998)

10. With the help of neat sketches explain 'three high rolling mill'. (October 1998)
 44
ManufacturingEngineering
11. List the different metal forming process. (May
1998
12. Define 'metal forming' process and classify the same by giving one application of each process.

(October 1998,2000)
13. What are the limitations of hot working?

14. Explain the method of manufacturing, round bar from a square bloom.
(April 1999)
15. State advantages and disadvantages of cold rolling.
(April1999)
16. List the various types of rolling mills and explain any one. (Feb. 2021, 2022, Sept. 2021, June2022)
17. Explain four high rolling mill.
(October 1999)
18. List major elements of rolling mill and write the function of each.

19. Explain cluster mill with neat sketch.

20. Explain universal rolling mill with neat sketch.

21. Explain planetory rolling mill with sketch.

22. State the major difference between 'Hot rolling process' and 'Cold rolling process'.
(May 2001, February 2021, September 2021, February 2022, June 2022)
23. State the factors influencing the rolling operation and explain the effect of roller diameter. (May 2001)
24. Describe with help of neat sketch the up set forging operation. (October 1997, 1998)
25. List the correct sequence of forging operations while producing a hexagonal headed bolt.
(October 1997, September 2021)
26. Write brief note on press forging. (Oct 1997, May 2001, September 2021)
27. List the defects in a forged parts. (October 1997, February 2021)
28. List the different forging operations and describe any two of them. (April 1999)
29. State the advantages of hot rolling as compared to cold rolling. (October 1999)
30. Give the classification of forging process and explain 'Drop forging' with a neat sketch. (April 1998)

31. State the common defects in forged components stating the reasons for those defects.
(May 1998, October 1999)

32. Explain 'Press forging process. State the types of press used for the process.
(October 1998, 1999, September 2021)

33. Define forging differentiate drop forging and press forging. (October 2000)

34. Name the different methods of forging processes and explain any one.
(October 1999, May 2001, February 2021, 2022)

35. State the characteristics of forged parts.

36. State the sequence of operations to produce connecting rod by drop forging.

37. Explain the paints in selection of drop forging.

38. Explain the factors affecting the drawing operation. (October 1997, February 2021, 2022, June 2022)
39. Differentiate between drawing down and deep drawing operation. (October 1997)

40. Name atleast four components produced by drawing operation and type of drawing process used for cach
of them.
 Metal Forming Processes 45

41. State the difference between 'Shallow drawing' and 'Deep drawing' with neat sketches. (May 1998)

42. Explain wire drawing process with neat sketch. (May 1998, October 1998, 1999, May 2001)

43. Explain the process of making chain by forging. (May 2001)

44. Explain blank drawing with neat sketch. (April 1998)

45. Explain tube drawing with neat sketch. (Oct. 1998, April 1999, Oct. 1999, May 2001, Sept. 2021)

46. Give characteristics of drawing process. (October 2000)

47. State the applications of drawing process.

48. List the factors affecting the drawing process. (April 1999)

49. Differentiate between forward extrusion and backward extrusion. (October 1997)

50. Describe in brief the manufacturing of collapsible tubes by impact extrusion process. (October 1997)

51. Differentiate between 'Hot extrustion' and 'Cold extrusion'. (May 1998)
52. Explain (i) Direct or forward extrusion and (ii) Indirect or backward extrusion.
(May 1998, April 1999, June 2022)
53. Define extrusion, sketch and explain 'Indirect extrusion process.' (October 1998, 1999)

54. Explain forward extrusion with the help of neat sketch. (February 2022)

55. List the methods of extrusion process and explain any one. (February 2021)

56. Explain side extrusion process.

57. Write the advantages and limitations of extrusion process.

58. Explain the principle of extrusion process, name products, produced by extrusion process. (October 2000)

59. Explain cold or impact extrusion process. (March 2001)

60. Describe spinning process with a neat sketch. (October 1997, April 1999, October 2000)

61. Define the following terms :

(i) Bending (ii) Embossing (iii) Stretch forming. (October 1997, 2000)

62. Explain the spining process. Also suggest the type of lathe most suitable for spinning operation.
(May 1998, October 1999, 2000, February 2021, June 2022)

63. Explain 'Shot peening' operation and state its purpose. (May 1998, Oct. 1999, 2000, Sept. 2021)

64. Describe : (i) shot peening (ii) embossing (iii) stretch forming. (October 1998, April 1999)

65. Explain embosing operation with sketch.

66. Explain bending process and bending allowance.

67. Explain coining process.

68. Explain swaging process. (May 2001, February 2021)

69. Explain stretch forming process.

70. State two applications of each of the following process:
(i) forging (ii) rolling (iii) extrusion.

71. Write short notes on any two of the hot working process:

(i) Rolling (ii) Spinning (iii) Drawing (October 2000)

 46
ManufacturingEngineering
72. Define the following terms:
(i) Spinning (ii) Bending (iii) Forging (iv) Bulging.

73. Explain the following operations :

(i) Curling operation (ii) Bulging operation (iii) Tube forming operation

74. Explain shearing process.

75. Explain piercing and blanking

(April 1999, October 1999, May2001
76. List the forging operations. (October
1999
77. Give classification of types of press. (June
2022
78. Give name of different parts of press with their function.

79. Give neat sketch of mechanical press and label the name of its parts.

80. Give name of different drive mechanism used in press.

81. Give name of press according to design of frame.

82. List the name of operation which are performed on press. (June 2022)
83. Which paints are considered for selection of press ?

84. Write in short (a) press capacity (b) shut height.

85. Define following: (February 2022, June

2022)
(i) Slitting

(ii) Lancing

(iii) Piercing

(iv) Blanking. (May 2001)

 CHAPTER

Metal Casting Processes

3

3.1 INTRODUCTION:

Casting is one of the most versatile form of mechanical process for producing components; because there
is not limit to the size, shape and intricacy of the articles that can be produced by casting. It is one of the casiest
and economic process which gives high strength and rigidity to the parts and also to inpricate shape which are
difficult to produce by other process. Many research and development work is under process, earlier the process
was not possible, naw-a-days it becomes possible and easy in economic way.
Foundry is a place where metal casting is carried out. Metal casting is the process of pouring a metal in
a liquid form into a mould and allowing it to solidity to produce the desired product. A casting product is then
machined for desired accuracy and shape. The pattern is the replica or full size model of the casting to be made.
It gives shape to the mould cavity where the molten metal solidifies to the desired form and size.
Metal casting is divided into following five stages:

(i) Pattern making

(ii) Mould and core making

(iii) Melting and pouring

(iv) Cleaning of casting.

(v) Inspection and testing.

Almost all metal, casting is possible but a metals having low melting point temperature, low shrinkage during
solidification are maximum used. Casting process is applied to cast iron, aluminium, copper and alloys. Mostly
it is applied to cast iron because of its fluidity, to attend intricate shape and minimum shrinkage.

3.2 TYPES OF FOUNDRY:

Foundry is a place where metal casting process is carried out. Major two types of foundry which are mentioned
below :

(a) Ferrous foundry:

This type of foundry, process only ferrous metal, it is also devided in:

(i) Foundry for steel

(ii) Foundry for gray iron

(ii) Foundry for malleable cast iron.

(b) Non-ferrous foundry:

This type of foundry process only non-ferrous metals, it is also divided into:

(i) Foundry for precious metals: Under this foundry the metals like Brass, Bronze, Copper are to be
casted.

(ii) Foundry for light metals: Under this foundry light weight like aluminium is to be casted.
47
 Manufacturing Engineering
48

3.3 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF CASTING PROCESS:

Advantages and limitations compare to other manufacturing processes are given below:

Advantages:

(i) Complicated and heavy jobs easily manufactured.

(ii) Almost all metals casting is possible.

(iii) In other manufacturing process the job is divided into number of parts while in casting all the
pas
are casted as single job.

(iv) Economic in mass production.

(v) In some of the components accuracy and

precision are maintained so cost is saving in machiningproce
(vi) Any intricute shapes can be produced.

(vii) In foundry, homogeneous mixture is prepared and different shape is produced with same homogeneo
mixture property, while in other process it is not possible.

Limitations:

(i) It is costly for small quantity job.

(ii) Maximum care is taken to avoid defects in casting.

(iii) Directional strength is possible in forging or extrasion whole in casting it is not possible.

3.4 PATTERN MAKING:

Pattern making is the first step in casting process. It is a model of workpiece to be manufactured. Patter
is defined as :

(a) It is a replica or model of component to be casted.

(b) Pattern is a foundryman's instrument to prepare mould or cavity.

(c) Pattern is a component of casting shape without allowances.

(d) Pattern is a shape around which sand is packed and cavity is produced and in that cavity metal is pourc
to get desired shape.

Mould: Mould is a cavity prepared by workpiece shape pattern inside the sand.

The size, shape, surface finish and quality of casting is entirely dependent on pattern and pattern maker. Th
following points are considered while pattern making :

(i) Type of metals to be cast

(ii) Number of mould prepared by pattern

(iii) Required surface finish

(iv) Preperation of mould

(v) How to taking out pattern from mould

Generally pattern layout is decided after considering types of pattern and process of mould layout is drawn
on simple wood sheet and pattern allowances is calculated on it. Pattern maker will take size from the layout,

3.5 PATTERN MATERIAL:

Pattern is used to prepare mould. Different materials are used for pattern like (a) wood (b) metal. (c) plastic

(d) plaster of paris (e) wax.

 49
Metal Casting Processes

(a) Wood:
Wood is most common material used for making patterns. Generally pine wood, teak wood, mahogany and
deodar are well known pattern materials. The following are advantages and disadvantages of wood as a patern
materials:

Advantages:

(i) It is cheap and easily available.

(ii) Ease of shaping
(ii) Light weight so ease of handling
(iv) Its surface can be easily made smooth by sanding.

(v) Its surface can be preserved by shellac coating.

(vi) It can be cut and fabricated into many forms.

(vii) Different size as per design can be produced.

Disadvantages:

(i) It is affected by moisture, there by it twists or shrinks.

(ii) It deforms on drying.

(iii) It wears out quickly as a result of sand abrasion.

(iv) If not stored properly, it may warp.
(v) Its strength is low and tends to break on rough usage.
Application:

(i) It is used where pattern size is big and heavy.

(ii) It is used for minimum quality job.
(b) Metals:

Metal patterns are used for mass production of castings. Generally aluminium, aluminium alloy, brass, white
metal and cast iron are used. Compare to wood pattern, metal patterns offer the following advantages and
disadvantages:

Advantages:

(i) Strong and durable, good wear resistance property.

(ii) They do not deform, shrink and twist.

(iii) Better surface finish and desired accuracy is achieved.
(iv) Useful for large number of quantity.

(v) Good machinability property.

(vi) Useful in machine moulding process.
(vii) Longer life compare to wood material.
Disadvantages:

(i) Metal patterns are heavy. So difficult in handling.

(ii) Costly then wood.

(iii) More difficult to repair and modify.
(iv) Difficult to get required size and shape than wood.

(v) They are liable to rust and corrosion to metal is possible.

Manufacturing Engineering-I/2023/7
 50 Manufacturing Engineering
Uses:

(i) Useful in mass production of smaller size of component.

(ii) Useful in machine moulding process.

(iii) Useful where strength in pattern is requirement.

(iv) Better surface finish casting is achieved.

(c) Plastic:

Plastic have replaced other materials and finding their place as a modern pattern materials. Thermo-setting
resin (phenatic resin, epoxy resin) have the desired properties of a pattern material. For making plastic pattern
a mould from plaster of paris is prepared, then this mould is filled by resin and applying definite temperature
The resin gets shape of mould, and pattern is prepared. Advantages, disadvantages and uses are mentioned below.
Advantages:

(i) Light in weight and better strength

(ii) Durable
(iii) Provides a smooth surface

(iv) Moisture resistant

(v) Wear and corrosion resistant

(vi) Plastic patterns are easy to make

(vii) They possess good compressive strength.

(viii) Good resistance to chemicals

(ix) Better adhesive qualities

(x) Miner shrinkage

(xi) Cheapest material
Disadvantages:

(i) Metal reinforcement is required because plastic patterns are fragile.

(ii) Plastic patterns may not work well when subject to shocks as in machine moulding (Jolt machine).
Uses:

(i) Used where better surface finish castings are required.

(ii) Used in large quantity small size casting products.

(d) Plaster of paris :

Plaster of paris is zipsem cement. It is used to manufacture intricate shape of casting, water is used for mixing.

Advantages:
(i) It possess high compressive strength (upto 300 kg/cm²).
(ii) Intricute shape is easily achieved.
(iii) Wood working equipment are easily used on this material.

Disadvantages:

(i) From liquid to solid transformation it will not shrinkages but expands.

Uses:

(i) Used for core box preparation.

(ii) Small and complicated shape pattern preparation it is used.

(iii) Used for follow-board in moulding process.

 Metal Casting Processes 51

(e) Wax :

Wax pattern is used where very small quantity of job is to cast or where only one or two casting is prepared.

This material provide high degree of surface finish and dimensional accuracy to castings. After being moulded,
the wax pattern is not taken out of mould like other patterns, rather the mould is inverted and heated, the molten

wax comes out of the mould. Thus, there is no chance of the mould cavity getting damaged while removing the

pattern. Wax patterns are made in water cooled moulds or dies.

The most commonly used waxes are parafin wax, carnauba wax, shellac wax, bees wax, cerasin wax.
Wax patterns are excellent for the investment casting process. The following are advantages, disadvantages
and uses of wax patterns:

Advantages:

(i) Pattern is prepared easily and fast.

(ii) Pattern is taken out of mould, so draft allowance is not required.

(iii) Separate core or core box is not required.

(iv) Better surface finish is achieved.

(v) Complicated pattern is easily prepared and mould is not taken out so mould wall will not be affected.

Disadvantages:

(i) Single pattern is required for single casting, so for more production it is costly.

(ii) Not used in machine moulding process.

(iii) Very much care is required for handling because light in weight.

Uses:

Used in investment casting.

3.5.1 Selection of Pattern Material:

Selection of pattern material is also the important factor after studying the different pattern materials. The

following are the important points to be considered while selecting pattern material.

(i) The number of castings required.

(ii) Types of moulding process is used whether machine or hand moulding.

(iii) Size and shape of component to be cast.

(iv) Accuracy and surface finish required.

(v) Type of casting such as sand casting or investment casting.

(vi) Probability in design changing

(vii) Probability of repeat order.

(viii) Type of complication in manufacturing after casting.

When time is not available for preparation of casting pattern or only one or two components are to be casted
and volume is very large, the pattern is prepared from used materials or from rejected pattern material directly
used. Only change in allowance is required. So with this old casting, pattern used for new one and cost, time
is saved. This is generally not used for large quantity casting.
 $2
ManufacturingEngineering
3.5.2 Requirements of Pattern Material:

The following are the requirements for good pattern material :

(i) Required size and shape easily processed
(ii) Light in weight

(iii) High strength and longer life and resistance to wear, humidity or chemical process.

(iv) Dimension will not be changed due to heat and cold.

(v) Easily available and cheapest in cost.

(vi) Easily repairable.

(vii) Better surface finish can be achieved.

3.6 FUNCTIONS OF A PATTERN:

The following are the functions of pattern:

(i) Required size and shape cavity is prepared so while pouring metal in cavity the required dimension
components is achieved.

(ii) If hole is required in casting, core in mould is used. Adjustment in mould required for placing core
Core print is used for projection in core placing.
(iii) Parting surface and line is established by pattern in mould.

(iv) Special locating points are established by pattern in mould. These points are used for measurement of
casting, machining and surface location to each other.

(v) Minimum defects in casting depends on pattern.

(vi) Cost is minimised by proper pattern selection.

(vii) Better surface finish on casting.

3.7 TYPES OF PATTERN:

The types of pattern used depends upon the design of casting, complexity of shape, the number of castings
required, moulding process, surface finish and accuracy. All the above mentioned points are to be considered and
based on this different types of patterns are:

(1) Solid or single piece pattern

(2) Two piece pattern/split pattern

(3) Multipiece pattern

(4) Match plate pattern

(5) Gated pattern

(6) Skeleton pattern

(7) Sweep pattern

(8) Pattern with loose piece

(9) Cope and drag pattern

(10) Shell pattern

(11) Follow board pattern

(12) Boxed-up pattern

 Metal Casting Processes 53

3.7.1 Solid or Single Piece Pattern:

Solid pattern is made up without joints. The mould cavity of this pattern
is either in drag or in the cope. In this type the gating system, runners/
risers will be made manually. Therefore it is time consuming, single piece
pattern is generally used for large casting of simple shape, example staffing
box of stem engine, gland etc. Fig. 3.1 shows single piece pattern.

FIG. 3.1 SINGLE PIECE PATTERN

3.7.2 Two Piece/Split Pattern:

Many patterns cannot be made in a single piece because of difficulties encountered

in moulding operations (e.g. withdrawing the pattern from the mould) Suppose a
spherical pattern is to be made, it cannot be done in single picce pattern.
FIG. 3.2 TWO PIECE/ If the pattern is inserted in a cope or drag while withdrawing it, the cavity will
SPLIT PATTERN
become semi-sphere. Such objects can be cast with split pattern only.

The split patterns are basicaly made in two parts as shown in Fig. 3.2. The one part may produce the lower
part ofIcomponent and the other will be upper part of component. These are held in their proper relative positions
by means of dowel pins. Sometimes it is necessary to construct three or more parts of pattern instead of two
for complicated castings, the components like spindle, steam valve body, water valve and small pulleys etc. are
manufactured by using this pattern.

MOLDING SAND
3.7.3 Multipiece Pattern:

As discussed above in two part of split pattern that for COPE

complicated work-piece, more than two parts are used called :NNS
multipiece pattern. Under this pattern component is devided in three CHEEK

or four parts as shown in Fig. 3.3. This process is somewhat ALIGNING PIN

complicated then two parts because mould is prepared in two or

DRAG
more boxes.

MOLDING SAND-

(a) THREE-PART (b) THREE-PART MOLD

PATTERN

FIG. 3.3 THREE PIECE SPLIT PATTERN

3.7.4 Match Plate Pattern:

Patterns
Runner Match plate

IST
Hole for locating
FIG. 3.4 MATCH PLATE PATTERN

This pattern is used for small components which required better accuracy and in large quantity and also make

production process fast. Cope and drag parts of pattern are mounted along with the gating system on opposite
 54
Manufacturing Engineering
sides of wooden or metal plate. More than one plate is also attached on wooden plate. This is known as
match
pattern as shown in Fig. 3.4. This is used in machine moulding, it is economic and fast. Match plate can
be
manufactured from wood, steel, aluminium, magnesium etc.

Patterns
3.7.5 Gated Pattern:
Gate

In gated pattern, gates and riser for producing casting is

Runner
included in the pattern itself. The uses of gated patern eliminate
the time required to cut the gating system by hand. These are
suitable for small quantity production as shown in Fig. 3.5.

FIG. 3.5 GATED PATTERN

3.7.6 Skeleton Pattern:

For very large castings, the pattern would require a large amount of timber for full solid pattern. If the number
of castings required is small, it may not be economical to prepare solid pattern. In such cases, the pattern is
made of wood frame and rib construction so that it will form a partially outline of the castings. This framework
is called 'Skeleton'. Fig. 3.6 shows skeleton pattern which is used for big pipe, bend, boxes, valve body etc.

Strickle Board

RIB LOAM SAND

FIG. 3.6 SKELETON PATTERN

3.7.7 Sweep Pattern :

Big shape, size, symmetrical and round cross-section

Post components are made from sweep patttern. It is not a true pattern,
Sweep but a template made from wood or metal revolving around a
fixed axis in the mould, shapes the sand to the desired contour.
It is suitable for producing large or medium size by symmetrical
castings. Fig. 3.7 shows sweep pattern. In this process sweep
pattern is placed inside the green sand and by revolving a
required mould is prepared. This is time saving and economic
process.

Green sand

FIG. 3.7: SWEEP PATTERN

3.7.8 Pattern with loose pieces :

This kind of pattern is required when it is not possible to withdraw the pattern as such from the moulding
and. In this case main pattern is removed first and then the loose pieces. In these patterns, the projections or
 Metal Casting Processes 55

over hanging parts have to be fastened to the main

pattern by means of wooden dowel pins. When the LOOSE
PIECES
mould is made, such loose pieces remain in the mould
RAMMED
until main pattern is withdrawn. Then the loose pieces
PATTERN CORE MOULD
are taken out separately through the cavity formed by PRINTS CAVITY

the main pattern as shown in Fig. 3.8. -SAND-

FIG. 3.8 PATTERN WITH LOOSE

PIECE BEING MOULDED

3.7.9 Cope and Drag Pattern:

Cope in Locking A cope and drag is another form of split pattern. This
pains Drag in
position Locking
pattern is made up in two halves, which are mounted on
position
holes
different plates. In this case, cope and drag parts of the
mould are made separately and then assembled as shown
in Fig. 3.9. These are used for very large castings. In this
pattern both boxes are prepared by separate operator. So it
is economic and fast.

Cope pattern plate Drag pattern plate

FIG. 3.9 COPE AND DRAG PATTERN

3.7.10 Shell Pattern:

Generally this pattern is made from metal, it is hollow and in two parts. In
this the outer part is pattern and inner part is core or core boxes. To connect both
the parts the dowel and slots are provided, so it is accurately connected. This pattern
is useful in drainage fitting, pipes and bends. Fig. 3.10 shows shell pattern.

O
FIG. 3.10 SHELL PATTERN

3.7.11 Follow Board Pattern:

CORE PRINT
When thin cross section pattern is placed inside the sand and
pressure is applied on it under this situation the pattern may brake.
To prevent this kind of damage a follow board pattern is required
to support. Fig. 3.11 shows that a pattern is placed on follow board.
A mould box is filled with sand, box is accurately turned and follow
board is removed, this is known as follow board pattern.
FOLLOW

FIG. 3.11 A FOLLOW BOARD PATTERN

3.7.12 Boxed up Pattern:

Boxed up pattern is manufactured by joining small wood strips, nails, adhesive and screw etc. It is light
in weight because of inside portion is hollow. It is light in weight and economic. It is used for regular outline

and rectangular heavy components.

 56
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3.8 PATTERN ALLOWANCES:

A pattern differ from the casting in certain diamensions. When the pattern is prepared, certain allowances
are given on the sizes of casting. These are known as pattern allownaces. Dirrerent pattern allowances are as under
(a) Shrinkage allowance
(b) Machining allowance

(c) Draft allownace

(d) Distortion allowance

(e) Rapping allowance

3.8.1 Shrinkage Allowance (Contraction Allowance) :

Metals used in casting process will shrink during transformation from liquid to solid phase. To get accurate
dimensions the size of pattern is generally bigger than the actual product, this access allowance to accomodate
shrinkage in metal known as shrinkage allownace. Almost all metals used for casting shrinks or contract
valumetrically after solidification and cooling in the mould. Shrinkage is calculated in three ways: (i) liquid shrinkage
(ii) liquid to solid shrinkage (iii) solid at normal temperature shrinkage. First two can be avoided by providing
runner and riser in mould while last is by pattern allowances. Factors affecting shrinkage allowance are as under:

(a) Temperature during pouring of metal in mould

(b) Design of component and dimension

(c) Type of mould material

(d) Type of moulding

(e) Resistance of mould for metal shrinkage

(f) Type of metal and alloys.

All the above factors are to be considered for shrinkage allowance. Table-3.1 shows shrinkage allowance for
different metals.

Table-3.1 Shrinkage allowance for various metals

Sr. No. Metals/Alloys Shrinkage allowance (mm/m)

1. Gray cast iron 6.95 to 10.40

2. White cast iron 20.80

3. Meleable cast iron 10.40

4. Steel 20.80

5. Aluminium 17.00

6. Aluminium alloys 12.5 to 15.00

7. Brass 15.30

8. Bronz 10.4 to 20.80

9. Magnesium 17.00

10. Zink 24.00

It is important to note that metal shrinkage is in metal volume but shrinkage allowance is considered in lines.
Pattern makers use special measuring rules (shrinkage rule) that take account of different contraction that occur
when casting various metals. The rule have slightly larger divisions so that they measure over size.
Metal Casting Processes 57

3.8.2 Machining Allowance:

In sand casting the finishing obtained is generally poor, so machining operation is required on it which reduces
the dimensions of the component. The pattern size is bigger than the component size, this extra allowance provided
on component is known as machining allowance.
This allownace depends on casting metal, size and shape of the casting, method of machining and the degree
of finish required. Table-3.2 gives approximate machining allowances on pattern for various metals.
Table-3.2

Sr. No. Metal/ Alloy Machining allowance (mm) on surface

1. Cast iron:

(a) Medium castings 3.0

(b) Large castings 10.0

2. Cast steel:

(a) Medium castings 4.5

(b) Large castings 12.0

3. Non ferrous (Brass, Bronz, Aluminium) :

(a) Medium castings 1.5

5.0
(b) Large castings

3.8.3 Draft Allowance OR Taper Allowance : INTERNAL

PATTERN WITHDRAWING EXTERNAL
TAPER
TAPER
When a pattern is removed from the mould, there
is always some possibility of damaging (bearing of edges)
the edges of the mould around the pattern. This is greatly
reduced if the vertical surfaces of the pattern are tapered
slightly inward. This is known as 'draft'. The draft is
expressed in mm per meter on a side or in degrees.
FIG. 3.12 TAPER ALLOWANCE
Fig. 3.12 shows taper or draft allownace. The amount
of taper depends on (i) Method of moulding (ii) Shape and size of the pattern (iii) Moulding material. Generally
draft allowance is provided about 10 to 25 mm/meter externally vertical surface and 40 to 65 mm/ meter internally
vertical surface.

3.8.4 Distortion Allowance :

Some castings have a tendency to distort or warp

during cooling. This is the result of uneven shrinkage
due to uneven metal thickness or due to one surface

being more exposed than the other causing it to cool

more rapidly. To allow for this the shape of the pattern
is modified in such a way that it bends in opposite
direction of the distortation.

A 'U' shaped casting is an example of this feature.

Fig. 3.13 shows distortation allowance on cooling, the
legs diverging instead of parallel. To compensate for
this in the pattern, the legs are kept convergent so that
REQUIRED SHAPE DISTORTED CAMBERED
OF CASTING CASTING PATERN on cooling the legs become parallel. The distortion

FIG. 3.13 DISTORTION ALLOWANCE

allowance varies from 2 mm to 20 mm depending upon
the size of the casting.
Manufacturing Engineering-I/2023/8
 ManufacturingEngineeri
58

3.8.5 Rapping or Shaking Allowance :

Before drawing the pattern, the pattern is shaked or rapped for easy withdraw. By doing so, the
the mould is slightly increased in size, this causes the size of casting also to increase. In order to cavity
for this change, the pattern should be made initially smaller than the required size. compenda
In small and medium sized castings, this allowance can be ignored, but for large sized castings or

high precision is desired, rapping or shaking allowance is provided by making the pattern slightly
smaller
3.9 DRAWING AND COLOUR CODE FOR PATTERNS:

(a) Drawing for pattern/ pattern lay-out:

Different calculations are considered while preparing for pattern design or layout for the component..
drawing layout is prepared with following sequence of factors:

(i) Dimension of component, of which pattern is to be manufactured.

(ii) Prepare drawing sheet having two views, which known as working drawing.

(iii) Calculate shrinkage allowance and transfer it on working drawing or prepare layout with the
help
shrink rule.

(iv) Provide machining allowance if necessary.

(v) Provide draft allowance perpendicular to parting line as per moulding process.

With above points drawing layout is prepared and desired component is prepared.

(b) Colour code for pattern:

To identify different parts of pattern, different colour codes are used. Specific colour is given to core

There is not standardisation in colour code, it depends and vary as per industry. Generally used colour codes
are
(i) Black colour: Components surface where machining is not required.

(ii) Red colour Components surface where machining is required.

(iii) Yellow colour: Core print of pattern.

(iv) Red stripes on a yellow background: Seats for loose pieces of pattern
(v) Black stripes on a yellow background: Stop off

(vi) Clear or No colour: Parting surface of mould which separates in two parts.

Colour code on stop off are extra pieces and attached on thin pattern which increase strength. These piece
creates cavity in mould which removed by filling sand, which helps in minimizing distortion.

3.10 CORE AND CORE MAKING:

(A) Core:

Core is a part of mould or cavity. It is a mass of sand that is put into the mould to form holes, recesses
"undercut and interior cavity in the castings.

Core is a phototype of cavity required in the component. Core is separately prepared and arranged in the
mould and cavity is prepared. Core is made from sand. Molten metal is arround the core, then mould wall,
so special concentration is required while preparing core and it is made from specific sand. It is having
higher strength then simple mould. It is also made from plaster of paris or ceramics. For making core, corebox
is required.
 59
Metal Casting Processes
(B) Essential characteristics of cores :
Following are essential characteristics of core:
(1) The core should have sufficient strength to withstand the force of the molten metal.
(2) It should be highly preamble to allow gas to escape.
(3) The core should withstand high temperatures of the molten metal.

(4) It should have good collapsibility so that the core should be distinguished easily after solidification.
(5) It should not contraction or expand.
(6) Better surface finish.

(C) Types of core:

Core in different shape and size are used in mould as per design. If core is prepared from the mould sand
and is a part of main-pattern, then it is called 'Green Sand Core', but if core is prepared separately with help
of corebox and heated at required temperature and fitted in mould known as 'dry sand core'.

Classification of core is based on types of core and its position in mould, which is given below :

(1) Horizontal core

(2) Vertical core

(3) Balanced core

(4) Hanging core

(5) Drop core or stop off core Sand

Mould
(6) Ram up core
Core
(7) Kiss core

(1) Horizontal core: Parting Line

This is the most common and simplest type. This core is arranged
horizontally in mould. FIG. 3.14 HORIZONTAL CORE

Generally . 3.14. The ends

of the core rest roundin
cross-section
the seats coreprovided
areby
used.
the Itcore
is placed
print
Fig
of onthe
mouldpattern
.seats as shown in
Cope (2) Vertical core :
Parting
Line This core is positioned vertically inside the mould. It is a usual practice
Sand to have greater part of the core in the drag position of the mould. A seat
Drad
is prepared at the time of mould preparation. To make assembly simple and
Mould
easy the core seat is prepared with large taper, as shown in Fig. 3.15.

Core

FIG. 3.15 VERTICAL CORE

Mould
Core
(3) Balanced core:
Sand

When blind hole is required in component, balanced core is used.

Cope
A balanced core is one which is supported and balanced from its one
end only. Fig. 3.16 shows that seating of core having length which makes
Parting

cantilever end and balance other parts of mould. Chaplets are used to Line

support core. This is used when a casting does not required a thorough Drad

cavity, for supporting the core in the mould. FIG. 3.16 BALANCED CORE
 60 Manufacturing Engineeri
) Hanging or cover core: Core Sand

If the core hangs from the cope and does not have any
Cope
support at the bottom in the drag, it is called as hanging Parting
Line
core. Fig. 3.17 shows that core is hanged by wire or rod
in the cope box. If core is placed in drag box and mould
Mould
cavity is covered with this, then it is called cover core.
Drag
(A) (B)
Core Mould
FIG. 3.17 HANGING CORE

Cope

(5) Drop core or stop off core:

Parting
Line
When cavity in component is not on parting line but above or
the line, the above mentioned core is not used. Under this situation,
hclow
Drag
core as shown in Fig. 3.18 is used. Based on core shape, it is also stop
Sand as tail core, saddle core or chain core.
known

FIG. 3.18 DROP OR STOP-OFF CORE

Cope

(6) Ram up core:

Mould Parting
This core is fitted with the pattern in the sand and after that Line
raming is done on sand. After raming of mould the core does not Sand
Core
placed and used for special surface in internal or external faces of
Drag
component, as shown in Fig. 3.19.
FIG. 3.19 RAM-UP CORE
Cores Sand

(7) Kiss core:

Cope

Seat is not required to support this core. With the help 이

Parting
Line
cope box and drag box it positions in the box. It is used when
number of holes are required in components as shown in Fig. 3.20 (
Mould

Drag m

FIG. 3.20 KISS CORE is

3.10.1 Core Making or Core Preparation :

ex
It is necessary to study the core making after knowing its types and characteristics. Core making is devided PULI
in four parts as shown below :
CO

(A) Preparation of sand ha

bo
(B) Core moulding
is
(C) Core baking
Big

(D) Core finishing box

C
)
(

(A) Preparation of sand:

Core sand is a mixture of sand and binder. Sand is basically silica, with less than 5% clay. Grain size of
sand is very small. Type of sand depends on core dimension and metal pouring temperature. Round sand gives is

better result.
815
tem

Co
 61
Metal Casting Processes
Core binders:

Pure sand does not have natural bond so binders are added in sand so it makes tight bond with atoms. Binders
play following role:
(i) Makes bond with sand particles.
(ii) Improves strength of core
(iii) Resists abrasion

(iv) Gives durability to core

Binders are divided in two parts organic and inorganic binders.

Linseed oil, stratch, wheat powder, Dextrin, resin and peach are organic binder. Thermosetting plastics like
urca, phenol are also core binders. It is also available in the form of liquid and powder. At higher temperature
organic binders are burn with molten metal so it is having limited use.

Bentonite, silica flour, ferrous oxide and fireclay are inorganic binder. Bentonite and silica flour are used
maximum as a binder. They are available in fine powder and used in silica. At higher temperature inorganic binder
are not burn so it gives strength to core. Inorganic binders give better surface finish to core surface.

Core oil is now a days maximum used for core binder. Linseed oil, resin, mineral oil are used in core oil.
Core oil gives following advantages:

(i) Minimum time in preperation of mixture, so preparation of core is easy.

(ii) Core easily removed after casting from workpiece.
(iii) Strength of core is easily controlled at wet core and baked core.
(iv) Baked core are tough so it is easy to handle.

01 The above mentioned core binder and core oil is homogeneously mixed in mixture or roller. To improve
binding strength water is also used.

(B) Core moulding :

CORE
Making core from core sand is known as core moulding or core
making. Core making is done manually or by machine. Ramming
is done manually in core boxes and small core is prepared. Large
quantity are prepared on machine. Different core making machines
are used such as jolt machine, squeezing machine, sand slinger, core

extrusion machine, roll over machine, core blower, shell core CORE BOX

machine, etc. Core making by manually or machine uses different

core boxes such as dump box, split box, strickle box, right and left

hand box, gang box etc. Sand and binder feed is required in core
FIG. 3.21 CORE BOX AND CORE
box. With machine and manually it is rammed and compact form
is prepared. Soft and medium core is prepared with steel wire and reinforcement structure for better strength.
Bigger size and porous core is prepared with the help of asbestos for better strength. Fig. 3.21 shows simple
box and core.

(C) Core baking :

Generally baking is carried out in ovens equipped with drawers, shelves or other holding devices. The operation
is generally continuous and cores are put either in batches or continuously over moving shelves. Generally
temperature is around 150°C to 400°C. The heat in oven is produced by burning oil or coke or by electric resistance.
Core baking time depends upon the type and quantity of binder used, the amount of moisture in sand, and size
 62
ManufacturingEngineering
of core. When cores are baked, they are more easily supported on a flat surface which should be
in design. The temperature for baking generally depends on following points : incorporati
(i) Type of binder used in core sand
(ii) Dimension and size of core

(ii) Baking time

Metal plate or core plate is generally with number of holes so hot gas circulation is easy. Core is also
porous so during baking gas can easily come out from core, and internal part also baked. Following
oven
mad
used for core baking:

(1) Batch type oven

(2) Continuous type oven

(3). Dielectric baker

(1) Batch type oven: When requirement of core is in specific quantity, the batch type oven is used.Prepar
batch core is placed on portable rack or on dryer and baked in oven. Oil, coke or gas is used forburning
in batch type oven.

(2) Continuous type oven: When similar sized small and in mass quantity core is required, continuo
type oven is used. Here for loading of core inside the oven, conveyer or rail is used and passedslow
inside the oven and the other end unloading of core is taking place. Baking time for core is generall
maintained by controlling conveyor motion.

(3) Dielectric baker: For high quality and fast baking, this dielectric baker is used. Here temperature
4

properly controlled. Core is placed on cement bonded asbestos plate.

(D) Core finishing :

Before placing core inside the mould, finishing is required. Core finishing is done with following steps
(i) Cleaning (ii) Sizing (iii) Core assembly

(i) Cleaning: Baked core having unwanted fin, sand particle, and projection which are removed by brush
file or abrasive tool called cleaning. Coating is also done for protection against moisture. It also improve
surface finish. Fine sand or graphite or zircon is used for coating. It is applied by spray or merzing
components or with brush. Coating is also known as core dressing.

(ii) Sizing: To give accurate dimension as per design on core, different operation for sizing are carried
out such as file work, scraping or grinding. Template or gauge is used for accurate measurement.
(iii) Core assembly: If one or more than one core is required to join, it is called core assembly. Different
parts of core is joined by talk, dextrin, powder paste, with water. Small parts of core are also joined
by lead. Bigger core is joined by nut and bolt.

3.10.2 Carbon Dioxide Core (CO2 Core) :

This is different kind of core making process. In this mixture dry sand, sodium silicate are used. In this
process, core sand is rammed in core-box and carbon dioxide gas is passed through it. Chemical reaction takes
place with sodium silicate and carbon dioxide and makes silica gel, which joins silica partical strongly. It gives
following advantages:

(i) This is simple and fast.

(ii) Core baking is not required.

(iii) Core is stronger than prepared by other process.

(iv) Used for cast iron, steel, aluminium, copper alloy etc.
The major disadvantage is that it cannot be reused.
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Metal Casting Processes
3.11 MOULD MATERIAL:
Producing mould or cavity for the component with mould material. The following are main parts:
(a) Moulding sand
. (b) Moulding sand binders
(c) Water
(d) Additives

3.11.1 Moulding Sand:

Moulding sand is one of the most important material in production of sand casting. Sand is formed by breaking
up of rocks due to natural forces such as frost, wind, rain and action of water. The sources of moulding sand
are rivers, lakes, seashore, desert etc. This sands having natural impurities and also available in different colours
like yellow, brown, white and red. The following ingredients are available in moulding sand:
1. Silica: Around 90 to 95% silica in moulding sand. Silica having properties like refractorness, chemical
stability, porosity, permeability and thermal stability.
2. Clay Around less than micro diameter particle of silica known as clay, that becomes plastic when
water is added. Its purpose is to impart necessary bonding strength to the moulding sand so that the
mould does not loose its shape after ramming. Clay consists of flaked shaped particles about 20 micron
in diameter. The most popular clays are kaolite and bentonite. Kaolite has a melting point of 1750 to
1787° C and Bentonite has melting point of 1250 to 1300° C out of the two, bentonite can absorb more
water which increases its bonding power.

3. Moisture Moisture is also important parameter in moulding process. Around 2 to 8% water is added
to produce moisture. Moisture helps in creating homogeneous mixture and clay binding.

3.11.2 Types of Moulding Sand:

Classification of moulding sand is given below:

(a) Natural sand

(b) Synthetic sand

(c) Special sand

According to use, sand is classified as :

(1) Green sand (5) Parting sand
(2) Dry sand (6) System sand
(3) Loam sand (7) Core sand

(4) Facing sand (8) Backing sand

3.11.3 Description of Different Types of Sands:

1. Natural sand:

Natural sand is collected from the river beds or it is dug from pits. Natural sand contains sufficient amount
of binding material (clay) in it so that it can be used directly. It is economic and easily available. It is used
for ferrous and nonferrous metal components mould.

2. Synthetic sand:

Synthetic sands are basically clay free high silica sands. They are mixed with desired amount o
(3-5% bentonites) and water to develop required moulding properties. It is used for steel castings. It is having
better refractoriness and permeability.
 64
ManufacturingEngineering
3. Special sand :

If special properties required in mould, special sand is used. Zircon, alivin, camat, cromite, cromemagneti
are special sand. Zircon sand is for brass and bronz metals core. Alivin is used for nonferrous intricate
Camat is for heavy castings, cromite and chrome magnesite is used for chilling and shade, it is fast and
shape
solidification. It is also used as pressing sand for steel casting mould.
controls
4. Green sand:

Foundry sand containing moisture is known as green sand. Green refers to the moisture content, it is a

of silica sand with 20 to 30% clay and water from 6 - 8%. This is suitable for moulding purpose without
mixture
any
further conditioning. Green sand is generally used for casting small or medium sized moulds, it is having
low
refractoriness so at higher temperature it is not feasible to use.

5. Dry sand:

Sand free from moisture is called dry sand. It possess greater strength than green sand and can be
used
for making larger castings. Binders like resin, peach or bentonite is used.

6. Loam sand:

Loam sand is a mixture of sand and clay (50%). It is composition of fine sand, refractory materials
powder,
granite and resin. It is used for making large castings such as large cylinders, paper rolls, it is also known
as
loam sand mould. It is used for sween and skeleton pattern.

7. Facing sand:

It forms the face of the mould and is in contact with the molten metal 25% of coal dust or granite is used
to prevent the metal from burning into the sand. It may have the thickness of 20 to 30 mm. It posses sufficient
strength and refractoriness. Use of this sand reduces mould material cost.

8. Parting sand :

Parting sand is sprinkled over the rammed drag to avoid the sticking of drag with cope. Similarly it is sprinkled

over the pattern to avoid its sticking to the green sand. Powder free from clay is used for this purpose. Very
fine brick powder can be used as parting sand.

9. System sand:

It is used for machine moulding in mechanised foundry. While using this sand for mould, facing sand is
not necessary to use. One time used sand is cleaned, and with applying some processes on it and reused with

water and binder. It gives strength, refractoriness and porosity.

10. Core sand:

Sand used for making core is core sand. It makes contact with molten metal so it should have strength and
durability. To get required properties in core the following are added: linsead oil, dextrin, bentonite, core coil.

Core sand should give better surface finish to casting surface.

11. Backing sand :

It is the sand which backs up the facing sand and to fill the rest of flask, it is the floor sand which is
already used. This is also known as black sand. Before using this sand it required to clean. By using this the
cost can be minimized.
 65
Metal Casting Processes
3.11.4 Grain Shape and Size of Sand:
Shape and size of sand grain is important for moulding process. According to the size and shape uses of
different foundry is decided. Details are as under :

1. Grain shape of sand :

Grain shape of sand is classified as under:

(a) Rounded (c) Angular (b) Sub-angular (d) Compound

(a) Rounded shape: Grains having less surface contact, it gives porous structure so, provides minimum
strength.

(b) Sub-angular Compare to round shape it provides law porosity in structure and increases strength.

(c) Angular Grains having definite edge and flat surface. It is having low flowability. Minimum porous
structure because edges are sharp and provides maximum strength.

(d) Compound These are the combination of above three, or mixture of three. They are cemented with
each other and cannot be separated out. At high temperature they deform so limited use and application
of this grain.

Fig. 3.22 shows different grain shape of sand.

COMPOUNDED ANGULAR SUB-ANGULAR ROUNDED

FIG. 3.22 TYPES OF SAND GRAINS

2.
Grain size of sand:

Grain size of sand is divided in three catagories: (a) Fine size (b) Medium size (c) Course size.

Small and complicated castings uses fine grain size. With fine grain sand complicated and intricuted cavity/
mould can be easily prepared and better surface finish achieved. It also minimize porosity. Medium size grain
used for bench work or floor work, while course size used for bigger castings. Increasing in grain size increases
the porosity in mould.

Grains are separated by sieve analysis.

3.11.5 Properties of Moulding Sand:

The following are the properties of sand :

1. Refractoriness:

The capability of the moulding sand to withstand the high temperatures of the molten metal without fusing
is known as refractoriness.

Refractoriness depends on silica in sand, increasing in silica increases refractoriness. Sinter point is used to
measure refractoriness.

ManufacturingEngineering-1/2023/9
 66
ManufacturingEngineering
2.
Porosity or Permeability
:

Molten metal always contains a certain amount of dissolved gases which are evolved when the metalsolidific
also when the molten metal comes in contact with the moisture sand, generates steam and water vapour. If
gases and water vapour do not find passage to escape completely through the mould they will form gas these
holes
and pores in the casting. The ability of the sand to allow the gas to pass through it is called 'permeability'
1.
depends on size and shape of grains, moisture content and degree of ramming.

3. Plasticity or Flowability:

This refers to the ability of the moulding sand to acquire a predetermined shape under pressure and
retain
the same when the pressure is removed. This will increase with increase in clay moisture content.
4. Cohesiveness or Strength :

Cohesiveness is the ability of sand particles to stick to each other. Lack of this property would result
In
breaking of the mould when molton metal is poured. This depends on grain size (decreases with grain size).and
clay content (increase with clay) of sand.

5. Adhesiveness:

The property to adhere with other materials is adhesiveness. Moulding sand particles should stick to the surface
of the moulding boxes. This enables the mould to retain in a box during handling.

6. Collapsibility:

It is the property of the moulding sand that permits it to collapse (break) easily during its knockout from
the casting.

7. Co-efficient of expansion :

Moulding sand should possess low coefficient expansion.

8. Chemical resistivity:

The moulding sand should not react chemically with the molten metal, otherwise the shape of casting will
be distorted and smooth surface will not be obtained.

3.11.6 Binders Used in Moulding Sand:

To get desired properties of mould sand different other components/ ingredients are also added such as:
bentonite, wheat powder, peach, oil, wood dust etc. The major components in mould is silica, clay and water
and the other added components work as binders. The following are discussed in detail :

(1) Bentonite: It is a special sand and works as binder. It is generally used for facing and core sand.
It improves cohesiveness.

(2) Wheat powder: By adding this powder strength of mould is increased. Around 0.25 to 2% are added
to moulding sand.

(3) Peach It is byproduct of cock. It improves refractoriness. It also improves surface finish. Generally
it is around 2% in moulding sand.

(4) Fuel oil: Sometimes oil is used instead of water and humidity of sand is decreased and makes moulding
•

process easy. Around 0.01 to 0.1% is required in sand.

(5) Wood dust: Wood dust is used when hot metal poured into mould, so this dust burns and gives porous
structure to mould and hot gases passes through it. It will not distore mould so it is used in moulding sand.
(6) Ferrous oxide: It improves strength at higher temperature. Generally 0.25 to 1% is added in sand.
 67
Metal Casting Processes

(7) Sugarcane Juice: It improves strength of mould, generally used in dry sand.
(8) Perlite This binder having insulating property. It withstand at high temperature. It is aluminium silicate.
Generally 0.25 to 0.5% is required.

(9) Dextrin: It increases dry sand mould strength. It is available from starch and acid and used as a binder
in mould sand and core sand. It is about 0.5 to 2.5% in moulding sand.

The other binders like linseed oil, serial resin (organic binder) and fireclay, kaolonite, sodium silicate, portland
cement etc.

The above binders improve properties of mould like adhesiveness, strength, colapsibility, etc. Anyhow these
binders does not withstand at high temperature. It provides less porous structure to mould.

3.12 METAL FURNACES:

3.12.1 Introduction :

After moulding, the molten metal is poured into the mould to get the casting. Various types of melting furnaces
are available for the melting purposes. Different metals or alloys are having different melting point. So different
furnaces are required. The selection of furnace is depend on below mentioned criteria:

(1) Type of pouring metal and its melting point.

(2) Quantity required

(3) Percentage of purity required

(4) Type of pouring

(5) Maximum temperature

(6) Investment cost of furnace, repair cost and maintenance cost.

(7) Type of fuel used in furnace and also whether it is available.

3.12.2 Different Types of Furnaces:

The following are the furnace used for melting metals :

(A) Crusible furnace
(1) Coke fired pit furnace
(2) Stationary gas or oil fired crusible furnace
(3) Crusible furnace of tilting type

(B) Pot furnace

(C) Rotary furnace
(D) Electric furnace
(1) Direct arc furnace
(2) Indirect arc furnace

(3) Induction furnace

(E) Cupola furnace

3.12.3 Working of Various Types of Furnace :

(A) Crusible furnace :

It is used for small jobs. Crusible is used in this type of furnace. Melting is done in crusible for metal.
Crusible is made from Granite, silicon carbide like refracting material. Coke, oil or gas is used to heat crusible
 68
Manufacturing Engineering
as a fuel. Different types of crusible are available. The size of crusible is measured from 1 to 400 unit and
this
unit is used to identify the quantity or capacity of crusible. This is used for ferrous and non-ferrous material
The following are advantages of crusible :
(i) It is economic and initial cost is low.

(ii) Easty to operate

(iii) Low cost fuel can be used.

Different types of crusible furnace are discussed here.

(1) Coke fired pit furnace :
Chimney
As the name implies, it is constructed in a Fire Brick LID
Lining
pit dug in the ground. In this furnace coke is used
as a fuel. The coke bed is formed, ignited and Concrete
allowed to burn. Now coke from the centre of the Steel
Crucible
PIT to Help Shell
coke bed is removed and crusible with lid Removing
Ashes Natural OR Coke Bed

containing the metal charge is placed. Coke is again Forced Draft

added surrounding the crusible, when the metal

reaches at the desired temperature. FIG. 3.23 PIT FURNACE

The crusible is lifted out with tongs and the metal is transferred to the mould. Fig. 3.23 shows coke
fired pit furnace. It is used for cast iron, nonferrous metal and alloys. It is not costly and with low maintenance.

TO (2) Stationary gas or oil fired crusible furnace :

ATMOSPHERE COVER
In this furnace as a fuel, gas or oil is used. Crusible
is placed inside the furnace as shown in Fig. 3.24 and with
REFRACTORY oil or gas it is heated at definite temperature and metal is
LINING-
melt. Application is similar to coke fired pit furnace.

CRUCIBLE

GAS & AIR

-
☑ PAD

HAND WHEEL

FIG. 3.24 GAS FIRED CRUCIBLE FURNACE

(3) Crusible furnace of tilting type: FUEL

As compared to stationary furnaces, tilting type furnaces

are preferred where large amounts of metal are melted. In
tilting furnace, crusible is permanently cemented in place. The
furnace made of sheet metal is lined with refractory (fire
brick). It is mounted on two pedestals and is tilted with a
geared hand wheel or power. Oil or gas is used as fuel in
the furnace. Combustion air is supplied by blower. Fig. 3.25
FIG. 3.25 TILTING FURNACE
shows the tilting furnace. The application of this furnace is
upto 50 kg to 1500 kg metal and used for aluminium, copper and mangenise. It is fast and economic and
emperature is maintained homogeneously.
 69
Metal Casting Processes
(B) Pot furnace :
In this furnace the pot is made from cast iron or steel. A metal is placed
inside the pot and heat is applied to its surround with gas as oil firing. Fig.
3.26 shows that the Rim is placed on the top of pot to support it with furnace
and closed. In this furnace the developed smoke will not come in contact with
molten metal, so impurities are minimum or less.

In this furnace the metals like Aluminium, Tin, Magnesium, Lead, Zink and
Cadmium are melted.

FURNACE FIG. 3.26 POT FURNACE

BURNER OIL

(C) Rotary furnace :

This furnace is cylindrical in shape and

AIR
rotate horizontally with its axis. Two ends are

conical in shape. Here oil or gas is used as a

MOTOR
fuel. As per requirement electric motor can also
ROLLER
be used. It is bigger than crusible furnace. The
GEARS
capacity is around 500 kg to 2000 kg metal can

ELE.
be melt. Fig. 3.27 shows that one end is heated
SUPPLY
with fuel, the generated heat melts the metal and
FIG. 3.27 ROTARY FURNACE
due to burning, gas is generated which comes out
from second end. Entire furnace is placed on roller which rolls with electric motor and gear mechanism.

The furnace is rotating, so homogenous mixture is possible to achieve. The time required compare to Cupola
is minimum. It is also easy in loading and unloading of metal.

D) Electric furnace
(:

Elactric furnace is now-a-days widely used. As compared to other furnace the following advantages are
achieved:

(1) Purity in molten metal is maximum.

(2) Temperature control in furnace is maintained.

Some limitations are also there,

3 Phase
which are it is not used where power
E Electrode
electricity is rare or irregular. Cost of supply

Steel shell
electricity increases the cost of furnace.
The metals like steel, steel alloy, Slag
Upright position
cast iron, tool steel, aluminium alloy Charging Spout Furnace in
door
etc. are melt. tilted position
Molten metal
(1) Direct arc furnace :
Tapping of Metal
Three phase direct arc furnace
is the most popular one for

melting steel in the foundary. In PIT

operation, scrap steel is placed on

Ladle
the hearth of the furnace. An arc

is drawn between the electrodes

FIG. 3.28 DIRECT ARC FURNACE
and the surface of the metal
 70
Manufacturing Engineering
change by lowering the electrodes down till the current jumps. Slug is maintained on the molten metal
reduce oxidation. Before pouring the liquid metal into the ladle, the furnace is tilted back and the w

removed from the charging doors. Now the furnace is tilted forward to pour the molten metal into the
slagis
ladle
Fig. 3.28 shows the schematic diagram of direct arc furnace. The capacity of this furnace is 50
Lonns
(upto). Purity of metal and temperature is maintained easily. The initial investment is higher and due,
electricity consumption, it is costly.
Arc
Charging
(2) Indirect are furnace : Steel shell
door

Power-
Refractorylining
As shown in Fig. 3.29 it is a single-phase electric
lead
furnace. This differs from the direct arc furnace that the
Pouring Electrode
electrodes do not come in contact with the molten metal, Spout
Molten Roller
but form an arc above the molten metal. The furnace is
metal
To rocking
mounted on rollers which is driven by rocking unit to rock unit
the furnace back and forth during melting. While the furnace
FIG. 3.29 AN INDIRECT ARC FURNACE
rocks, liquid metal passes over the heated refractory linings
and absorb heat from them. Thus the charge is heated by radiation from the arc and conduction from the
lining. This furnace is generally useful for non-ferrous metal.

CRUCIBLE
(3) Induction furnace:
MOLTEN METAL-

- TRANSIT SHELL In this furnace the metal is melt due to electric current which
INDUCTION
.

passing
As Current
through
shown
is in Fig
the metal.
.
passed
3.30
athrough
Herethis
copper
crucible
crusible
metal
coil
. coil
is
This
chargecoil
arranged
is given
worksarotuontdheprimary
like
COIL

.
-INSULATION
coil
of transformer. Due to this, electric current is developed inside the
crucible. This coil works like secondary coil of transformer. Due to
WATER. POWER

high resistance it will take around 50 to 90 minitues for melting of

FIG. 3.30 INDUCTION FURNACE
metal. Insulation is provided between crucible and copper coil.
In this furnace the frequency of electric current is 1000 per second. This electric current gives vibration
and makes homogenous mixture. The temperature control of the furnace is easy. The cost, compare to other
are furnace is minimum. Here around 25 tones metal can be melt.

Initial cost is higher and purity of molten metal is not carried out in this furnace. It is basically used
for ferrous and non-ferrous metal.

(E) Cupola furnace :

This furnace is widely used for cast-iron. It is widely used and very old accepted furnace. The construction
detail and working of this furnace is discussed as under :

(1) Furnace construction:

Fig. 3.31 shows cupola furnace. The cupola is a cylinder type furnace for producing molten cast iron.
It is a vertical cylindrical shell made of 6 to 12 mm thick steel plate riveted and lined inside with acid
refractory bricks. Diameter varies from to 2 metres. Height is 3 to 5 meters. The whole shell is mounted
1

on brickwork foundation or on steel columns. The bottom of the cupola is provided with drop bottom door,
through which debris consists of slag, coke etc. can be removed at the end of melt. Towards the top of the
furnace, there is an opening (charging door) through which the change is fed. Air for combustion is blown
through the tuyeres located at a height of 0.6 to 1.2 meters above the bottom of the furnace.

The cone shape spark arrester is provided at top of the furnace which discard gases developed in the
furnace and keeps spark and dust inside the furnace.
 71
Metal Casting Processes

SPARK
ARRESTER

Hii0
REFRACTORY
LINING
SHELL
STACK

CHARGING DOOR

CHARGING

:
0
:0
PLATFORM

:0
PREHEATING
:0
METAL
0 :0 :0
:
H ZONE
CHARGES

COKE CHARGE
: 0:

MELTING ZONE
COKE BED
REDUCING ZONE
0 :0

BLAST PIPE

CUMBUSTIONZONE
WIND BELT

TUYERE
TAP
WELL
SLAG SPOUT - HOLE

TAPPERED
SAND BOTTOM
SPOUT

PROP LEG

FIG. 3.31 A CROSS-SECTION THROUGH A CUPOLA

(2) Cupola furnace operations :

Furnace operations are discussed in detail as under :

(i) Preparation of Cupola :

For first time preparation of cupola a acidic refractory fire bricks lining is patch. After each previous
heat, the slag and residue are cleaned. As soon as the patching of the lining, the bottom doors are raised

and held in position by metal props. The sand bottom is made such that it slopes towards the tap hole.
(ii) Lightening the Cupola :

Small pieces of wood are ignited on the sand bottom when the wood burns in well, coke is added.
Air necessary for coke combustion from tuyeres. Coke is added until the desired height is reached. Instead

of placing wooden pieces, the initial coke may be ignited by gas burner or electric spark igniters.
(iii) Charging of Cupola :

After coke bed is properly ignited, coke and pig iron are charged in alternative layers until the
cupola is full from charging door.

In addition of iron and coke, a certain amount of limestone is added to the first metal charge. Besides
lime stone fluorspar (CaF2) and soda ash (Na2CO3) also used as fluxing material. A flux removes the
impurities in the iron and protects the iron from oxidation. Limestone reduces the melting point of the
slag which increases fludity, and it is about 20%.
 72 Manufacturing Engineering
(iv) Melting :

After charging cupola it will take half an hour to heat metal. This is known as soaking
During this period blower is not operated. During this period metal layer temperature reaches to
period
point, and then after blower is operated and within few minutes metal becomes liquid form and melting
10 to 15 minutes molten metal collected at bottom.
aller
(v) Slagging and metal tapping :

Molten metal in melting process is collected at the bottom. When sufficient metal is collected,
the
slag hole is opened and the slag is run off. Then the tape hole is opened. Molten metal iscollected
in ladles and carried to moulds for pouring. This process is carried out repeatedly till entire
molten
metal is taken out. This process is done for 4 to 16 hours. The furnace works upto 5 days to getrequired
molten metal.

(vi) Closing the Cupola :

After molten metal is carried out from cupola it is required to close. The brick linings affected
due to continuously use of cupola so maintenance is required. The blower is also closed. The probe
is removed and bottom door is opened so dust, slag, burn metal parts, and coke comes out.

3.12.4 Zones of Cupola :

Fig. 3.31 shows different zone of cupola, which are discussed below:

1. Crusible zone :

It is between the top of the sand and the bottom of the tuyeres. The molten metal comes here. This zone
is also known as well.

2. Combustion zone :

This zone is located above the tuyeres where the combustion of the fuel takes place by oxygen of the air
blast and produces lot of heat in cupola. This heat is transferred to other part of furnace. Silicon and Manganese
oxidation develops heat and the temperature is arround 1540°C to 1870°C. The chemical process is :

C+O, CO₂+ Heat

Si + O2 →SiO2 + Heat
2MnO22MnO + Heat
3.
Reducing:
zone

This zone extends from the top of the combustion zone to the top of the coke bed. CO₂ produced in combustion
zone comes is contact with hot coke and is reduced to CO. In this zone iron and other elements are protected

from oxidizing influence. The chemical process is :

CO₂+C (coke) → 2 CO - Heat

4. Melting zone :

It is the first layer of iron above the coke bed. The temperature in this zone is as high as 1700° C. Iron
is melted in this zone. The chemical process is :

3 Fe + 2CO→→ Fe,C+ CO₂

Molten metal in this zone is collected in well through coke bed.

5. Preheating zone :

It is located above melting zone to the charging door. Iron and coke are preheated in this zone. The temperature
is around 1100° C.
 73
Metal Casting Processes

6. Stack zone :

Carrier gases from preheating zone to atmosphere.

3.12.5 Advantages and Limitations of Cupola Furnace :

Advantages:

(1) Simple design and easy construction.

(2) Initial cost is low compared to other.

(3) Maintenance is easy and economic.

(4) Operation cost is low.
(5) Less space is required compare to other.
(6) Run for long time.
Limitations:

(1) Metal purity cannot be maintained.

(2) Temperature is difficult to control.

3.12.6 Efficiency of Cupola :

The cupola efficiency is identified by this ratio :

Heat used in preheating, melting, and super.heating × 100

Coke heat + heat developed due to oxidation of Fe, Silicon and Manganese + Heat in air

3.12.7 Various Ingredients Used in Cupola :

Pig iron is main charge in cupola, with pig iron, iron waste, foundary waste, and scrap are used during melting
and chemical process in the furnace. The different ingredients such as carbon, silicon, manganese, sulphur and
phosphorus are added to pure the metal.
3.13 EQUIPMENTS USED TO PREPARE MOULD :

The equipment for making mould is devided in two parts:

(1) Hand tools

(2) Mould boxes.

3.13.1 Hand Tools:

The following are hand tools for making mould :

1. Shovel: It is used for mixing and tempering of 2. Riddle It is also called sieve or screen, used to
moulding sand and for moving the sand from pile remove bits of metal and foreign particles from the

to flask. Fig. 3.32 shows shovel used in foundry. moulding sand. Fig. 3.33 shows hand riddle. The
size of the opening in the mesh indicates the size
of the riddle.

FIG. 3.32 A SHOVEL

FIG. 3.33 A HAND RIDDLE

Manufacturing Engineering-1/2023/10
 Manufacturing Engineering
74

3. Rammers: Used to pack the sand evenly in the

mould and for ramming into corners.

(a) Peen rammer :

Fig. 3.34 shows peen rammer having wedge

shape at the end of metal rod, used to pack sand.

FIG. 3.37 TROWELS

7. SlickThey are spoon shaped trowels

used
repairing or slicking (smoothing) a mould
They may be leaf shaped but are generally surface
as shown in Fig. 3.38. point

FIG. 3.38 A HEART AND SPOON SLICK

(a) PEEN RAMMER (b) HAND RAMMER (c) FLOOR RAMMER

8. Lifters They are long, narrow tools with
FIG. 3.34
hooke
ends used for finishing work, for repair work,
(b) Hand Rammer: It is made of wood and
resembles a handless mallet with one end flat
removing loose sand which has fallen to thebottom
of the mould as shown in Fig. 3.39.
and the other a blunt wedge.

(c) Floor Rammer: Rammer having peen shape

at one end and at other end flat shape, and
joined with long steel rod. It is heavy compare SIMPLE LIFTER

to first two and used for big pattern.

4. Strike off bar: Used for removing excess sand

A YANKEE LIFTER
from the mould box. It is long strip or bar having
FIG. 3.39
fine surface finish with one edge bevelled. Mostly
wood is used as shown in Fig. 3.35. 9. Draw spike or Draw screw: Which are used
remove the pattern from the mould and also
rapping as showin in Fig. 3.40.
FIG. 3.35 A STRIKE OFF BAR

5. Vent Rod: It is a long steel rod having wood handle

at one end and other end having sharp edge as
shown in Fig. 3.36. It is used to create vent in the
sand mould to allow the exit of gases and steam
during casting at the time of pouring of metal inside
the mould.
FIG. 3.40 DRAW SPIKE

10. Mallet: It is used to loosen the pattern in the

FIG. 3.36 VENT ROD
mould. So that it can be withdrawn without damage
to the mould. It is also used to fit draw spike in
6.
Trowel It is used to shape and smoothen the
the pattern as shown in Fig. 3.41. It is made of wood
surface of the mould and for doing minor repairs.
These are made of steel and are relatively long and
narrow. The end of a trowel may be pointed,
rounded or blunt as shown in Fig. 3.37. FIG. 3.41 MALLET
Metal Casting Processes 75

11. Swab: It made of flax or hemp and is used for 13. Gate cutter: It is a piece of sheet metal used to
applying water to the mould around the edge of the cut the opening that connects the sprue with the
prevents the sand edges from mould cavity. This opening is called a gate.
pattern. This
crumbling when the pattern is removed from the
mould.

B
FIG. 3.44 GATE CUTTER

14. Bellow It is used to remove dust from mould

cavity. It is hand operated.
FIG. 3.42 SWAB

12. Sprue Pin: It is conical shape pin. It is placed inside

་་
the mould and molten metal is poured after removing UKC

it from mould. A hole is prepared by sprue pin is FIG. 3.45 BELLOW

known as runner. Fig. 3.43 shows sprue pin.
15. Clamps These are used to hold the cope and drag
of the completed mould together so that the cope
may not float or rise when the metal is poured into
the mould.

FIG. 3.43 SPRUE PIN

FIG. 3.46 CLAMPS

3.13.2 Mould Boxes :

The main function of mould box is to support mould and provide required strength to mould. It is required
because when metal is poured inside the cavity and this liquid form becomes solid form so it maintain the shape
due to strength. Generally two boxes are required for preparing mould. Dowel is used to arrange these two boxes.

Upper box known as cope and lower box known as drag. If mould is prepared in three box then middle box
known as cheek. These boxes core prepared from wood or steel sheet. Big casting uses steel and small casting
uses wood as a mould box material. Wood is a cheaper material.

Basically there are two types of mould box:

(1) Snap Flask

(2) Box Flask

(1) Snap Flask :

It is also known as open flask. In this box one corner is hinged and lock on opposite corner. So box can
be easily opened and separated from mould. It is fast. Fig. 3.47 shows snap flask.
 76 Manufacturing Engineer

COPE

DRAG

FIG. 3.47 SNAP FLASK

FIG. 3.48 BOX FLASK

(2) Box Flask :

After making mould, the metal is poured till it becomes solid. Box flask is not separated from mould.
used for small components. Fig. 3.48 shows box flask. Generally
3.14 GATING SYSTEM:

It is a passage prepared for the pouring of metal inside the mould, made after removing the pattern
moulding box. from
3.14.1 Components of gating system:

Fig. 3.49 shows different components of gating system and it is divided into main parts as under.

(a) Pouring basin

POURING CUP
(b) Sprue
SPRUE RISER-

(c) Runner

(d) Gate

(e) Riser GATE CASTING

SPRUE
BASE
GATE
(a) Pouring basin :

GATE
It is used to pour metal inside the mould. Molten metal required for
RUNNER-
casting is poured in pouring basin. Pouring basin is cone shape in nature.

It helps to flow molten metal towards sprue with uniform velocity. FIG. 3.49 COMPONENTS
OF GATING SYSTEM
(b) Sprue :

Sprue force the metal towards runner. The sprue cross-section may be circular, square or rectangular. It also
resist unwanted ingredients to move inside the cavity.

(c) Runner:

Runner is placed between sprue and gate. It makes easy flow of metal.

(d) Gate:

A part which joins runner and mould cavity, known as gate, from this metal enters to mould cavity.

(e) Riser :

Riser is a hole cut or moulded in the cope to permit the molten metal to rise above the highest point in
the casting. It provides a visual check to ensure filling up the mould cavity. Gas developed inside the cavity comes
out from riser, and defects can be minimised.
 77
Metal Casting Processes
3.14.2 Functions of Gating System :
The following are the functions of gating system:

(1) Gatting system helps to smoothen flow of molten metal inside the cavity without turbulence, so mould
erosion is not possible.

(2) It prevents from metal oxidation and other defects, by making proper arrangement so metal flow will
not mix with air.

(3) It resists to flow slag and other impurities to enter in cavity.

(4) It develops temperature gradient so directional solidification is achieved.

(5) Helps in proper filling of metal inside cavity.

(6) Proper design minimise cost and makes process easy.

3.14.3 Types of Gates:

Main three types of gates as under :

(a) Parting gate

(b) Top gate

(c) Bottom gate

(a) Parting gate:

In the parting gate, the metal enters the mould cavity of the same level as the mould joint or parting line,
as shown in Fig. 3.50(a). The sprue is connected to the casting through a gate in a horizontal direction. It is
thus possible to provide skimbob or skimgate to trap any slag or sand in the metal. The choke serving as a restriction
controls the rate of flow.

POURING CUP
SPRUE CUP SKIM BOB
CUP STRAINER CORE
SPRUE GATE (IN-GATE) SPRUE

CASTING

CASTING

(a) PARTING GATE (b) TOP GATE

HORN SPRUE CHOKE

CASTING

(c) BOTTOM GATE

FIG. 3.50 THE THREE MAIN TYPES OF GATES FOR MOLDS

Advantages Parting gate is easy and fast to manufacture which is used for low height mould box. In this

system hot metal moves towards riser so better directional flow is posible. It is easy in separate from casting
and reduces cleaning cost.
 78
Manufacturing Engineerin
Disadvantages: It develops turbulance, if the component drag box height is higher and metal flows
gate to bottom, and due to this, mould cavity deteriorate and components becomes defective. from
(b) Top gate :

Top gates are usually limited to small and simple mould or larger castings made in moulds of erosion
material. In this gate the molten metal is poured down the head or riser. To get continuous flow, strainer resistant
is provided in pouring besin, as shown in Fig. 3.50(b). As per casting size and requirement pensile gate, Cote
gate, wedge gate or ring gate are used. finger
Advantages: In this gate hot metal remains at top and thus proper temperature gradients are
for directional solidification towards the riser. The top gate may be made to serve as riser, so cost and time
established
minimised. 4

Disadvantages: Top gating is not advisable for light and oxidisable metals like aluminium and magnesium
because of fear of entrupment due to turbulent pouring.

(c) Bottom gate:

In the bottam gating system, the molten metal flows down the bottom of the mould cavity in the dragand
enters at the bottom of the casting and rises gently in the mould and around the cores. To make easy flow
or
metal, horn sprue is used as shown in Fig. 3.50(c).

Advantages: Bottom gates are best suited for large sized steel castings. Metal erosion and turbulance |
pouring
is not possible. Metal poured from bottom so core will not be affected.

Disadvantages: Directional solidification is difficult to achieve because the metal continues to loss its hea
into the mould cavity and when it reaches the riser, metal becomes much cooler.
RUNNER

From above disadvantage, a little modification is made by using side gate as

shown in Fig. 3.51. In large and higher depth casting metal enters from bottom
and reaches to up so it fills cavity and gets place for new molten metal. CASTING

-GATES

FIG. 3.51 SIDE GATING

3.14.4 Gating Ratio :

Gating ratio is defined as the ratio of sprue cross section area to total runner cross section area to total gale

cross section area. In this system, the proportions of sprue, runner and gate cross-sectional area are so arranged
that the back pressure is maintained on the gating system by a fluid film restriction at the gates. The sprue cross-
section is 1 sq. cm., runner cross-section is 3 sq. cm and ingate (gate) cross-section also 3 sq. cm. so the gating
ratio is 1:33.

From gating ratio it can be identified the pressurised or non-pressurised system.

3.15 CLASSIFICATION OF MOULDING PROCESS:

Pattern is placed inside the moulding box and filled by sand and cavity is made after removing the pattern
which is called mould. Molten metal is poured inside the cavity and casting is prepared.
Making of mould is called as moulding process.
(A) Generally moulding process is classified in two ways, these are :

(1) Hand moulding

(2) Machine moulding

Metal Casting Processes 79

Hand moulding is used for small components by hand tools. Machine moulding is used for bigger size and
large quantity, with the help of different moulding machine.
(B) Moulding process classified based on moulding materials :
(1) Green sand moulding

(2) Dry sand moulding

(3) Dry skin sand moulding

(4) Loam moulding

(5) Plaster moulding

(6) CO₂ moulding

(C) Moulding process is also classified based on moulding method :

(1) Bench moulding

(2) Floor moulding

(3) Pit moulding

(4) Sweep moulding

(5) Plate moulding

3.16 DESCRIPTION OF MOULDING PROCESSES:

(1) Green sand mould:

The green sand is the sand with moisture only. It is the simplest of all the moulding sand as no other binding

material is mixed. If the mould is filled with green sand, the method is known as 'green sand moulding'. In this baking
is not done on mould and after preparing mould immediately metal is poured. This mould gives low strength.
It takes minimum time and cost to prepare. Provides minimum resistance to shrinkage so products may be.
defective. Used for small jobs in large quantity. Generally used for ferrous and non-ferrous materials product.

RISER FLASK BARS

POURING GAGGER
BASIN

COPE
SPRUE

GUIDE

PIN

PARTING CHEEK

DRAFT
DRAG
RUNER.
CAVITY IN SAND AFTER
GATE
PATTERN HAS BEEN REMOVED

BOTTOM BOARD

FIG. 3.52 A CROSS-SECTION VIEW OR A THREE-PART SAND MOLD WITH THE

PARTS LABELED, THE LINE X'-X INDICATES PARTING IN THE PATTERN

Thismould
Gaggers
mouldused
errosion
to
is
may breakincrease
possible
duringduring
strength
handling,
asmetal shown
soin
pouring
.
proper
ItFig
. also
caretime
possible
3.52
. gives
is required.
blow holes
Thisso
mouldbetter
is notsurface
usedfinish
foris
longnot
.
 80
Manufacturing Engineering
2) Dry sand mould
(:
The method of making dry sand moulds is similar to that of making green sand mould except that the
is dried before pouring molten metal. Drying or baking is carried out in oven and binders are used. It is mould
moved and used for large castings. casily
This mould is stronger than green sand moulds and store for long time. During handling it cannotbreak
It also provides better surface finish to job used for accurate and bigger job. It is quite costly because of
or drying. Products may be defective due to resistance to shrinkage. baking
(3) Dry skin mould :

This mould is a mixture of green and dry sand. In this mould the layer is dryed upto 20 to 25 mm
thickness
For drying the surface layer gas torch, hot air or infrared lamp is used. After drying the surface layerimmediately
it is used, otherwise dry surface absorb humidity from wet layer and decreases hardness and strength.

This mould possess advantages of both dry and green sand mould.
(4) Loam mould :

These moulds are made of bricks and other materials to the approximate contour of the casting and a
thick
coating of loam sand. The correct shape of mould is obtained by rotating sweep pattern. The surface of the
mould
is dried by forced hot air or torches. The advantages of loam moulding is that large castings (cylinder,
paper
making rolls and bells) can be made economically.

(5) Plaster mould :

Metal pattern is used for this mould. It is a mixture of asbestos fiber or plaster of paris, silica dust, and
water. This slurry is poured on metal pattern and set for some time. After removing pattern and baked at around
600 °F mould is prepared. By this method cope and drag are prepared separately, used for non-ferous casting
provides better surface finish, accurate mould.

This mould provides low porosity so limited in application.

(6) CO₂ mould :

The process consists of thoroughly mixed of pure dry silica sand, free from clay with 3 to 5% sodium silicate
liquid base binder in a muller.

This mixture is packed around the pattern in the mould box by hand or moulding machine. When the packing
is complete, CO, is forced into the mould or core at a pressure of 1.5 kg/cm² for 10 to 30 seconds.

The sodium silicate present in the mould reacts with CO₂ to form a substance called 'Silica gel'. This silica
gel hardens and acts as a cement to bond the sand grains together.

Na2SiO3 + CO2 → Na2CO3 + SiO2XH₂O ... silica gel

This mixture cannot be reused.

(7) Bench moulding :

Bench moulding is carried out on a convenient bench and the moulds prepared are relatively small. By bench
moulding, green sand, dry sand or skin-dry sand moulds can be made. In this, hand ramming with loose patterns
is employed and as such it is a slow and laborious method. This method is used for ferrous and non-ferrous
metal jobs.

(8) Floor moulding :

In this method the moulding of medium and large moulds is directly carried out on the floor. Green sand,
dry sand or skin dry moulds can be made by this method on the floor with the proper flasks. It is also a slow
and laborious method as it requires ramming with loose patterns.
Metal Casting Processes 81

(:
In this method, the moulding is carried out in the pits and generally very large moulds are made. The pit

serving the propose of flask. Generally green sand is used in pit moulding and is quite slow and labourious. A
brick layer is prepared and layered by loam sand inside the ground and at batton coke, wood waste is arranged
such that it makes layer. Vent is also provided so hot gases come out. The prepared pattern is placed on the
layer and filled by sand with the arrangement of cope box, runner, riser and ingate.

(10) Sweep moulding :

Sweep pattern is used for sweep moulding. Sweep is rotated with reference to post and cavity is prepared.
This method is useful for symmetrical cross-section. This method does not use pattern so the component is cheaper
than other.

(11) Plate moulding :

The patterns in case of floor moulding are usually constructed from wood and are split on an appropriate
horizontal parting line. The two portions of the pattern have to be located together with dowels. However in plate
moulding, the pattern consists of a flat plate usually of metal instead of wood for long life, with portions of
the pattern permanently assembled in alignment on each side. For very large quantity production and for very
heavy castings, two plates may occasionally be used-one to assist in the making of copes, the other for drags.
The plate incorporates some locating arrangement for the moulding boxes, which could be pegs in the plate, but
more usually consists of holes for locating pegs. The use of a plate normally calls for moulding boxes which
incorporate lugs having holes for location. The plate includes runners, gates, part of pourer and part of riser, thus
reducing considerably the time to finish the mould after the extraction of the pattern equipment.

3.17 SEQUENCE OF STEPS OF SAND MOULDING:

The following steps are for sand moulding, green sand moulding or dry-sand moulding, generally for hand

moulding process.

(1) First select a mould box to accommodate pattern and sand around pattern.

(2) Selected moulding box is placed reversly on moulding board. This is drag box and make proper levelling
with moulding board.

(3) Place one part of pattern inside the box and spray graphite and prepare layer about 15 to 20 mm. of
facing sand.

(4) The other part of box is filled with green sand and excess sand is removed by ramming with strike,
a flat surface is prepared. After this process blind vent is made with vent rod, that should not touch
the pattern.

(5) Now reverse the moulding box with moulding board and remove the board, and place cope box after
sprying parting sand on it.

(6) Connect the first part of pattern with second part after placing in cope box. Place sprue and riser at
appropriate place and with facing sand make a layer of about 20 mm on pattern. Then fill the other
part with green sand just like drag box and ramming on it. To increase strength keep lifter and gaggers
as per requirement.

(7) Remove pins from cope that was attached for sprue and riser and prepare pouring basin on sprue hole.
(8) Place cope on board in such a way that parting line comes on top. Remove pattern and make necessary
cut for runner and gate.

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Manufacturing Engineering
PATTERN
DRAG

MOULDING MOULDING BOARD

BOARD POURING
WEIGHT
SPRUE PIN FLASK BAR BASIN
RISER PIN
RISER- LIFTER
COPE

VENTS

PARTING
RUNNER
LINE DRAG

CORE GATE

CORE PARTING LINE

(b) 2nd STEP (c) 3rd STEP

FIG. 3.53 MAKING A GREEN SAND MOULD

(9) After removing pattern from both the box mould cavity is repaired if required and with air pressure
unnecessary parts or sand is removed.

(10) With the above steps green sand mould is prepared. If dry sand mould is required both the boxes are
necessary to bake. After baking and arranging cope and drag metal is poured.

Fig. 3.53 shows different steps of mould preparation.

3.18 MACHINE MOULDING PROCESS:

After studying in detail about hand moulding the machine moulding is as under. The following are different
machine moulding processes:

(1) Squeezer moulding machine :

Fig. 3.54 shows that the pattern is placed on the mould board which is clamped on the table. The flask
is placed on the mould board and the sand frame on the flask. The flask and frame are filled with moulding

sand and levelled off. Next the table is raised by the table lift mechanism against the platen of the stationary
squeeze head. The platen enters the sand frame upto the dotted line and compact the moulding sand. After the
squeeze, the table returns to its initial position.
1. table

2. pattern

3. mould box flask

4-7. frame (a) TOP (b) BOTTOM

5. platen FIG. 3.54 SQUEEZER MACHINE

6. squeezing head

This machine is used for small job. Here density of mould is on the top part, while low arround to pattern.
Pattern material is plastic or metal.
Metal Casting Processes 83

(2) Jolt machine moulding:

The table with the flask having pattern and moulding sand is raised
to 30 to 80 mm by the plunger when compressed air is admitted through
6

the hose and channel. The air is next released through the hole (opening)
and the table drops suddenly and strikes the guided cylinder at its
bottom. This sudden action causes the sand to pack evenly around the
pattern.
Springs are used to cushion the table blows and thus reduce the
FIG. 3.55 JOLT MACHINE
noise and prevents destruction of the mechanism and the foundation.

The sand is rammed hardest at the parting plane and around the pattern and remain less dense in top layer. So
hand ramming is necessary after jolting action is completed.

Fig. 3.55 shows jolt machine. Here, 1-table, 2-pattern, 3-flask, 4-plunger, 5-hose pipe, 6-channel, 7-opening,
8-cylinder, 9-spring.
(3) Sand slinger machine :
Fig. 3.56 shows the sand slinger. The over hand impeller head consists of the

housing in which the blade rotates at a very high speed. The sand is delivered to
the impeller through the opening by means of a belt conveyor. The impeller head

by the rotation of the blade throws the sand through the outlet down into the flask
over the pattern. The density of sand can be controlled by the speed of the blade.
FIG. 3.56 SAND SLINGER
Here 1-housing, 2-blade, 3-window, 4-outlet.

(4) Jolt squeeze machine moulding :

This machine uses both the jolt and squeeze machine advantages. Here first mould is arranged in sand by
jolt process and then with squeezing the density of sand is increased. This process known as jolt squeeze moulding.

3.18.1 Advantage and Disadvantage of Machine Moulding:

Advantages:

(1) Machine moulding process is fast used for mass production.

(2) Better quality is achieved.

(3) Semi-skilled operator can easily work on it.

(4) Gating system, runner, riser gate are made on match plate so process is easy.
(5) All casting with same size and shape.

(6) Accurate core fitting.

(7) Minimum machine and draft allowances is required.

(8) Time and cost can be saved.

Disadvantages:

(1) Difficult to produce intricate mould.

(2) Costly where small quantity of job required.

(3) Initial cost is high due to machine cost.

(4) Less flexibility in this process.

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Manufacturing Engineering-
3.19 CLEANING OF CASTING OR FETTLING :

Casting require cleaning and trimming before passing them on for machining or other operations.Fettling
is not a precision operation like machining. Its purpose is to remove all unnecessary metal, and the production
of a reasonably smooth finish. The following are the steps required for cleaning of casting :

(1) Removal of cores:

Core is used for making hole in casting which comes out with casting and is removed by knocking orrapping
with steel rod. To make this process fast, hydraulic or pneumatic equipments are used.

(2) Removal of gate, riser, runner etc. :

Gate, riser and runner are removed with the help of hammering, sawing, torch, electric arc and abrasive wheel.
(3) Removal of fins and unwanted projections:

A small thin fin on casting at parting line and unwanted projection due to broken moulding edge and after
removing riser and gate makes some impression or projection on casting can be removed by grinding, hand tool
or chipping with pneumatic tool, or by flame cutting, or by filling. This process is also known as snagging.

(4) Surface cleaning:

On casting surface we always found the sand particles. If the quantity is small then it can be removed by
brush. For mass production, these particles are removed by tumbling, sand blasting, pneumatic shot blasting, or
by hydro blasting. The size of component is small then tumbling is carried out. In tumbling process the component
is placed inside the tumbling mill with pieces of white cast iron and revolving, so that due to contacting white
cast iron and component edge the sand is removed. Medium and large components sand removed by sand blasting
or by impacting small balls with compressed air on the surface. This process cleans casting surface. The other
process is hydro blasting. Under this process water is applied forcefully just like spray on the surface and sand
particles are removed. Hydro blasting is useful for non-ferrous metals.

(5) Repairing of casting :

The defects like blow hole, small crack, twist may be possible in the casting job. These defects are not advisable
or these defective parts are to be repaired before using at Economic Value of Process. These defects can be removed
or repaired by welding, soldering, apoxy filling, metal spray, colour coating etc. Twisted parts can be repaired
by applying pressure and make it straight by applying pressure.

3.19.1 Working of Tumbling Mill :

The castings which are to be cleaned are placed in the large shell or barrel which contains small, hard, star
shaped pieces of cast iron. The barrel is rotated at about 30 rpm. As the barrel rotates, the castings tumble over
each other, rub off the adhering sand. Due to penning action on casting surface the internal stress also released.

Tumbling mills barrel having different capacity and is about 1 sq. m. to 12 sq. m. The barrel is filled with
full capacity and if few casting are placed, due to tumble casting may break so proper mixture of casting and
white cast iron pieces required.

Small and thin type fragile casting are not advisable to clean with this process.

3.20 SALVAGE TECHNIQUES FOR CASTING :

The possible defects in castings are blow hole, twist, crack due to process and human errors. These defective
parts sometimes advisable to use by applying some additional process on it and by salvage technique. Due to
this the objective of strength is not violating and cost of rejection is minimum or customer may select after applying
some process on it.
Metal Casting Processes 85

Before repairing casting it is advisable to check the casting component. Also the cost of repairing and cost
of manufacturing is compared and the repairing cost should be minimum without deterioting casting quality. Then

the type and technique for repairing is applied. The following are the different methods of repairing the defects:

(1) Welding:
Welding is applied for repairing of cast iron, steel, steel alloy etc. Based on metal, the wedding rods are

selected and welded. The new welded casting provides same quality.

(2) Soldering and brazing :

Filler metal is used in casting defects. The melting point of filler metal is low, so by heating the filler metal
and poured in defects. In soldering, lead and alloys are used while in brazing copper and alloys are used. Brazing
provides better strength as compared to soldering. i
(3) Patch and plug :
A blind hole is created on surface of casting and it is filled with metal patch or plug. After filling with
patch or plug, peening or welding is done on its head.
(4) Burning on:
On the defects the small cavity is prepared and this casting is placed in sand and mould is prepared. After
that the cavity is heated, so it increase the casting temperature based on required property the molten metal is
poured. This process removes the defects and casting is repaired.
(5) Caulking and impregnation:
Small cracks are repairing with hammering or peening and due to plastic deformation this cracks are removed.
Applying low pressure liquid on casting surface fill this cracks which is known as caulking.
If the cracks are big then it is filled by sodium silicate, backelite or resin. This process improves casting strength.

The other materials like apoxy resin or m-seal are used to fill cracks. This process is useful for ferrous or
non-ferrous metal.

3.21 SPECIAL CASTING PROCESSES:

Special casting processes are required to get specific properties and specific components. These processes
require special equipments and machines. For large quantity, it is economic. The following are special processes:
(1) Centrifugal casting
(2) Die casting

(3) Investment moulding

(4) Shell moulding.

3.22 CENTRIFUGAL CASTING :

In the centrifugal casting process, the mould is rotated and the molten metal is distributed to the mould cavity
with centrifugal force. This process makes hollow product. Core is not required in this process. Big pipe and
cylinder are made from this process. The air impurities are minimized and accurate jobs are manufactured.

The following are the centrifugal process:

(1) True centrifugal casting process
(2) Semi centrifugal casting process
(.
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Manufacturing Engineering-
(1) True centrifugal casting process:
In this process, the axis of rotation of the mould coincides with the axis of the castings and molten
is pushed outwards because of the centrifugal force, no core is required for making the concentric hole. End
metal
core
is provided which resists metal to come out from mould. This process is also classified as horizontal, vertical
or inclined at 70 to 90º

(A) Horizontal axis machine: In this

TOP ROLLERS
process the cylindrical flask is placed SAND LINING FLASK POURING BASIN
on bottom roller in horizontal direction. ELECTRIC
MOTOR
Fig. 3.57 shows that the bottom roller CASTING

is connected with electric motor so

that the flask can rotate. Sand lining

is done in internal wall of flask, known TROLLEY

as mould. Molten metal is poured by BOTTOM ROLLERS

pouring basin. Initially mould rotates FIG. 3.57 HORIZONTAL TRUE CENTRIFUGAL

CASTING MACHINE
slowly, after pouring completed it will

be rotate fast, so homogeneous layer can be achieved on mould wall. With this process better quality
casting is achieved and speed control is also possible.

(B) Vertical axis machine: The axis of rotation of mould is vertical, it is called vertical axis machine.
Here molten metal is poured from the top of axis of mould, so due to centrifugal force it will stick
on mould wall. Small length castings are produced with appropriate thickness. If the length is higher
then possibility to get parabolic shape.

(2) :

POURING BASIN This is also known as profiled centrifugal casting. With

STRAINER
this process the casting like symmetrical shape, pulley, wheel,
disk, gear like big shape products manufactured. Fig. 3.58
shows that more than one casting achieved. Here vertical axis
machine is used. In centre the hub is provided to create hollow
core, without using core also hollow components produced.
CASTING

REVOLVING
TABLE

FIG. 3.58 SECTION THROUGH A

SEMICENTRIFUGAL CASTING MACHINE
 +H
87
Metal Casting Processes

(3) Centrifuging:
This process is also known as pressure casting. This process

is used for non-symmetrical castings having intricate details and also

for precision castings. The centrifugal force provides high-fluid
pressure to force the molten metal into mould cavity. A number of
similar components can be cast simultaneously. The mould cavities
are positioned about its own axis and also about the axis of a central
own sprue. The metal is introduced at the centre and fed into the
moulds through radial in gates as shown in Fig. 3.59. Centrifuging
is possible only in vertical direction.

FIG. 3.59 SECTION THROUGH A MOULD

SHOWING THE CENTRIFUGING PROCESS

3.22.1 Advantages and disadvantages of centrifugal casting:

Advantages With centrifugal casting better quality and density products are achieved. Profile, shape and
impression on external wall is easily achieved, defects like porosity, blow holes not possible. For mass production
it is economic. Rejection rate is minimum in this process. Runner, gate, riser and core are not required and production
rate is maximised.

Disadvantages Initial cost is high so for small quantity it is costly. All types of shape cannot be achieved.
Maintenance cost is higher and skilled worker required to operate.

3.23 DIE CASTING:

Die casting utilises two blocks of heat resistant metal machined to meet along the plane of the parting line
and having cavities machined accurately and smoothly into each to form opposite halves of the shape to be cast
around the edges of the mould. Fine vents are cut to allow air to escape as the metal enters. If air is not allowed
to escape it would be trapped and produce blow holes in the castings. In this process, molten or semi molten
metal is either poured under gravity or is forced under high pressure into a die and pressure is maintained till
solidification stage. The following are the types:

(1) Gravity die-casting

(2) Pressure die-casting.

3.23.1 Gravity Die-casting:

In gravity die casting, no external force is applied other than the head of the liquid. A feeder is incorporated
so that when the level of the metal in the feeder is above that at the highest point of the casting, head of liquid
in feeder forces the metal into all parts of the mould cavity. The feeder is cut off after solidification. It is usually
used for shorter production runs. With this method Aluminium, Copper, Lead, Magnesium, Zinks products are
produced.

3.23.2 Pressure Die-casting:

In pressure die casting metal flows under high pressure, within a fraction of second the fluid alloy fills the
entire die including all minute cavities, therefore, the intricate casting can be produced successfully. Also as the
 88
Manufacturing Engineeri
ring
die is metallic, the casting rate is high and thus mass production is possible. In this process the one
is stationary and other is movable. The material of die should capable to withstand high temperature and
partof
and wear like property. The following are the types of pressure die casting: pressure
(A) Hot chamber die-casting:

(1) Submerged plunger die casting

(2) Air blown or goose neck die casting

(B) Cold chamber die casting.

(A) Hot chamber die-casting:

In hot chamber die casting the following parts are arranged such as metal heating chamber (container),
die
set, injector and ejector from die.

Two methods are used for injecting metal into die :

(1) Submerged plunger die casting machine:

Movable
die block
In this machine, as shown in Fig. 3.60, the
Fixed die block
burner is provided at bottom to get and maintain
Goose neck
required temperature. Metal is forced through
injector
plunger and it gets into chamber B through injector
Plunger
and enters in die cavity. When plunger comes down,
the filling part 'C' will be close and required
pressure is applied to metal of chamber B. Once
die filled by metal the plunger moves upword up
Die cavity
to filling part 'C' opens and metals gets into
chamber 'B'. After solidification molten metal in
Molten metal
die the casting components is removed with ejector
by opening dies.

Generally 125 kg/cm² pressure is applied. The

FIG. 3.60 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A HOT
castings from zink, tin and lead alloys are produced CHAMBER DIE-CASTING MACHINE

having low melting temperature.

GOOSE NECK POT (2) Air blown or goose neck die casting machine :
RAISED
COOSENECK POT MOVABLE
LOWERED FOR FIXED DIE DIE
In this machine the cast-iron goose neck chamber is
FILLING
MOLTEN METAL AIR
used. As shown in Fig. 3.61 it is merged in molten metal
PRESSURE
chamber. The goose neck container is operated by a lifting
mechanism. Initially it is submerged in the molten metal
and is filled by gravity. Then it is raised so as to bring
the nozzle in contact with die opening and is locked in
that position. Compressed air then forces the metal into

the die and pressure is maintained till solidification. When

BURNER

MOLTEN
solidification is complete, the goose neck is lowered down
METAL
and casting is removed by ejector pins after opening the
die and withdrawing the cores and with this process the
metals having low melting temperature like lead, tin, zink
FIG. 3.61 SECTION THROUGH A GOOSE
ore to be cast.
NECK TYPE OR AIR BLOWN MACHINE
Metal Casting Processes 89

(B) Cold chamber die casting: Die Core

Die
In this process the metal is heated Ladle

separately in other furnace. In this

process the metal is melted separately so
it is called cold chamber die-casting. Fig.

3.62 shows that the metal is poured in

Ram

cylinder, and then with plunger it is Ejector pin Cylinder

pushed. The metal is pushed with

pressure in die cavity and required shape Core

is achieved. After this process the die is FIG. 3.62 COLD CHAMBER DIE CASTING

opened and casting is ejected. The

plunger is pulled at its original stage and the process is repeated.

This process is used for aluminium alloy and brass. With this process the pressure range is about 200 to
1500 kg/cm² is achieved.

3.23.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Die-casting :

Advantages: Die casting method provides accurate shape. Thin section (0.5 mm thickness) can be easily
made. Impression or complicated design can be achieved on component walls. The production rate is high (300

per hour approx). Die set can be used many times. For mass production it is economic. All non-ferrous products
are produced with this method. Better surface finish is achieved.
Disadvantages: It is not economic for small quantity of production. It is used for only small casting
(10 kg weight approx). Initial cost is high for die and other equipment. Only non-ferrous products are casted.
If proper care is not taken then the defects like blow hole can be possible.

3.24 INVESTMENT CASTING :

This process is called the lost-wax process or precision casting. The following are the different stages :
(1) Die making

(2) Making wax pattern

(3) Precoating the wax pattern assembly

(4) Investment the wax pattern in mould box

(5) Removal of wax pattern

(6) Pouring molten metal

(7) Cleaning of casting

First of all master pattern is used to make die of aluminium alloy. The gating system is provided in this
die. The die is filled with wax by force, and wax pattern is prepared. The other components like riser, sprue
are attached to this pattern. The entire assembly is then merged into silica and ethyle silicate slury it makes refractory
layer on wax pattern. Then it is dryed and placed into moulding box and poured investment moulding mixture.
This mixture is set and dryed for some time. After drying, the mould is heated at about 200 °C so the wax will
melt and come out and cavity is prepared. The wax coming out from mould is lost wax. The metal is poured
into cavity and desired shape is achieved. The mould is broken and cleaned and casting is achieved.

Manufacturing Engineering-I/2023/12
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Manufacturing Engineering
3.24.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Investment Casting:

Advantages:

(1) Very smooth surface of casting without parting lines are achieved.
(2) Casting of intricate shape can be manufactured.
(3) Die casting can be replaced when short runs are involved.

(4) Castings are sound and have large grains as the rate of cooling is slow.

(5) It represents the only method suitable for manufacture of precision shaped castings of high melting,
metals which would cause too rapid die failures is normal die casting process. poin
Disadvantages:

(1) Itpartsis expensive process and hence is adopted only where small number of intricate and highlyaccurate
particularly high melting point alloys are to be manufactured.
(2) This process is suitable for small size parts.

(3) This presents some difficulties when cores are to be used.

3.24.2 Application of Investment Casting:

This process is used for complicated shape, that is not possible by machining. Small components with better
surface finish parts are produced. Components like pump impeller, valve, gas turbine and locomotive parts, diesel
engine parts, textile machinery components, chemical industry parts, burner nozzle, lock, stitching machine
parts
are produced.

3.25 SHELL MOULDING :

It is a modern method and recently invented. It is also called 'corning process' or 'c process' (After the

name of J. corning who invented it). In this process fine sand and finolic resin mixture is used as mould material
Fine sand is having mesh 100 to 150. This mixture is attached to hot pattern and shell is prepared, and metal
is poured in shell and casting is achieved.

3.25.1 Sequence of Steps of Shell Moulding Process: HOT PATTERN

Fig. 3.63 shows sequence of steps. SHELL

(1) Fine sand of 100 to 150 mesh number with finolic

(a) (b) (c)
resin of 5%, a mixture is prepared. (SAND+ RESIN)
SHELL
(2) Metal pattern is heated at around 400 to 500 °F, hot MOULD

pattern is clamped to the dump box containing a BY KING

SAND
mixture of sand and thermo-setting plastic resin,
CLAMP (e)
lubrication oil is provided on pattern. (d)

(3) Pattern and box are inverted and kept in this position (a) SAND RESIN IN A BOX (b) MIX DUMPED OVER A HEATED
for some time. Hot pattern melts resin. The time PATTERN (c) SHELL FORMED OVER THE PATTERN (d) SHELL

depends on thickness requirement. STRIPPED FROM THE PATTERN (e) SHELLS JOINED
TOGETHER TO FROM A COMPLETE MOULD
(4) Box and pattern are again inverted and brought to
FIG. 3.63 SHELL MOULDING PROCESS
original position. A twin shell of resin-bonded sand

sticks to pattern and the rest falls. The pattern with shell is placed in oven and heated at 450 °F to
cure resin bond.

(5) Shell is stripped from the pattern with the help of ejector pins.
Metal Casting Processes 91

(6) The above steps 1 to 5 are repeated to produce second part of mould.
(7) Two shells are assembled, clamped and properly backed with sand in a suitable box. This forms a shell
mould ready to receive the metal.

3,25.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Shell Moulding:

Advantages:

(1) Better surface finish is achieved.

(2) Further machining is not required because of accuracy in measurement.

(3) All casting is made from new mould so possibility in defects minimised.
(4) Less-skilled labour is required.
(5) The moulds can be stored until required.

(6) The thin shell does not have a great chilling effects as a sand mould and the gases easily escape through
the walls, therefore a better quality of casting is assured.
(7) No runner, riser required so cost is minimised.
(8) Less sand is required.
(9) Rejection of casting is minimum.
(10) Thin section casting can be manufactured.

Disadvantages:

(1) Initial cost of patterns and sand is high and hence not suitable for small production.
(2) Specialised equipments are to be used.

(3) Resin binder is an expensive material and little of sand can be economically reclaimed.
(4) This process is limited to small size.

(5) Minimum thickness of the section that can be cast is 4 mm.

(6) Certain casting shapes are not suitable when proper partings and gatings are not available.
(7) This process is more suited to the production of castings in large quantities so because the initial tooling
cost can be more.

3.25.3 Application of Shell Moulding :

This process is generally applied to small and medium size castings of aluminium, copper alloy etc. It is
applicable when better quality product required. Generally used for automobile cylinder, valve parts etc.

3.26 DEFECTS IN CASTING:

Many defects occur in castings if moulding sand is not in proper composition and if not properly prepared.
Any carelessness in preparation of mould also results into casting defects. Various defects that occur due to faulty
sand conditions. The following are main points for preparation of casting. Pattern, moulding material, core, gating
system etc. These points are be consider otherwise defects may occur.

3.26.1 Casting Defects, Their Causes & Remedies :

The following are the casting defects, their causes and remedial actions :
(1) Blow holes :

Holes on casting surface is blow holes. If these holes are on top then it is called 'open blow'. This defect

occur because of air comes out from surface.

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Manufacturing Engineering

Causes: Moisture level is high in mould sand, improper baking of core, unnecessary carbonic binder,unwanted
camming, small vent hole, fine sand etc.

Remedies: Proper moisture level, proper baking of core, proper use of binder, proper ramming, proper
vent
hole with vent rod, selection of sand particle.

(2) Shrinkage:

When metal transfer from liquid to sold its volume will decrease. During this process if it will not get
more
molten metal then in the internal surface of casting voids are developed, that is known as shrinkage.

Causes: Defective runner, gate and riser, molten metal's pouring temperature.

Remedies Proper arrangement of runner, riser and gate for proper directional solidification. If required
the design can be changed, maintaining proper molten metal temperature.

(3) Crack :

Due to solidification metal shrinks in mould. The improper shrinkage develops stress on surface, due to that
cracks propagates on surface also known as pull.

Causes: Non availability of collaposibility property of mould and core, improper design, hard ramming,of
mould.

Remedies Collapsibility property can be improved, design can improved, properly ramming of mould.

(4) Inclusions:

Unwanted ingredients such as metal oxide, slag, sand particles give defects known as inclusions in metal
castings.

Causes: Improper gating system, improper pouring, low quality mould and core sand, improper ramming,
impurity in metal charge.

Remedies: By modifying gating system, turbulence free pouring, using good quality mould and core, proper
ramming of mould sand, proper and pure metal charge should be used and by using oxide free molten metal
crucible.

(5) Lift and shift :

Some part of casting gets distortion known as lift and shift.

Causes: Improper alignment of pattern parts, improper support of core, improper clamping of mould box,
improper strength of mould sand.
Remedies: By aligning the mould box with help of dowel pin, properly supporting core in mould, properly
clamping of mould box, providing proper strength mould and core sand.

(6) Swell:

Due to molten metal the some part of mould cavity become large so the casting becomes larger than required
which known as swell.

Causes: Pressure of molten metal on surface, improper ramming of sand, low strength of core sand.

Remedies: By properly ramming of sand, by increasing core strength so molten metal can easily flow in mould.

(7) Fins :

Thin edge on casting known as fins. Generally it is on parting line.

Causes: Improper clamping of mould box, improper arrangement of mould and core.

Remedies Properly clamping of cope and drag, proper assembly of mould and core.
Metal Casting Processes 93

Misrun and cold shut :

(8)

Molten metal cannot reach in all the parts of mould, so this improper filled casting known as misrun. Molten

comes from different sides, sometimes cannot mix each other. This defect known as cold shut.

Causes Defective design of gating system, low fluidity of molten metal, thin wall of casting, non-continues
pouring of metal.
Remedies: Modification of gating system, increasing temperature of molten metal, continuously pouring of
molten metal, increasing porosity of sand.
9
)
(

Metal Penetration :

Surface of casting becomes rough due to metal penetration.

Causes Bigger size of sand, less ramming, low strength of moulding sand and core, higher permeability.

Remedies: Fine grain sand, proper ramming ofmould sand, proper mixture should be used to increase moulding

and core porosity.

)10
(

Hard spot:

Some part of casting solidifies very fast and that surface becomes tough, that known as hard spot.

Causes Bad casting design, improper metal composition, improper use of chills.

Remedies Proper design of castings so metal solidifies in same time, proper metal composition, proper

use
of chills in design.
)
(
11

Run out:

While pouring, molten metal comes out (leaks out) from casting known as run out.

Causes Defective mould box, defective moulding process.

Remedies Moulding box should be changed, modification in moulding process.

(12) Drop:
A drop occurs when cope surface cracks and breaks, thus the pieces of sand fall into the molten metal.

Causes Due to either low green strength or improper ramming of the cope flask, improper reinforcement.

Remedies Proper mixing of binder for strength improvement, proper arrangement of steel rod for

reinforcement in core and mould, proper ramming.

(13) Warpage:
After or before solidification casting may twist or change shape known as warpage.

Causes Improper design, luck of directional solidification, internal stress.

Remedies Proper design of casting to get directional solidification.

By proper heat treatment the stress can be removed.

3.27 INSPECTION OF CASTING:

After cleaning of casting inspection is carried out.

The defects in casting can be identified by the inspection. Two way of inspection are:
(A) Destructive testing method

(B) Non-destructive testing method

 94
Manufacturing Engineering
(A) Destructive testing method:

The destructive testing include, tensile, shear and compressive testing. In addition microscopic examination
to determine physical and metal metallurgical qualities of casting. The disadvantage is that the component
test becomes unserviceable. With this method the entire product cannot be judged.
under
(B) Non-destructive testing method :

In this process the component will not be cut and inspection is carried out by some experiment. Aftertesting
component can be used. The following are different methods:
(1) Visual inspection
(2) Inspection for dimensional accuracy
(3) Sound test

(4) Impact test

(5) Pressure test

(6) X-ray test

(7) Magnetic testing

(8) Penetrant testing

(9) Ultrasonic testing

(1) Visual inspection:

Visual inspection is the simplest, fastest and most commonly used method. This is used to detect defects
on the surfaces of the casting like cracks, blow holes, swells, swifts etc. This is carried out with naked eyes or
by magnifying glass. This test is carried out by skilled inspector.

(2) Inspection for dimensional accuracy:

*If machining is required after casting then this test is very much important. It is necessary to check whether
we get accurate size and shape after machining of casting. It also help in selecting and rejecting of casting.
If proper dimension is not achieved then the required suggestion can be given to pattern making and moulding
process, and rejection minimised.
(3) Sound text:

In this method, the casting is given blows with hammer and listen the sound waves produced. The defect
free casting emits a clear ringing sound whereas the defective casting gives a dull sound.
(4) Impact test :

Design load is applied to component and checking whether it carries or not.

(5) Pressure test :

These are employed to locate the leaks by subjecting casting to a pressure of one and a half times to two
times the working pressure. A pressure gauge indicates presence of leak.
(6) X-ray test :

Radiant energy from an X-ray tube or gamma ray source is passed through the section of the casting, and
intensity of emergent rays recorded on a film held on the opposite surface. Defects in the form of voids or cracks
are recorded as blackened areas on the film.

(7) Magnetic test :

This test consists of magnetising the casting and then sprinkling the fine powder of magnetic material. This
powder tends to be held and bridge over defects, thus forming a visible indication and location, identified magnitude
of the defect.
Metal Casting Processes 95

Penetrant testing:
)

The casting is sprayed with a liquid penetrating agent having low viscosity. The penetrant enters the cracks.
The casting is then wiped and cleaned. A dry developer is sprayed on the casting. This draws some of the suspension
the cracks to the surface where it flourescenes and is readily visible under ultra violet light. This is used
from
for surface defects.
only
Ultrasonic testing :
(9)
In ultrasonic testing, high frequency sounds, with frequency beyond audible range are passed through one

end of the surface of the casting, the waves travel through the casting to the opposite surface and are reflected
back to the original point. Any defect in the part of the waves scatter the waves and are reflected back from
the defect and return in a shorter period of time. The advantage of this method is not only detecting but also

locating accurately.

3.28 RECENT TRENDS IN CASTING METHODS:

Now-a-days vacuum casting and magnetic casting are recent methods of casting. The following is vacuum

casting process:

3.28.1 Vacuum Casting :

The following are the equipments of vacuum casting:

(1) Special metal pattern

(2) Two wall moulding box

(3) Vacuum pump

(4) Arrangement to push and pull heated plastic sheet.

3.28.2 Sequence of Steps of Vacuum Casting:

(1) Pattern is placed on carrier plate and heated plastic sheet is placed on it.

(2) Vacuum is created in carrier plate. Pattern is placed in two wall moulding box and sand is filled around.
Giving vibration it becomes compact. Sprue is provided on top of mould. Vacuum is developed in box
so that sand partical stick together and make bond.

(3) Now vacuum is released from carrier plate, so mould slips. Join mould cope and drag then pour molten
metal. Vacuum is maintained till metal solidifies.

(4) Releasing vacuum and by separating the sand required casting is achieved.

3.28.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Vacuum Casting :

Advantages: Moisture is not required in sand binder. Due to vacuum, air will not be there in molten metal

SO oxidation is not possible. Less skill is required. This is fast process and better production rate. It also give

better surface finish.

Disadvantages Initial cost is high due to two wall mould, vacuum pump and other equipment. Specific

sand is only used so process becomes costly.

3.28.4 Applications of Vacuum Casting :

It is used for liquid form metals which gets chemical reaction with oxygen, nitrogen or hydrogen and also
used for metals which generates impurity during process.
 3.29
96

METAL POURING:
ManufacturingEngineering
Molten metal from furnace to pour in casting is known as pouring. The following are the two
points for pouring of metal : import
(1) Pouring temperature
(2) Pouring equipment

3.29.1 Pouring Temperature:

It is a temperature of molten metal while pouring. The following are the effective parameters fortemperature.
(1) Design of casting

(2) Casting metal or types of alloy

(3) Fluidity of metal in thin section

(4) Requirement of microstructure

(5) Casting volume and shape.

The following is the table of pouring temperature for different metal :

Table-3.3

Sr. No. Metal Alloys Pouring temperature range °C

1 Grey cast iron 1510 1592

2 Steel 1592 1760

3 Copper 1130 - 1200

4 Copper Nickel alloy
-
1220 1880

5 Nickel - Bronze 1180 - 1220

6 Tin -
Bronze 1080 - 1160

3.29.2 Pouring Equipments :

Ladle is important in pouring equipment. Molten metal is carried out in ladle and with this metal is poured
in cavity. The following are different types of ladle :

(1) Holding ladle :

Molten metal is carried out from furnace by this ladle, and then poured to different ladle. It is used to store
molten metal for some time. Fig. 3.64(a) shows holding ladle which is cylindrical and internally lining by firebrick
Arrangement to take molten metal is also seen in figure.

(2) Lip pouring ladle :

It is simple jug type equipment. It is lifted with help of crain, hand wheel or liver to transfer molten metal
from furnace to mould. Fig. 3.64(b) shows lip pouring ladle.
(3) Teapot ladle :

Fig. 3.64(c) shows Teapot ladle which is used to pour pure molten, here molten metal comes from bottom
of ladle, so it is free from slag.

(4) Bottom pour ladle :

In this ladle one hole is provided at bottom, which is joined with refractory material coating, vertical rod,

as shown in Fig. 3.64(d). While pouring metal the rod is lifted and hole is opened so pure metal can be poured
without slag.
 97
Metal Casting Processes

STOPPER

HOLE (NOZZLE)

(a) HOLDING LADLE (b) LIP POURING (c) TEAPOT POURING (d) BOTTOM POUR LADLE
LADLE

MONORAIL
SHANK

TROLLEY

WHEEL FOR RAISING

OR LOWERING LADLE

(f) SHANK LADLE LEVER FOR POURING

(TWO MAN LADLE)

LADLE

(e) HAND LADLE (g) LADLE HANDLER (MONORAIL)

FIG. 3.64 LADLES

(5) Hand ladle :

To transfer little amount of molten metal this ladle is used. Used for small casting. Fig. 3.64(e).
(6) Shank ladle :
Two persons can handle this ladle as shown in Fig. 3.64(f). Two shank helps in lifting of ladle which also
helps in controlling, and used in small cupola furnace.

(7) Monorail or crane ladle :

When large amount of molten metal is to transfer and the distance is also large, this monorail or crane ladle

is used as shown in Fig. 3.64(g).

3.30 TYPES OF CASTING METALS:

The following are the types of casting metals :

(A) Ferrous metal

(B) Non-ferrous metal

(A) Ferrous metal :

(1) Cast iron : (2) Steel

(a) Gray cast iron (a) Plain carbon steel

(b) Malleable cast iron (b) Low alloy steel

(c) Nodular cast iron
(c) High alloy steel
(d) White cast iron (d) Stainless steel

Manufacturing Engineering-I/2023/13
 98 Manufacturing Engineering-
(B) Non-ferrous metal :

(a) Copper alloy

(b) Aluminium alloy

(c) Magnesium alloy

(d) Zinc alloy

(e) Nickel alloy

3.31 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS FOR CASTING PROCESS:

Casting process starts from sand mixture making, and pattern making to cleaning and inspection. Atcach
stage some precautions must be taken. Important task are operating furnace, transferring molten metal tomould
with ladle, maintaining temperature, so working at high temperature requires some safety precautions. Thefollowing
care must be taken :

(1) Person involved in casting process must wear apron and Hall-shoc.

(2) Properly arrange tool and foundry equipment in rack.

(3) Floor must be cleaned.

(4) Persons involved in molten metal handling must wear glows.

(5) Dust and unwanted parts must be removed.

(6) Hot casting must be handled by fork.

(7) Properly use of oven for core or mould.

3.32 INDIAN STANDARDS RELATED TO CASTING PROCESS:

The following are Indian standards published for casting process:

(1) Steel casting for general engineering purposes IS: 1030 - 1972

(2) Carbon steel casting for surface hardening IS 2707 - 1964

(3) Gray iron casting IS : 210-1970

(4) White heart malleable iron castings IS: 2109 - 1962

(5) Glossary of terms used in radio graphic inspection of casting IS: 2953 -

1964

(6) High tensile steel castings IS1644 1969

(7) Cupola furnace for foundry IS 5032 - 1969

POINTS TO REMEMBER

1. Foundry: Where casting process is carried out.

2. Two types of foundry: (a) Ferrous (b) Non-ferrous foundry.

3. Molten metal poured in mould and after solidification casting component is prepared.

4. Pattern is the replica or full size model of the casting to be made.

5. Preparation of pattern known as pattern making process.

6. Wood, metal, plastic, plaster of paris and wax are pattern material.

7. Different types of patterns available.

8. Allowance is the difference between workpiece and pattern measurement.

Metal Casting Processes 99

9. To make hole in component core is used.

10. Core print is the extra projection on pattern or place for arranging core.
11. Different types of core: such as
- Horizontal core

Vertical core

Balanced core

- Hanging or cover core

_ Drop core of stop off core

- Ram up core

- Kiss core

12. Binder and sand used for making core.

13. Core box used for making core.
14. As per requirement core is heated up to 150 to 400 °C.
15. Main ingredients of moulding sand are silica sand, clay and water and other material.

16. Properties of moulding sand are: Refractoriness, porosity, permeability, plasticity or flowability, cohesiveness
or strength, adhesiveness, collapsibility.

17. Moulding sand particle and shape are important for sand property.

18. Clay is important binder for moulding sand.

19. Additives improves moulding sand quality.

20. Sand is classified as :

- Green sand

- Dry sand
- Loam sand

- Facing sand

- Parting sand

- System sand

- Core sand

- Backing sand

21. Binders for moulding sand are: Bentonite, peach, fuel oil, wood dust, grain powder, perlite, Dextrin.

22. Furnace is used for melting metal.

23. Pit furnace used for non-ferrous metal.

24. Induction furnace used for ferrous metal.

25. Cupola furnace used for cast iron.

26. Charge used in cupola is metal and cock with weight ratio 6 1 to 15: 1.

27. Metal charge, flux and fuel added in layer, one by one in cupola.
28. Before charging cupola, required quantity of metal charge, fuel and moulds are collected in advance.

29. Gating system is passage to join mould cavity.

 100 Manufacturing Engineering
30 Main parts of gating system core pouring busin, sprue, runner gate and riser.
31. Gating system is used to fill molten metal in cavity without defects.
32. Three main types of gate (1) Parting (2) Top (3) Bottom.
33. Riser is attached on top moulding box which used to check whether cavity filled or not?

34. Gating ratio is: Sprue runner: gate cross-section.

35. Moulding process classified in (a) hand moulding (b) machine moulding.

36. Green sand moulding is most economic process.

37. Binders and additives are added in dry sand. Mould is baked in oven. This is costly process.
38. Dry skin mould is a combination of green sand mould and dry sand mould.

39. Loam mould is used for big job where pattern making is difficult.

40. Machine moulding is mainly done by squeezer machine, jolt machine, sand slinger, and jolt squeeze machine.
41. Machine moulding gives: Better quality, uniformity, economic and faster process.
42. Cleaning is required after casting process.

43. Small defects can be repaired in casting and used for application.

44. Following processes are used for repairing small defects of casting :
Welding

Soldering, Brazing

- Punch and plug

- Burning on

- Caulking and impregnation

45. Special casting process

-
Centrifugal casting
-

Die casting

- Investment casting

- Shell moulding

46. Hollow cylinder is made without using core in centrifugal casting.

47. Die casting used for metal having low melting point.

48. Wax pattern is used in investment casting.

49. Moulding sand and resin used in shell moulding.

50. Three types of centrifugal casting:

- True centrifugal casting

- Semi - centrifugal casting

- Centrifuging

51. Pattern, moulding material, core, getting system play role in casting defect.
52. Casting defects are: Blow holes, shrinkage, cracks, inclusions, lift and shift, swell, ſins, misrun and cold
shut, metal penetration, hard spot, run out, warpage etc.
53. Non-destructive test is used for identifying casting defects.
Metal Casting Processes 101

54. Vacuum casting and magnetic casting are modern casting processes.

55. Pouring temperature is the molten metal's temperature at time of pouring.

56. Ladle is pouring equipment.

57. Safety is required in melting and pouring.

58. Necessary light and ventilation required in foundry.

EXERCISE
.
1

Give types of foundry used for casting process. (May 1998, October 2000)

2.
What is casting process? State its advantages over other processes.

3.
Define the term pattern and state the purpose of pattern. (February 2021, 2022)

4.
Name various materials used in making pattern. Discuss their merits and demerits.

(May 2001, February 2021, September 2021)

5. Name various factors which are considered for selection of pattern making material. (February 2022)
6. Explain various types of patterns, with field of application of cach. (May 2001, Sep. 2021, June 2022)

7. Define pattern allowance. Name various pattern allowances giving purpose of each.
(October 1997, May 1998, October 1998, May 1999, May 2001, February 2021, June 2022)

8. Explain What is the use of contraction rule in pattern making ? (October 2000)

9. State the advantages and limitation of wood and material as a pattern material. (May 1999)

10. Explain what is a draft allowance. (October 1997, May 1998, October 1998, October 1999)

11. Draw neat sketches of the following and explain :

(i) Skeleton pattern (ii) Sweep pattern (iii) Match plate pattern.

12. Why the colour code is given on the pattern? Explain the different colour code on different surfaces of
a pattern. (September 2021, February 2021)

13. Explain loose piece pattern. Why such pattern made ? (October 1999, October 2000)

14. Explain with neat sketch a gated pattern. (February 2022)

15. Write in brief on "Shrinkage allowance". (October 1997)

16. List the steps involved in a "Casting process" in proper sequence. (May 1998)

17. State the colour code used for cores. (May 1998)

18. List the name of pattern materials. Give advantages and disadvantages of metal pattern. (October 2000)

19. Describe the following pattern material

:

(1) Plaster of Paris (2) Wax

20. Describe cope and drag pattern with neat sketch. (May 2000)

21. Explain the following pattern allowance :

(1) Rapping allowance (2) Distortion allowance.

22. Define core. Describe briefly the method of core making. (Oct. 1997, May 1998, Feb. 2021, June 2022)

23. List the name of different types of cores and explain balanced core.
(May 1998, October 1999, February 2021, September 2021, February 2022, June 2022)
 102
Manufacturing Engineering
24. How core is prepared? Explain.
25. What is core print ?

26. Explain the following core with neat sketch. Explain with neat sketches types of cores.
(1) Horizontal core (2) Hanging core (3) Balanced core.

27. What are the principal ingredients of moulding sand? State the function of each ingredient.

(October 1997, October 1999, June2022

28. What are the essential properties of a moulding sand ? State the effect of each properties on casting.
(October 1997, May 1999, October 1999, May 2001, Feb. 2021, Sep. 2021, June
2022)
29. Name various types of moulding sand giving functions of each. (February 2022
30. Name the important characteristics of moulding sand and explain the effect of each on casting process.
31. What are various binders used in moulding sand? What is their purpose ?
32. List the steps in sequence in the preparation of dry sand moulding.
(October 1997)
33. State what additive are used in Moulding Sand.
(May 1998, October 1999)
34. What are various additive materials used in moulding sand ?

35. Explain core making process. (May 2001)

36. Name various properties required in a core sand.
(October 1998)
37. List important gradients of core sand. State function of each gradient.

38. Explain following properties of moulding sand : (February 2022)

(i) Cohesiveness (ii) Collaposibility (iii) Porosity (iv) Adhesiveness (v) Refractoriness.

39. State the difference between natural sand and synthetic sand.

40. List the hand tools used in preparing mould.

41. Write function with neat sketch of the following:

(i) Sprue pin (ii) Vent rod (iii) Gate cutter

42. Describe in brief with sketch the following types of furnaces giving their advantages, disadvantages and uses:
(1) Pit furnace (September 2021)
(2) Induction furnace (September 2021)

(3) Oil fired furnace

(4) Cupola furnace (October 2000)

43. State the type of furnaces used in foundries. Discuss in brief the working of Induction furnace.
(May 1998, October 1998, February 2021)

44. Draw sketch of a cupola and name the different parts of it.
(October 1998, September 2021, February 2022, June 2022)

45. Explain the steps involved in cupola operation. (May 1998, October 1999, October 1998)

46. Name various ingredients fed into cupola.

47. Mark the different zones on a sketch of the cupola and explain the chemical reactions taking place in each zone.

48. What is gating system? What is its function ? State functions of runner and riser. (February 2021)

49. State different types of gates and give function of each. (October 2000, May 2001)
Metal Casting Processes 103

50. State the role of a runner, riser and gate. Name atleast three types of gates.

51. Name various stages of a gate and state function of each.

52. Give general classification of moulding process. (February 2021, September 2021)

53. Explain in brief correct sequence of steps in moulding process.

54. List advantages and disadvantages of following moulding process:
(1) Green sand moulding

(2) Dry sand moulding.

55. Name machine moulding processes and give application of each. (May 2001)

56. State advantages and disadvantages of machine moulding over hand moulding.

57. Draw a sketch of mould and label different parts. (October 1998)

58. What are the various hand moulding processes ?

59. Explain the following terms:
(1) Pouring basin (2) Runner (3) Riser. (May 1998)

60. List the steps of cleaning the casting after taking out from mould

61. Define the term salvaging of casting.

62. List factors which effect salvaging of casting.

63. List various salvage techniques of casting.

64. Explain the working of tumbling mill.

65. State the typical product manufactured by the following casting process:
(1) Centrifugal casting (February 2022)

(2) Investment casting (September 2021)

(3) Shell moulding

(4) Die casting

66. State principle of centrifugal casting and explain in brief its working with sketch.

67. State advantages of centrifugal casting process.

68. State the principle of die-casting and explain in brief its working with sketch. (October 1998)

69. State advantages and disadvantages of die casting process. (May 2001)

70. State the principle of investment casting process. (May 1998, May 1999, February 2022)

71. List the steps involved in investment casting.

72. State advantages, disadvantages and uses of investment casting.

73. State the principle of shell moulding process and state special field of its applications.

74. Explain various steps of shell moulding process. (October 2000)

75. Describe hot and cold chamber die-casting machine. (May 1999, October 1999)

76. With a block diagram explain the steps involved in casting process.

77. List the factors for selection of pattern material. (October 1999)

78. State advantages, disadvantages and application of shell moulding.

 104 Manufacturing Engineering-1)
79. Explain any two casting processes of the following:
(1) Centrifugal casting (February 2022, June
2022)
(2) Investment casting

(3) Die casting. (October 2000, June 2022)

80. Give classification of different casting processes.

81. Explain in brief, the different methods used for inspection of casting.
(October 2000, June 2022)
82. Define (1) Blow holes (2) Cracks (3) Fins (4) Metal Penetration (5) Shift.

83. What are the main factors which are responsible for producing defects in casting?
84. List any five defects in sand casting. Give their causes and remedies.
(October 1997, May 1998, October 1998, May 1999, October 1999, February 2021, 2022, June 2022)
85. State the principle of working of vacuum moulding process. Special casting process. (February 2021)
86. Explain safety requirement in casting process. (June 2022)
87. State the safety precautions to be observed during melting and pouring. (June 2022)
88. Explain in brief pouring equipments.

89. State factors affecting the pouring temperature.

 CHAPTER

Non-Metal Moulding Processes

4

4.1 INTRODUCTION:
Now a days modern manufacturing industries rush towards to utilize non-metal (plastics) in place of metal

to get the benefits of lightness, resistance to corrosion, resilience, transparency, ease of processing, better properties.
The term plastic in its original sense applied to a material that can be made to flow so that it can be moulded
modeled. Plastics belong to the family of organic material. Organic materials are those materials which are
or

derived directly from carbon. These materials consists of wood, coal, petroleum, natural rubber, animal fibres and
food. Synthetic includes the large group of solvents, adhesives, synthetic fibres, rubber, plastics, explosives,
lubricants, dyes, soap and cutting oil etc., which have no biological origin. The plastics are synthetic origin. The
plastics are synthetic origin materials which are also termed as polymers.

The term POLYMER is derived from two Greek words: Poly meaning 'Many' and mer meaning "Parts"
or
'units'. Thus polymers are composed of a large number of repeating units (small molecular) called monomers.
The monomers are joined together end to end in polymerization reaction.

4.1.1 Plastics:

The term plastics refer to a group of synthetic organic material which becomes plastic on heating and can

be formed to desired shape with or without the application of pressure.

OR

Plastics are the synthetic polymers. The term plastic is related with plasticity. So in certain phase of
manufacturing, they are present in a plastic stage, which makes it possible to impart any designed shape to the
component.

4.1.2 Properties of plastics :

Following are important properties of plastics :

1. Light in weight

2. Easy formation in different shape is possible.

3. They possess good surface finish.

4. They have good insulation properties.

5. Good damping capacity.

6. .

7. Good resistance to heat.

8. Resistance to atmospheric corrosion and chemical attact.

9. Low fabrication cost.

10. Can be made transparent or coloured.

11. Silent in operation.

12. High resistance to abrasion.

105

Manufacturing Engineering-1/2023/14
 106
Manufacturing Engineerin
Raw material for plastics :

Raw material for plastic compounds are various agriculture product, many minerals and organic material.
petroleum, coal, limestone, silica, gas and sulphur. The natural resins are shellac, bitumen resin, waxes, rubber
4.2 POLYMERIZATION :

The process of linking together of monomers, that is, of obtaining macromolecules is

POLYMERIZATION. It can be achieved by one of the two processing techniques. called
1. Addition Polymerization
2. Condensation Polymerization

4.2.1 Addition Polymerization :

In addition polymerization, the polymer is produced by adding a second monomer to the first, then a

third
monomer to this dimer, and a fourth to the tremer and so on until the long polymer chain is terminated. Polyethylene
is produced by the addition polymerization of ethylene monomers. Many monomers will not polymerize
with
themselves, but will copolymerize with other compounds.

4.2.2 Condensation Polymerization :

In this process, two or more reacting compounds may be involved and there is repetitive elimination ofsmalle
molecules, to form a by-product. For example, in the case of phenol-formaldehyde (Bakelite), the compounds;
are
formaldehyde and phenol. Metacresol acts as a catalyst and by-product is water. There is also the growth
perpendicular to the direction of chain.

4.3 ADDITION TO POLYMERS:

One or more of the following materials are added to the polymers to make them processable plastics or |plastics
of desirable properties.

(1) Plasticizers: Plasticizers are liquid of high boiling point and low molecular weight. These are added
to improve plastic behaviour of the polymer. They are generally oily in the nature. Organic Solvants,
resin and even water are used as a plasticizers.

(2) Fillers: These are added to reduce material cost. Sometimes they are finally distributed to increase
strength, stiffness and thermal resistance. Common fillers are wood flour, mica, quartz, asbestos, carbon
black, glass fibres etc.

(3) Catalysts or Accelerators: These are added to accelerate the chemical reaction during polymerization
of plastics.

(4) Initiators: They help to initiate the reaction, that is, to allow polymerization to begin. H₂O2 is common
initiator.

(5) Dyes and Pigments: These are added to impart different colour and shades to plastics.

(6) Stabilizers: They are added to prevent the deterioration of the plastics due to the action of heat and
light.

(7) Modifiers: These are the chemicals added to plastics for changing the properties of base resin.

(8) Lubricants : Lubricants added to the polymers to reduce friction during processing, to prevent parts
from sticking to mould walls, to prevent polymer film from sticking to each other and to impart good
finish to the final product. Common lubricant used are waxes, oils and soaps.
Non-Metal Moulding Processes 107

CLASSIFICATION OF PLASTICS :
4.4

Plastics can be broadly classified as

(1) Thermosetting plastics

(2) Thermo plastics

Thermosetting plastics :
(1)
These are those plastics which are formed into shape under heat and pressure which results in a permanently

hard product. The thermosetting plastics don't soften on reheating and can not be reworked. The common
thermosetting plastics are alkyds, epoxies, melamines, polyesters, phenols and urea.

(2) Thermoplastics :
These plastics soften under heat, harden on cooling, and can be resoftened under heat. They can be remelted

repeatedly by the successive application of heat. The mechanical properties of these plastics are sensitive to
temperature and to sunlight. Exposure to temperature may cause thermal degradation. Common thermoplastics are
acrylies, poly tetra fluoro ethylene (PTFE), Polyvinyl Chlorides (PVC), Nylons, polyethylene, polypropylene,
polystyrene etc.
4.4.1 Types of Thermosetting Resins :

(1) Phenol Formaldehyde (Bakelite) :

The most important and widely used phenolic resin is phenol formaldehyde. It is made by reaction of phenol
with formaldehyde. The phenol is carbolic acid obtained as a by-product during distillation of organic substance
like wood or coal.
Characteristics Hard, rigid, excellent electrical insulating properties, scratch resistant, resistance to heat
and cheap.
Uses Industrial electrical parts, knobs, handles, plugs, switches, telephone handsets, cabinates.
2
)

:
(
Urea

Formaldehyde

It is obtained by the condensation of urea and aqueous formaldehyde (urea is obtained by mixing liquid carbon
dioxide and liquid ammonia under heat and pressure).
Characteristics Hard, rigid, heat and scratch resistant, durable, wide range of colours.

Uses Domestic electrical fitting, lamp sockets, toilet seats, table ware etc.

(3) Melamine Formaldehyde :

It is obtained by the condensation polymerisation of melamine and formaldehyde. Melamine is obtained from
calcium carbide.

Characteristics: High electrical strength, excellent heat and shock resistant, good colour abilities, hard, good
resistance to moiture etc.

Uses Circuit breakers, telephone sets, switch panels, lighting fixture, table-ware etc.

(4) Silicon resins :

The silicon resins have silicon and oxygen chains to which are linked various organic group such as methyl
side groups etc. These may be in form of liquids, semisolids, rubbers and solids.

Characteristics Excellent dielectrical strength, resist high temperature.

 108
Manufacturing Engineering
Uses: •
Liquids Antiforming agents, damping and hydraulic fluids, high temperature lubricant,
repellent for leather. waler,
• Semisolids: Used as lubricants (greases) where very high and low temperatures are encountered
⚫ Solids: High voltage insulator, high temperature insulating foams etc.

• Rubbers Gaskets, insulation etc.

(5) Epoxy Resins :

These are obtained by condensation polymerization in the reaction of bisphenol and epichlorohydrin.
are cross linked by the addition of a hardener.
These

good
Characteristics:
toughness
, good
Good chemical
resistance
to andwear
.
electrical resistance,
shrinkage good adhesion to metal and glass, low ,

Uses: Surface coatings, adhesive for glass and metals, laminating materials used in electrical equipments
(6) Polymer Resins:

They are obtained by the reaction between a polyhydric alcohol and a dibasic acid. They are divided into
three groups.

Saturated polyesters
•
Unsaturated polyesters
•
Alkyds

Characteristics: Hard, dimensionally stable, resistant to corrosion and acids.

Uses Aircraft and automobile parts, tanks, tractor components.

(7) Poly Urethanes :
These are obtained by treating di-isocynate and diol.

Characteristics: Excellent resistance to abrasion.

Uses: Coating, films, foams, adhesives.

4.4.2 Types of Thermoplastic Resins :

(1) Cellulose derivatives :

The cellulose derivatives are as follows:

(a) Cellulose Nitrate :

It is obtained by reacting cellulose with nitric acid in the presence of sulphuric acid, which acts as
dehydrating agents.

Characteristics: Hard, brittle, good colourability, good resistance to moiture, highly inflammable.
Uses Pen bodies, tooth brushes, drawing instruments, table tannis balls, toys and toilet articles.
(b) Cellulose Acetate :

It is obtained by reacting cellulose with acetic acid in the presence of sulphuric acid.

Characteristics: Wear resistance, transparent, easily moulded and extruded, absorb moisture.

Uses: Film for recording tape, window screen, radio pannels, toys, knobs, gas masks, artificial silk.

(c) Cellulose Acetate Butyrate :

It is obtained by reading cellulose and acitic acid and butoric acid.

Non-Metal Moulding Processes 109

Characteristics Good stability against heat and light, good colourability, toughness, low moisture
absorption.
Uses Foot ball, halmets, steering wheel, goggle frames, insulating tapes, pipes and tubes.

(d) Ethyl Cellulose:

It is obtained by reacting sodium cellulose with ethyl chloride under pressure and subsequent precipitation
in water followed by purification.
Characteristics Strong, tough, moisture resistance and good insulators.

Uses Jig and fixture, moulded articles, hose nozzles.

Polystyrene (PS) :
(2)
It is obtained by polymerization of styrene in the presence of benzyl peroxide.

Characteristics: Hard, brittle, low impact resistance, good colourability, resistant to wear, dimensional stability

andinsulating ability.
Uses: House hold wears, toys, buttons, battery boxes, dishes, radio parts, television parts.

Polyethylene (PE, LDPE and HDPE) :

Polyethylene is obtained by polymerization of ethylene. It may be of low density polyethylene (LDPE) or

high density polyethylene (HDPE) depending upon process. It is also known as polyethylene.
Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE) :

It is prepared by polymerization in vapour phase at high pressure and high temperature. The branched
chains are present which reduce the linear extent of crystallinity. There is reduction in density. It is also
an mouldable thermoplastic but it is softens in boiling water.

High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) :

This is prepared by polymerization process carried out in solution and at low pressure. This process
produces a polymer of high degree of crystallinity and polymer is fully linear. It has higher strength, higher
modulus of elasticity and lower percentage of elongation than low density polyethylene. It is an easily mouldable
thermoplastic which does not soften in boiling water.
Characteristics: Resistant to moisture and chemicals, good electrical properties.
Uses Low density polyethylene is used as film, bags, high density polyethylene is used for bottles,
ice cube tray, containers.
(PP
)
4
)

:
(

Polypropylene

It is obtained by polymerization of propylene in the presence of zieglor Natta catalyst.

-

Characteristics High impact and tensile strength, resistant to heat and chemicals, good electrical properties.
Uses Laboratory and hospital equipments, furniture, toys etc.

(5) Vinyl Resins :

(a) Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) :

It is obtained by heating a water emulsion of vinyl chloride in presence of small amount of benzoyl
peroxide or hydrogen peroxide under pressure.
Characteristics Non-burning, weather resistant, hard thermoplastic.

Uses: Water tubes, roofing sheets, safety halmets, refrigerator components.

 110
Manufacturing Engineering
(b) Polyvinyl Acetate (PVA):

It is obtained by heating vinyl acetate in presence of benzoyl peroxide as catalyst.

Characteristics: Good adhesive and bonding properties.

Uses: Paints, plastic emulsions, coating, lacquers.

(6) Polyamides (Nylons):

It is prepared by condensation polymerization i.e. by reation of diamite with an organic acid.

Characteristics: Tough, stiff, high temperature stability, good wear resistance, good insulator.

Uses: Bearing, gears, fibre, rope, automotive parts.

(7) Poly Tetra Fluoro Ethylene (PTFE) :

It is also known as Teflon. It is obtained by polymerization of water emulsion of tetra fluoro ethylene
under
pressure of benzoyl peroxide as catalyst.

Characteristics: High electrical resistance, low co-efficient of friction, tough.

Uses: Bearing, electrical insulation, gaskets, kitchenwares, chemical containers.
(8) Polymethyl Methacrylate (PMMA):

It is known as Lucite or Plexiglass. It is obtained by polymerisation of methyl methyacrylate in the presence

of acetyl peroxide.

Characteristics: Hard, rigid material, good electrical resistance, good optical properties.
Uses Lenses, aircraft light fixture, gut turrets, eye shades, wind screens etc.
(9) Acrylonitric-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS) :

It is material of engineering plastic category.

Characteristics: Super strength, tough, susceptable to chemical attack, acids and alkalies, less expensive
Uses Housing for TV sets, telephones, hair brush, handles, halmets, lining for refrigerators.

4.5 PLASTIC PROCESSING METHODS:

There are various methods of producing parts from plastic material, which are supplied in the granular, powder
and other forms.

Various plastic processing methods are as under:

1. Compression moulding

2. Transfer moulding

3. Injection moulding
4. Extrusion moulding
5. Blow moulding

6. Calendering

7. Laminating

8. Thermoforming
Non-Metal Moulding Processes 111

5.1 Compression Moulding:

Compression moulding is mostly for thermosetting plastic. Heat for curing is supplied through the walls of
die (mould). Charge material normally in powder or preform shape, is loaded directly into hot die cavity.
the
Three basic type of compression moulds for plastic are shown in Fig. 4.1.

FORCE FORCE FORCE

CHARGE CHARGE CHARGE OPEN

POSITION

KNOCKOUT MOLD MOLD

KNOCKOUT MOLD

CUT-OFF AREA
NARROW LAND SHORT OVERLAP

CLOSED
FLASH POSITION

MOLDED PIECE MOLDED PIECE

MOLDED PIECE
POSITIVE TYPE SEMI-POSITIVE TYPE FLASH OR

OVERLAP TYPE

FIG. 4.1 COMPRESSION MOULDING

.
The When the
amount
of
plastic charge
is completely
mustbe trappedcontrolled
between
closely
to
male and
mould
produce
a
femalepart
mould,
of itaccurate
is called
size
. positive type
In semi-positive type mould the force is close fit only during the last mm of travel and a provision is made

for the flow of excess material. Full pressure is exerted at the final closing stage and charge does not have to
be controlled so closely.

A flash or overflow type mould bears a narrow flash ridge or cut-off area. The force does not fit closely.
The amount of material does not need to be considered closely and excess is squeezed out around the cavity

in a thin flash. Some material is wasted, and all pieces must be trimmed. This type of mould is cheapest to make.

The moulds are usually made of tool steel and are polished to crome plated to improve material flow and

product quality.

This is used to prepare gaskets, seals, gears and handles for kitchen wares.

4.5.2 Transfer Moulding:

In transfer moulding unlike compression moulding the material is not heated in the mould itself. The mould

material is charged in separate loading chamber (Pot). The heat and pressure is applied to charge in a chamber
outside the mould and when this material becomes fluid, it is transferred to mould through sprue and gate under
pressure. The mould is held under pressure until or product is completely cured.

The charge material is frequently preheated to shorten the cycle and minimise erosion of the cavity, plunger.
runner and gates.

This is shown in Fig. 4.2.

 112 Manufacturing
Engineering
OPEN

FORCE

CLOSED

CHARGE

MOLDED PIECE
POT
SPRUE

INSERTS MOLD

FIG. 4.2 TRANSFER MOULDING

It is used when product requires good tolerance, finish and uniform densities. It can also be used wheninserts
are to incorporated into the product to improve strength or used to provide threaded cavities or holes.

The product made by this process includes electrical spares, gears, household appliances, under hood automotive
parts etc.

The disadvantage of transfer moulding:

Mould cost is higher than compression moulding.

Wastage of material is rather higher then compression moulding.

4.5.3 Injection Moulding:

HEATING INJECTOR-SCREW SCREW DRIVE

CYLINDER MOTOR
MATERIAL HOPPER

MOLD
EJECTOR
SPRUE

MOLDED HEATING CHAMBER PLUNGER

PIECE CYLINDER PULL-IN CYUNDER SLIDE

(A) (B)

FIRST-STAGE
INJECTION
SHOT
FROM SCREW
CHAMBER
PLUNGER

SECOND STAGE INJEC

(c)

A SINGLE-STAGE PLUNGER TYPE (CONVENTIONAL)

B. SINGLE-STAGE RECIPROCATING SCREW TYPE
C. TWO-STAGE PLUNGER OR SCREW-PLASTICISOR TYPE

FIG. 4.3 INJECTION MOULDING

Non-Metal Moulding Processes 113

Injection moulding is most widely used method for high volume production of thermoplastic resin parts.

Fig. 4.3 shows sketches of injection moulding systems. The oldest is the single stage plunger type method. When
the plunger is drawn back, the raw material falls from hopper into the chamber. The plunger is driven forward
force the materials through heating cylinder, where it is softened and squirted under pressure into the moulds.
10

The single stage reciprocating screw system has becomes more popular because it prepares the material more

thoroughly for the mould. As screw turns, it is pushed backward and crams the charge from the hopper into the
heating chamber. When enough material has been prepared, the screw stops turning and is driven forward as a
plunger to ram the charge into the mould.
In two stage system, the material is plasticized in one cylinder, and a definite amount transferred by a plunger

or
screw into a shot chamber from which a plunger inject it into the mould.
The injection moulding has following advantages over the compression moulding.

•
It is faster method.

• It is most economical method for mass production.

• The metal inserts can be easily cast with the product.

• The product having complex shape/thin wall can be easily moulded.

• The material wastages are low.

•
The process can be easily mechanized.
Close tolerance on small intricate parts is possible.

Application :

Cups, containers, housing, tool handle, toy knobs, plumbing filling, electrical and communication components

such as telephone.
Limitations:

Equipment of cylinder and mould should be noncorrosive, temperature control is essential, setup cost is high.

4.5.4 Extrusion Moulding:

Extrusion is the term applied to the process and shaping plastics through die orifice. Extrusion means
the continuous flow of material through a die. In this process, the powdered polymer or monomer is fed by
screw along a cylinder chamber as shown in Fig. 4.4. As powder moves towards the die, it is heated and
melts. It is then forced through die opening of desired shape. Hopper is used to fill the powdered material into
the cylindrical chamber. This chamber is heated. A rotating screw is used for carrying, mixing and forcing material
through the die.

HOPPER
ROTATING SCREW

AIR OR WATER
HEATER

PRODUCT

CONVEYER
DIE OPENING
RAW MATERIAL

FIG. 4.4 EXTRUSION MOULDING

Manufacturing Engineering-I/2023/15
 114
Manufacturing Engineering-
Extrusion process is used for the thermoplastic material. This method is used for making log tubes, rods,

ropes
,
Rapid
cooling
insulated
must
be
electrical
wires
,
prevented
thin
sheet
because
.
it
The
causes
pipes
extruded
conveyor
warpage
shape
is
and
set
carrying
some
through
internal
a strains
cooling
in
the
medium
byafin shedpieces." ,
.

Advantages:
. Low initial cost

•
Continuous production

"
Intricate profile can be produced
High uniaxial strength

•
•
Material thickness can be accurately controlled.

4.5.5 Blow Moulding:

In this process, the mould is in two halves as shown in Fig. 4.5. The cylinder or tube of plastic material
known as parison is heated and placed between the jows of a split mould.

When the mould is closed, it pinches off the parison and product is completed by air pressure which forces
the material against the mould surfaces. The mould should be properly vented to eliminate the poor surface finish.
This process is applied only thermoplastic material for making thin walled hollow articles such as bottles
and floatable objects.

Drawback of this process is walls can not be held uniformly because different parts are stretched by different
amounts.

AIR

MOULD

2 3

PARISON
1. A TUBE OF HEATED PLASTIC IS PLACED IN THE OPEN MOULD.

2. THE MOULD CLOSES OVER THE TUBE.

3. AIR FORCES THE TUBE AGAINST THE SIDES OF THE MOULD.

4. THE MOULD OPENS TO RELEASE THE PRODUCT.

FIG. 4.5 BLOW MOULDING

4.5.6 Calendering :

Calendering is the process of making films or thin sheets COMPOUNDED

PASTIC
by squeezing a thermoplastic material between revolving rolls
or cylinders. In this method a mixture of rasin, filler plasticizer
and colour pigment is passed between a series of heated roller ROLLS

as shown in Fig. 4.6.

The roller squeeze the mixture into the shape of the sheet
of film. The thickness is controlled by the speed of the roller
and the gap between the rollers. The finished product is cooled
by passing through water cooled rolls. Products produced by
calendering are vinyl, polyethylene, cellulose acetate films and
808 TO WINDING
ROLLS

sheet, vinyl floor tiles etc. FIG. 4.6 CALENDERING

Non-Metal Moulding Processes 115

4.5.7 Laminating:
It is the process of bonding a variety of material. Laminated plastics consists of paper, fabrics, asbestos or
wood impregnated or coated with resins. The impregnation is carried out under heat and pressure to produce
commercial materials. Sheets of different shapes and properties are produced by this process. It is hard, strong,
having good impact resistant, unaffected by heat or water and has good machining characteristics. Because of
these improved properties, laminated plastics can be used for the fabrication of gears, handles, bushings, furniture
and many other components. Fig. 4.7 shows sketch of laminating process.

SCISSOR FOR

ROLLS SQUEEZE ROLL CUTTING

CLOTH/ASBESTOS
ETC.

TO LAMINATING
PRESS

DRYING
OVEN

-RESIN BATH

FIG. 4.7 LAMINATING

There are two methods of laminating plastics.

1. High pressure laminating

2. Low pressure laminating or reinforced plastic moulding

1. High pressure laminating :

This process involved joining of layers of fibrous reinforcing materials with thermosetting resin binders by
the application of heat and pressure both. Pressure usually range between 8 MPa to 14 MPa. The layers are generally
fibrous material like paper, cotton fabrics, asbestos, glass, nylon or wood veneer. Laminates with special properties
are made by using graphite, mica and alumina etc. The resins commonly used are phenol formaldehyde, urea,
melamines, silicones, epoxies or their combinations.

The process consist of preparing varnish solution from resins by dissolving them in suitable solvent, followed

by impregnating or coating the fibrous sheets with this varnish. These sheets are then dried, trimed to size and
heated and pressed between metal plates to form the laminated sheets.

Tubes are inade by rolling impregnated fibrous material around the mandrels and heating till they are
cured. Rods are made rolling and heating the impregnated material inside cylindrical moulds followed by grinding
to size.

2. Low pressure laminating :

This is also known as reinforced plastic moulding. In this process, pressure used upto 30 KPa. Mostly
thermosetting resins are used in laminating. The reinforcing materials used are glass fibres, cotton, asbestos, nylon,
paper etc. The commonly used resins are phenolic, silicones, polyesters, epoxies and furane.

Following are some of the methods of low pressure laminating.

Contact moulding :

Contact moulding is the simpler way of preparing reinforced plastic shapes. Layer of reinforcing materials
are placed by hand over a low cost form or mould and resin is brushed or sprayed on each layer.
 116
Manufacturing Engineering-
Advantages:

1. It is simpler of all methods.

2. It require minimum equipment.

3. The mould cost is low.

4. No size limit of products.

5. More flexible.

Vacuum bag moulding : BAG

In this process, the lay-up of resin impregnated SHEET

material is placed over the form mould. It is covered by RING

a bag made of cellophane or polyvinyl film. The vacuum

FORM
is drawn through the port provided in the mould. This cause

the atmospheric pressure which acts on the bag to force

the lay-up against the form. This is shown in Fig. 4.8.

Advantages: PLATE

1. It gives better surface finish.

EXHAUST

2. There are less air entrapment and less voids.

FIG. 4.8 VACUUM BAG MOULDING
3. It retains the advantages of contact moulding.

4.5.8 Thermoforming :

Thermoforming is the process of heating a thermoplastic sheet until it soften and then forcing it into desired
mould shape. The pressure required to force the sheet is either obtained by differential air pressure or mechanical

means. A large variety of techniques of applying pressure to sheet are used in industry. Three commonly used
methods are as follows:

(a) Free forming

CLAMP

(b) Vacuum snap back forming

-CLAMPING RING

(c) Positive pressure moulding

-LIGHT SOURCE

Fig. 4.9(a) shows the free forming technique based on the VACUUM

principle of differential air pressure. The process does not

require any male or female for producing shapes. When vacuum -SOLENOID VALVE
(a)
is created in lower chamber, the blown up section of the sphere
retains its shape on cooling. PRESSURE AIR

GAUGE

Vacuum snap back forming is some what similar to free CLAMP

forming. After heating, the sheet is clamped and a vacuum

created in the chamber and this draws down the sheet to the
SEAL

desired shape. The male mould is then introduced into the drawn

sheet and the vacuum gradually reduced. It causes the sheet to PLASTIC

snap back in the mould form.

VENT HOLES

In positive pressure moulding process, shapes are provided

(b)

to sheets by air pressure as shown in Fig. 4.9(b). This process

(a) FREE FORMING
issuitable for producing more complicated shape. Surface finish (b) POSITIVE PRESSURE MOULDING

of component produced by this process is poor. FIG. 4.9: THERMOFORMING

 Non-Metal Moulding Processes 117

4.6 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS FOR PLASTIC MANUFACTURING:

1. Shop floor and machine must be free from oil.
2. Pallet should not be on machine or floor.

3. Person should not go under machine guard.

4. Machine must be safe electrically and mechanically.

5. There must be proper ventilation.

6. Fire-safety equipment must be ready.

7. Worker's must have shoes and safety glass.

8. Worker must be trained.

9. There must be first-aid box.

10. There should be proper insulation to wires.

11. There must be inter-lock or full-proof system when mould are changed.

12. Plant must have sufficient light system.

EXERCISE

1. Define the term polymer.

2. What is polymerization? Discuss various methods of polymerization.

3. What are different types of plastics and their properties.

4. What are the characteristics of thermoplastics ?

5. Describe the various additives with their use added in plastics.

6. Discuss Classification of plastics.

7. Write in brief about the types of thermosetting resins.

8. Describe thermoplastic resins.

9. Describe with neat sketches for following plastic processing methods, stating their advantages and application:

(1) Compression moulding

(2) Injection moulding (June 2022)

(3) Blow moulding (February 2021).

10. What are the advantages of injection moulding over a compression moulding process of plastic ?

11. Sketch and explain :

(1) Transfer moulding

(2) Extrusion moulding

12. Sketch and explain calendering process of plastics.

13. What are laminated plastic ? State their characteristics.

14. Explain the difference between high pressure and low pressure plastic laminating process.
15. Explain Thermoforming process of plastics.

16. State safety precaution for plastic manufacturers.

 CHAPTER

10
5 Metal Joining Processes

5.1 INTRODUCTION :

In engineering production many times it is required to join two components. Such joint can be prepared
by
two methods: (1) Temporary joint and (2) Permanent joint. For temporary joining nut, bolt, screw, clamp,coupling
etc. are used. Such joining process are required to prepare household equipments and furniture. Forpermanent
joint reveting, soldering, brazing, welding etc. processes are used. Such joining processes are required in automobile
industries, to prepare machine structure, also used to prepare required structure for building construction,
in

fabrication industries etc. Metal joining processes have their own advantages, limitations and area of application.
Now-a-days welding process use is increased as joining process. Also new welding techniques are developed. Welding
processes are used in almost all industries. Welding process is most convenient to use in any industry. When product
is of very big in size then to produce by casting or machining is very difficult then it will be more easy to prepare
in different part by welding process and then join these parts as a product.

5.2 WELDING :

Welding is metal joining process for two pieces. It is very important permanent metal joining process. By
this process we can join two pieces of same metal or different metal. Metal pieces which are to be joined are

heated at the ends and keep these ends together and then either by appling pressure or without pressure, also
with adding filler metal or without adding filler metal it can be joined. Classification of welding processes depends
on temperature of metal and method which is used to heat the metal.

5.2.1 Classification of Welding Process:

Welding processes are classified mainly into two part: (1) Fusion or non-pressure welding (2) Plastic or

pressure welding.

(1) Fusion or non-pressure welding:

In this welding process two metal pieces ends are heated upto its melting point. Melted metal of these two
pieces prepare a pool of metal and becomes a homogeneous mixture of two molten metal. Either adding additional
molten metal or without adding any metal this molten pool is allowed to cool as a result we get required joint.
In this process pressure is not applied on metal ends.

(2) Plastic or pressure welding:

In this welding process two metal ends are heated up to its plastic stage and strictly below melting point
of metals, then pressure is applied on metal pieces as a result we get required joint. In this method metal plastic
stage and applied pressure are very important.

Classification of both type of welding processes is given in Table-5.1 based on heat source used to heat
the metal.

118
Metal Joining Processes 119

Table-5.1

Welding Processes

Fusion or non pressure welding Plastic or pressure welding

↓

Heat obtained from Heat obtained from

↓ ↓

Blacksmith Electric Mechanical Chemical

Energy Electric arc Chemical energy
furnace current reaction
energy
ray (1) Metal arc
↓
(1) Electron (2) Carbon arc
Gas flame Thermit Forge welding Resistance (1) Ultrasonic (1) Thermit
Beam (3) Tungsten arc
(1) Oxy-acetylene welding (1) Lap weld welding welding welding
welding (4) Plasma arc
welding (without (2) Butt weld (1) Spot weld (2) Friction (Pressure
(5) Submerged
(2) Laser (2) Seam welding type)
(2) Air-acetylene pressure) (3) Tee weld
welding arc
welding weld (3) Diffusion (2) Explosive
(6) Inertgas arc welding
(3) Oxy-hydrogen (3) Projection bonding
(7) Electroslag weld
welding
welding
(4) Butt weld
(8) Atomic
(5) Percussion
hydrogen welding
arc welding

5.2.2 Advantages and Applications of Welding Process :

Advantages of welding :
(1) Joint prepared by welding have nearly same strength of base metal.
(2) Equipments used for welding process are not more expensive.

(3) Welding set is simple and easy to move at different place so welding process becomes easy.

(4) Easy to change design of product.

(5) Easy to join similar and dissimilar metal.

(6) By welding process, product can be prepared light in weight as compared to casting process.

(7) Machining can be reduced by welding process.

(8) By welding, product can be prepared with less time as compared to other process.

Application of welding :

Welding process is simple, cheap and speedy as compared to casting process. For repairing of a product
this process is very much convenient and useful. So this process is easily used in following areas:
(1) Automobile industries.

(2) Aircraft and ship building industries.

(3) To prepare tank, boiler, pressure vessels.

(4) In thermal power plant and refinary.

(5) To prepare agriculture equipment.

(6) Machine tool and instrument manufacturing industries.

 120
Manufacturing Engineering-
(7) To prepare pipeline and structural work.

(8) To prepare joint of similar and dissimilar metals.

(9) Furniture manufacturing industries.

(10) In repairing shops.

(11) In bridge and building structure preparation.

(12) Railway locomotive, truck, trailer, crane, etc. preparation.

5.3 GAS WELDING :

This is fusion or non pressure type welding process. Gas welding is done by burning a combustible gas with
air or oxygen in a concentrated flame of high temperature. As compared with other welding methods, the purpose
of the flame is to heat and melt the parent and filler metal of a joint. This is old and famous method. In this
method different gases are used to prepare flame. At the end molten metal is allowed to cool so we get good
joint ofmetal.

Generally oxygen and acetylene gas is used to prepare flame. Acetylene is the most important hydrocarbon
in the welding industry. Newer stabilized mixtures of methylacetylene, propadiene, known as MAPP, have been
gaining favor. Other commercial fuel gases are hydrogen, propane, butane and natural and manufactured illuminating
gas, and chlorine burned with hydrogen. To prepare a flame blowpipe is used. Regulators are kept on blowpipe
by which required mixture can be prepared and also controlled. Blowpipe is also known as torch. Normally oxygen
and acetylene gas cylinders are available commercially in market. Gas cylinders are connected with tubes to blowpipe.

Metals which we want to join by gas welding must be clean at the edge. Also different shapes are given

to the edge to get good joint. It is known as edge preparation. After edge preparation alignment is required for
two metal and then we apply gas welding process to join the metals.

WELDING ROD
5.3.1 Oxy-acetylene Welding:
TORCH TIP
In this process proper mixture of oxygen and acetylene is

allowed to come at the tip of torch or blowpipe and then by DIRECTION

OF WELDING
lightening it a flame is prepared at tip of blowpipe. As shown INNER

CONE
in Fig. 5.1 metal and filler metal are heated by flame. Flame
temperature is high. By this flame metal surface and filler metal
which is shown as welding rod gets melted and proper mixture
MOLTEN SOLIDIFIED
is prepared then by allowing to cool it we get good joint of WELD METAL BASE METAL WELD METAL
two metal. FIG. 5.1 OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING

In this process, oxygen and acetylene gases which we are using are easily available in cylinders, or acetylene
can be prepared separately in plant by chemical reactions of calcium carbide and water.

CaС₂ + 2H₂O → C₂H₂ ↑ + Ca (OH)₂

Acetylene produces higher temperature than other gases because it contains more available carbon and releases
heat when its components (C and H) dissociate to combine with oxygen and burn. Most other fuel gases, like

propane, absorb some of the heat of combustion when their elements dissociate. Acetylene is colourless and has
a sweetish but to many an obnoxious odor.

Oxy-acetylene flame temp. we can get up to 3200° C and steel plate up to 50 mm thick can be join easily.
For metal thickness more than 15 mm is to be joined then filler rod is used. Composition of filler metal must
be same as base metal. To get good joint metal surface must be properly clean and flux is used during process.
Metal Joining Processes 121

5.3.2Oxy-acetylene Gas Flame :

Tube or hoses conduct the gases to the torch or a blowpipe held by the
TORCH
OUTER
The torch mixes the two gases properly and emits them into the TIP INNER
ENVELOPE
operator. CONE
Based on mixure of gas proporsion we get three different types of flame
flame
the tip of the torch. These flames are:
at
NEUTRAL FLAME
(1) Neutral flame
FEATHER

(2) Carburizing flame

(3) Oxidizing flame
CARBURIZING FLAME
Neutral flame: (EXCESS ACETYLENE)
(1)
The neutral flame has no tendency to react with materials being welded.

The highest temperature is at the tip of the inner cone and is capable of melting OXIDIZING FLAME

Icommercial metals. This flame has equal proportion of oxygen and (EXCESS OXYGEN)
all
acetylene, and chemical reaction takes places as under: FIG. 5.2 OXY-ACETYLENE

GAS FLAME
C₂H₂+02 2CO + H₂
200+ 02 → 2CO₂

2H2 + O2 → 2H₂O

As shown in Fig. 5.2 this flame has two parts: one is inner cone and other is outer envelope. Inner cone

is near to the torch tip and conical shape and it produces heat. Outer envelope protect the molten metal against
oxydesion.
This flame is widely used to join following metals: (a) steel (b) stainless steel (c) cast iron (d) copper (e)

aluminium etc.
Carburising flame :
(2)
This flame is also known as reducing flame. In this flame acetylene proportion is more and oxygen is less

ingas mixture. As shown in Fig. 5.2 this flame has three parts: one is innercone near to the tip of torch and
second part is white conical shape attached with innercone. Third part is reddish feather which cover the previous
(wo parts. This flame reduces oxides. Steel will take up carbon deposited on the surface and start melting at lower
temperature.
This flame is used for welding monel metal, nickel, alloy steel etc.

(3) Oxidizing flame :

In this flame oxygen proportion is more and acetylene is less in gas mixture. As shown in Fig. 5.2 this
flame has two parts. Innercone near to the tip of torch is smaller in size as compared to the previous flames.
Outer covered part is white reddish. This flame gives specific noise like whistle and gives highest temperature.
Innercone heats the metal and envelope of a flame shield and protects the weld zone from the atmosphere.
This flame is used for welding copper base metal and zink base metal.

5.3.3 Equipments Used for Oxy-acetylene Welding:

Equipments used for oxy-acetylene welding are as under :

(1) Welding torch or blowpipe

(2) Pressure regulators

(3) Hose and hose fittings

Manufacturing Engineering-1/2023/16
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Manufacturing Engineering
(4) Gas cylinders HIGH LOW PRESSURE
PRESSURE ACETYLENE MIXING CHAMBER
(5) Goggles OXYGEN VIA

INJECTOR
NOZZLE(TIP)
(6) Hand gloves and apron
LOW PRESSURE
(7) Welding rod and wire brush ACETYLENE

OXY-ACETY LENE
(8) Spark lighter (a) LOW PRESSURE WELDING TORCH MIXTURE

(9). Flux ACETYLENE CONTROL

NEEDLE VALVE
ACETYLENE MIXER INTER CHANGEABLE
Details of above equipments are as under: NOZZLE (TIP)

(1) Welding torch or blow pipe :

OXYGEN TORCH. BODY

Welding torch is important tool to mix gases OXYGEN CONTROL

NEEDLE VALVE OXY-ACETYLENE
MIXTURE
property and gives flame at the tip. Torch is
(b) HIGH PRESSURE WELDING TORCH
connected by two gas hoses at one end and the
FIG. 5.3(A) WELDING TORCHES
other end of hoses are linked to oxygen and

acetylene cylinders. On torch two control valves controls flow of each gas for proper mixture. Gas mixture
comes
out at the tip of torch, by igniting it we get flame at the tip of torch. Main elements of torch are (i) body
(ii)
hand valve (iii) mixing chamber and (iv) torch tip.

Torches are of two types: (a) Injector type (b) positive or equal pressure type.
(a) Injector type (Low pressure torch) :

In this type of torch, oxygen is injected centrally. Pressure of oxygen is 0.5 to 3.5 kg/cm². Oxygen
with high pressure comes out from injector to mixing chamber. Due to venture effect it will suck acetylene
gas which is at low pressure (approximate 0.1 kg/cm²) surrounded to oxygen tube. In mixing chamber both
gases gets mixed, then goes toward the tip of torch. By burning this mixture we get flame at the tip. Torch
tip is prepared from copper alloy which resist high temperature. Different sizes of tips can be used as per
requirement. Separate injector set is used for each size of tip.

(b) Positive or equal pressure type (High pressure torch) :

In this type of torch, both gases - oxygen and acetylene enters nearly at same pressure. Both gases
-

are control by central valve on the torch. Both gases gets mixed in mixture chamber and then mixture flows
towards tip. By burning this gas mixture at tip we get different flames. For different flames different Lips
are used. Oxygen pressure used is 0.5 to 2.0 kg/cm² and acetylene pressure is 0.1 to 1.0 kg/cm².

) Pressure regulator:

Pressure regulators are fitted on gas cylinders. This pressure regulator works as reducing valve. High pressure
gas is supplied to torch through pressure regulator at required pressure. There are two chambers in pressure regulator.
One chamber is connected with gas cylinder. This chambers is called high pressure chamber and second chamber
is connected with torch. Second chamber is called low pressure chamber. To know pressure of each chamber separate
pressure gauge is attached.

Main function of pressure regulator is to reduce high pressure to working pressure of gas and supply steady
flow to the torch.

(3) Hose and hose fitting :

Tube connecting gas cylinder to the torch is known as hose. It is manufactured from good quality rubber.
Separate hoses are used for each cylinder upto torch. Generally green colour hose is used for oxygen gas and
red colour hose is used for acetylene gas. Hose is connected to pressure regulator and blow pipe with the help
of clip and coupling.
 123
Metal Joining Processes
Gas cylinders:
4)
(Gas cylinders are available in market. Oxygen and acetylene cylinders are prepared from seamless steel sheet.
material have good strength.
Cylinder SAFETY DEVICE
Oxygen cylinder (Fig. 5.3 (B)(a)) : PROTECTOR
GLAND NUT.
VALVE
SOCKET
CAP-
VALVE
Oxygen cylinder outside surface is painted with OUTER VALVE SPINDLE
NOZZLE
black colour. In oxygen cylinder oxygen is filled at SAFETY NUT

pressure of 125 to 150 kg/cm² and at 21° C STELL

temperature. Total cylinder weight is nearly 80 kg with SHELL

oxygen about 40 litres. On cylinder pressure regulator

POROUS
and two pressure gauges are attached. Pressure SAFETY PLUG
SUBSTANCE

regulator will supply oxygen at controlled pressure to

(a) OXYGEN CYLINDER (b) ACETYLENE CYLINDER
the blowpipe. One pressure gauge shows oxygen gas
FIG. 5.3(B)
pressure inside the cylinder and other pressure gauge
shows pressure of oxygen supplied to blowpipe. On cylinder one valve is kept which works as safety
valve. When inside cylinder pressure increase above the limit then this valve gets open and cylinder is
,
protected
greese
from
etc. any hazards. For safety point, oxygen cylinders
oil must be keep away from kerosene,
Acetylene cylinder (Fig. 5.3 (B)(b)) :

Acetylene cylinder outside surface is painted with maroon colour. Normally acetylene gas is filled in
acetylene cylinder at 1.0 kg/cm² pressure. Higher pressure acetylene may create explosion. To carry more
acetylene, first porous substance is kept inside the cylinder and then cylinder, upto certain lelvel, is filled
by acetone. Acetone have capacity to dissolve 25 to 30 times its own volume of acetylene for every atmosphere
pressure applied. Acetylene is compressed into these cylinders so as to dissolve in acetone and that is why

it is usually termed as 'dissolved acetylene'. These cylinders usually filled to a pressure of 16 kg/cm² to
20 kg/cm². Dissolved acetylene cylinder should be handled with enough care and should not be explosed
to such condition which may result in an appreciable rise in temperature. As far as possible their shifting
from one place to the other by hands should be avoided. For transporting them a good trolly of some standard
make should be used.

Acetylene generator (Fig. 5.4):

HOPPER Acetylene gas is not available in natural atmosphere.

CALCIUM
CARBIDE
ACETYLENE Acetylene gas can be produced. This gas producing unit is
CONTROL VALVE GENERATING

CHAMBER
known acetylene generator. Fig. 5.4 shows acetylene generator.
ACETYLENE
GAS
WATER In this unit as shown in Fig. 5.4 upper part known as hopper
ACETYLENE
is filled-up with calcium carbide pieces. Through control valve
CARBIDE
SLUDGE
OUTLET
calcium carbide pieces will drop into water kept in this unit.
Chemical reaction takes place as under :

FIG. 5.4 CARBIDE TO WATER CaC2 + 2H₂O → C₂H₂ ↑ + Ca(OH)2

ACETYLENE GENERATOR
Calcium carbide water Acetylene Hydrated lime

Acetylene prepared by this way is known as carbide to water method. Acetylene gas pressure prepared
by this method is from 0.1 to 1.0 kg cm². Also on this gas generator one non-return back pressure valve
is fitted so we can avoid any explosion in the generator.
 124
Manufacturing Engineering.
5)
(: Goggles

Goggles are used to protect eye from oxy-acetylene flame, from ultraviolate and infrared rays which
comes
from molten metals. Also it protect from spark and glare which forms during welding process. Lens used in
goggles
are of green or brown colour. Lens are specified by 1 to 14 numbers. Normally goggles having lens of 4
and
5 number are used.

(6) Hand glove and apron :

For safety purpose operator is using hand gloves and apron. Hand glove protect hand from flame or
any
heated part. It is very essential to use hand glove by operator. Generally gloves are prepared from leather or
asbestose
which resist heat easily. Apron will protect major part of body of operator.
(7) Welding rod and wire brush:

Welding rod used in gas welding is also known as filler rod. In gas welding base metals are heated and
melted. Sometime some additional metal is required to add. This additional metal must have same composition

or matching composition of base metal. This additional metal is in the form of rod so it is called welding rod
Sometimes flux is used to protect weld joint from atmosphere. .

Before welding base metal surface must be free from dust or oil particles. Also after welding slag is required
to remove from weld joint surface. For the above purpose wire brush is used. This brush is prepared from steel wire.
(8) Spark lighter :

Spark lighter is used to ignite gas mixture coming out from blowpipe tip. Lighter is very simple in construction.
A rough surface and stone is used in lighter, with help of friction between rough surface and stone a spark is
produced.

(9) Flux:

In fusion welding process metal is heated upto melting point temperature. On high temperature metal forms
oxide. Some oxide will not melt easily. If oxide remains unmelted in joint then this joint remain weak. To avoid
such situation molten metal is protected by flux to form oxide. Also flux will do chemical reaction with oxide
so it will melt with low temperature and it becomes light in weight so it will remain on the top of the molten
pool. Also molten metal becomes free from any impurity and flux will prepare a layer on molten metal which
gives protection from atmosphere. After allowing to cool this joint, flux can be removed easily.

A layer of flux is kept on welding rod. Flux can be available in different forms like powder, liquid, paste
etc. In cast iron, brass, bronze, stainless steel, aluminium etc. metal joining flux is very essential. In carbon steel
metal joining flux is not required.

5.3.4 Preparation of Gas Welding:

Following procedure is required before gas welding:

(a) Cleaning

(b) Preparation of edges

(c) Setting up of edges

(d) Tack welding

(a) Cleaning:

Metal surfaces where it is to be joined must be free from dust, oil, rust or any other elements. By wire
brush or by any other process surface of metal must be clean. Clean surface will give good joint.
Metal Joining Processes 125

Preparation of edges :
)
After cleaning metal ends a proper shape are required to give its edge. Shape of edge depends on different

aspect such as design of weld, type of metal, thickness of metal, weld strength requirement etc. Edge can be
prepared by different processes like milling, grinding, shaping, filing etc. Fig. 5.5 shows different shape with different
thickness of metal single or double. With filler metal we get good strength joint.
BEFORE

ROOT OPENING WELDING

t-4.5mm
AFTER
✓4 1/1/2t To It t=0.75mm WELDING

D
1. BUTT JOINT 2. SHORT FLANGED EDGE BUTT JOINT

R=t

3. LAP JOINT 4. T JOINT 5. CORNER JOINT

(DOUBLE FILLET JOINT) (DOUBLE FILLET WELD) (V-GROOVE WELD)

(A) JOINTS FOR THIN SHEETS

២
៦ ន

60°
60° TO 15
TO 90°
90°
4 R

3.0

1.5-3
2.3-6 413-6
t>4.5mm

DIMENSIONS IN mm
20° TO 30°
45°

45°

1.5 TO 3
17
2.3 TO 6
3 TO 6

(B) JOINTS FOR THICK SHEETS

FIG. 5.5 JOINTS IN GAS WELDING

c
)
(

up

of

edges
Setting

After preparation of edge, it is very essential to put metal in a correct position. Fixture can be used to put
correct metal ends relative to each other. Fig. 5.5 shows metal end arrangement.

(d) Tack welding :

Setting up of edges must remains till welding process finish. For this purpose before welding starts, at some
distance interval welding is done on edges. This is known as tack welding.

If we take care about above procedural steps then we get proper and good strength of a joint.
 126
Manufacturing Engineering
5.3.5 Gas Welding Techniques :
WELDING
There are mainly two welding TORCH
FILLER ROD

technique based on position and direction

of movement of welding torch and 60-70
30-40° 40-50
welding rod. 40-50
(1) Left-ward or forehand welding

JOB
(2) Right-ward or backhand welding
LEFTWARD TECHNIQUE RIGHTWARD TECHNIQUE

(1) Left-ward or forehand welding : FIG. 5.6 GAS WELDING TECHNIQUES

In this technique welding torch and filler rod movement is towards left direction. Welding torch is in
hand and filler rod is in left hand. As shown in Fig. 5.6 welding torch makes 60° to 70° angle and fillerright
makes 30° to 40° angle with welding surface. Filler rod is moving ahead with uniform slow movement rod
while
torch is moving slighly on both sideways so that joint looks good and also have more strength.
(2) Right-ward or back hand welding:

- In this technique welding torch and filler rod movement is towards right direction. Welding torch is in
right
hand and filler,rod is in left hand but both makes 40° to 50° angle with metal surface as shown in Fig.
5.6
In this technique filler rod is always in between flame and prepared joint; hence filler metal and base metal
ga
Imixed properly. By this technique good joint is prepared and upto 8 mm thick plate can be weld without
edge
preparation. So edge preparation expence can be reduced.

5.3.6 Welding Positions :

Two plates can be joined by gas welding with different positions :

WELD · (1) Flat position :
AXISOF It is very simple position. In this method both metal plates;
WELD are

kept horizontal and then welding process is applied. Filler metal

addition becomes easy to add as shown in Fig. 5.7. In this method
filler metal goes downward so it is also called downward position
WORKPIECES
Weld joint position we get horizontal.
FIG. 5.7 FLAT POSITION OF WELD

(2) Horizontal position :

In this method axis of weld is always horizontal. As shown in Fig. 5.8 both metal ends are prepared In

groove shape on edge and then welding is done. Welding surface we get is vertical. Also two mutual prependicular
plate can be joined by this method by adding filler metal. This is known as fillet weld. This weld surface is
inclined to the metal surface.

WORKPIECE

FILLET
WELD
GROOVE VERTICAL
WELD SURFACE
PARENT METAL
AXIS OF AXIS OF
WELD WELD HORIZONTAL
PARENT METAL
SURFACE

WORKPIECE
(a) GROOVE WELD (b) FILLET WELD
FIG. 5.8 HORIZONTAL WELDING POSITION
Metal Joining Processes 127

) Vertical position: AXIS OF

WELD
In this method axis of weld is always vertical. In this method welding

process starts from bottom and goes up direction and welding torch is
inclined down word and flame goes up. This weld position is shown in
PARENT
PARENT.
Fig. 5.9. METAL
METAL

WELD

FIG. 5.9 VERTICAL

POSITION OF WELDING

WELD
(4) Overhead position :

AXIS OF In this welding position welding is performed

WELD from the underside of the joint. The work-piece
remains over the head of the worker. The workpiece
WORKPIECE
as well as axis of the weld all remains in approxi-
FIG. 5.10 OVERHEAD POSITION OF WELDING
mately horizontal plane as shown in Fig. 5.10.

It is the most difficult position and calls a very high degree of skill on the part of the worker. The tip of
welding torch should be so directed that the pressure of gas flame tends to force the molten metal towards the

parent metal. This is further helped by the surface tension of the molten pool. This process is done by skill worker
so molten metal is controlled properly not to fall down.

Types of weld joint with different types of weld and weld positions are shown in Fig. 5.11.

TYPES OF WELDS TYPES OF JOINTS

(A) FILLET (1) BUTT
HORIZONTAL (B) GROOVE (2) CORNER
VERTICAL (C) PLUG (3) EDGE
FLAT
5A (D) SLOT (4) LAP
1B
OVERHEAD
3 (5) TEE

2B

KINDS OF GROOVES FOR WELDS

5A

58

1B
V -SINGLE

V -DOUBLE

J- DOUBLE
U- DOUBLE

18
U - SINGLE
BEVEL- SINGLE

J - SINGLE

BEVEL- DOUBLE

SQUARE

FIG. 5.11 TYPES OF WELDED JOINTS

5.3.7 Procedure for Gas Welding :

Sequence of steps for gas welding are as under :

(1) Cleaning of workpiece edge

(2) Preparation of edges

(3) Setting up or alignment of edges

 128
Manufacturing Engineering
(4) Setting-up cylinders outlet gas pressure connected with blowpipe as per requirements.

(5) Preparation of flame

(6) Tack welding

(7) To perform welding operation

(8) Removal of slag

(9) Post welding operations

(10) Inspection and testing of welding

5.3.8 Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications of Gas Welding :

(A) Advantages of gas welding:

(1) This process is used easily for production and repairing work.

(2) Oxygen and acetylene gas flow is controlled by torch so required flame can be prepared, hence it
will
help to get required temperature of metal.

(3) Oxy-acetylene flame is used for soldering, brazing, bending, gas cutting, preheating, over and above
welding process.

(4) Heating and cooling rate is low.

(5) Easy to control addition of filler metal.

(6) Initial and running cost is low.

(7) Equipments are easily available and also easy to move.

(B) Disadvantages of gas welding :

(1) Heavy sections parts are not economical to join by gas welding.

(2) Gas flame temperature is limited as compared to other welding process.

(3) Smoke produced by use of flux may give hazardous effect to eye, nose, lungs etc.

(4) Refractory metal like tungsten, molybledum, titanium and reactive metal like zirconium cannot weld by
this process.

(5) Gas flame takes more time to heat the metal.

(6) For big workpiece pre-heating cannot be done at the same time so workpiece gets distorted.

(7) More care is to be taken to store and movement of gas.

(8) Oxygen and acetylene gas cost is more.

(C) Applications of gas welding:

(1) To join thin metal.

(2) When high rate of heating or cooling gives bad effect on metal then gas welding is very much useful.
(3) Metal elements dispose to atmosphere at high temp. and high temp. gives bad effect on metal. So for
such metal gas welding is used for joint.

(4) Carbon steel, alloy steel, cast iron and aluminium, copper, nickel, magnesium and its alloy can be joined
by this process.

(5) Gas welding is used in automotive and aircraft industry and for sheet metal fabrication plant.
Metal Joining Processes 129

5.39 Oxy-acetylene Gas Cutting:

CUTTING

Oxy-acetylene gas cutting is used for ferrous metal 02

cutting. At high temperature ferrous metal attracts oxygen PREHEATING

, form a ferrous oxide. This oxide separate out easily from - 02

to
C₂H₂
base metal so cutting of metal becomes easy. In this MIXTURE OF

method metal is heated by flame upto red hot temperature 02+0₂H₂

and then more oxygen gas allowed to flow by control nob

on torch. By more flow of oxygen convert metal into its
oxide and gets separate from base metal. Blowpipe used
MIXTURE OF
for this process is shown in Fig. 5.12. Proper distance
CUTTING O₂+C₂H₂
(approximate 6 mm) between tip of torch and metal gives OXYGEN

good cutting. This process is speedy and can cut metal FIG. 5.12 CROSS-SECTION THROUGH AN

upto 75 mm thickness. OXY-ACETYLENE CUTTING BLOWPIPE

5.3.10 Air Acetylene Welding :

It is gas welding process. A flame is formed by air and acetylene mixture. This flame is used for welding.
Bansen burner type torch is used in this welding.

AIR IN ACETYLENE -HANDLE Fig. 5.13 shows detail of this torch. Acetylene gas
CONTROL VALVE flow with pressure and it sucks air into torch. It prepare
mixture of air and acetylene. Oxygen from air is
sufficient to burn acetylene.
TIP

This flame gives low temperature. It is used

ACETYLENE

AIR ENTRY ORIFICES for welding of different part of refrigerator and

airconditioner. It is used for soft soldering and silver
FIG. 5.13 AN AIR ACETYLENE TORCH brazing.

5.3.11 Oxy-Hydrogen Welding :

Oxy-hydrogen welding process is same as oxy-acetylene welding process. Hydrogen gas cylinder is used in
place of acetylene gas cylinder. Special regulator is used to mix oxygen and hydrogen. Chemical reaction takes
place as under:

2H2 + O2 → 2H₂O

This flame have maximum temperature of 2500°C. Low melting point metal like aluminium, lead, magnesium
are joined by this welding process.

5.3.12 LPG-Oxygen Welding:

This process is same as oxy-acetylene welding process. In this process LPG gas is used in place of
acetylene gas. LPG gas cylinders are available in market. Torch used in this process is same as oxy-acetylene
torch. LPG-oxygen flame is used for soldering and brazing process.

5.4 ARC WELDING :

Arc welding is fusion welding process. Heat source is developed by electric arc. Electric arc is used to heat
and melt the materials which are required to join. To get electric arc electricity is passed through metal which
is to be joint and electrode and metals are kept at certain distance. This distance is known as air-gap
Manufacturing Engineering-I/2023/17
 Manufacturing Engineering-
electric flow positive charged ions tries to flow towards cathode through air gap. At the same time negativecharged
electrons tries to flow towards anode, due to this an arc will be formed between electrode and metal. Bythis
are clectic energy is converted in heat energy. This heat is used to melt the material. Temperature of arc is
6000
so 7000° C. This temperature depends on type of electrode, air-gap distance and electric pressure. Electrode
also
met by this heat source. By allowing molten metal to cool we get required joint.

ELECTRODE
WELDING ELECTRODE HOLDER

ROO

EXTRUDED
FLAME
COATING
DEPOSTED
CORE INSULATED
WELD METAL GASEOUS
COPPER MOLTEN POOL
SHIELD
CABLE

SLAG- ARC STREAM

CABLE CLAMPED
TO WORK BASE METAL
CRATER

GENERATOR

(c) (b)
FIG. 5.14

Fig. 5.14(a) shows electric circuit for arc welding. Electric supply used in arc welding is having range of
15 to 60 volt and 25 to 800 amperage current. Any one supply either A.C. or D.C. supply is used in arc welding.
Fig. 5.14(b) shows electric arc in arc welding. Due to arc stream small groove is formed in metal. In this
groove molten metal gets collected. This is known as molten pool. From electrode end to bottom of molten pool
distance is known as "are length". In arc welding arc length plays important role. More arc length gives wider
weld joint. Small arc length may not produce required heat source.

Generally flux coated electrodes are used in arc welding. Flux will protect joint from atmosphere and gives
strong joint

5.4.1 Polarity in Are Welding:

In arc welding D.C. electric supply or A.C. electric supply is used. In D.C. supply use if workpiece is connected
with anode (+) and electrode is connected with cathode (-) then negative charged electrons will flow from electrode

to workpiece and electrons will impact on workpiece. Due to this 2/3 of total heat will go to workpiece and
1/3 of total heat will be on electrode. This arrangement is known as straight polarity. By joining workpiece to
cathode (-) and electrode to anode (+) we get reverse polarity. In straight polarity there is more penetration and
less use of electrode. While in reverse polarity we get less penetration and electrode use is more. For thick sections
workpiece straight polarity is used and for thin sections workpiece reverse polairty is used.

In A.C. electric supply use cathode and anode position is changing continuously. So same heat we get on
workpiece and electrode and we get benefits of both polarity.

5.4.2 Equipments Used in Arc Welding :

Equipments used in arc welding are as under :

(1) A.C. or D.C. machine

(2) Electrode

(3) Electrode holder

(4) Cable, cable connector

 131
Metal Joining Processes
(5) Cable lug
(6) Chipping hammer
(7) Earth clamp
(8) Wire brush
(9) Safety goggle or hand screen

(10) Hand gloves and apron

ELECTRODE HOLDER
WIRE BRUSH

EARTHING CLAMP

LIGHT TYPE HAND SHIELD

‫מיוחד‬
6

CABLE LUG

CHIPPING HAMMER
EARTHING CLAMP HEAVY TYPE

FIG. 5.15: ARC WELDING EQUIPEMNTS

(1) A.C. or D.C. Machine:

(a) A.C. transformer: Transformer is connected with A.C. main supply. Transformer supplys 440 volts
It will give step down voltage of 80 to 100 volt and it is used for arc welding. A.C. electric supply
is easily available and cheap.

(b) A.C. transformer rectifier: In this A.C. supply is connected with transformer and transformer do step
down work and this step down electric supply given to rectifier. Rectifier will convert A.C. supply into
D.C. supply and this D.C. supply is given to arc circuit.

(c) D.C. generator: D.C. supply is received by D.C. generator. Electric motor is used to run D.C. generator
In remote area where electric supply is not available then diesel engine or petrol engine is used to run
D.C. generator.

(2) Electrode:

It is also called welding rod. There are two types of electrodes (a) Non-consumable (b) consumable.

(a) Non-consumable electrode: These electrodes are prepared from carbon, graphite, tungsten etc. This
electrode does not melt due to arc.

(b) Consumable electrode: This electrode melts during arc. These electrodes are prepared from metal. These
electrodes function as filler metal. These are either flux coated or without flux coated (bare)

(3) Electrode holder :

Its function is to hold electrode. It has two jaw prepared from metal and connected by spring for pr
electrode. Handle is kept at end of one of the jaw. Handle is of insulating material and is hollow so ›
pass through it.
 132 Manufacturing Engineering.I
(4) Cable, cable connector :

Cable is used to connect electrode holder and workpiece to welding machine. Cable can be prepared byputting
insulation material on copper or aluminium wire. Two pieces of cable are connected with the help of cable connector
(5) Cable lug:

Cable lug is used to connect cable to welding machine.

(6) Chipping hammer:

By welding process slag is formed on weld bid. To remove this slag chipping hammer is used. One end
of chipping have pointed shape and other end have chisel shape.

(7) Earth clamp :

Earth clamp is used to connect workpiece with cable. Jaws of earth clamp is of gunmetal.

(8) Wire brush :

To remove slug and to clean weld bit surface wire brush is used.

(9) Safety goggles or hand screen :

During welding process heat is generated by arc. With this, arc there is light glare and spatter of metal may
takes place. So for protection of eye or face, goggles or hand screen is used. A coloured lens or glass is used
in it. Through this lens or glass weld zone can be seen easily. It is not advisable to see weld zone by bare eye.

(10) Hand gloves and apron :

Metal spattering may takes place during welding process. To protect by this effect hand gloves and apron
are used. These are prepared from good leather or rubber.

5.4.3 Comparison of A.C. and D.C. Supply of Arc Welding:

A.C. Supply D.C. Supply

1. A.C. transformer cost is low. 1. Rectifier or generator set cost is high.

2. No movement of parts in transformer so mainte- 2. Generator have rotating part so maintenance cost
nance cost is low. is high.

3. Polarity is continuously changing so there is equal 3. Straight and reverse polarity is available so any one
heat on workpiece and electrode. can be used.

4. Very less possibility of arc-blow. 4. There is possibility of arc-blow.

5. Bared electrode cannot be used, only specifically 5. Both bare and coated electrode can be used.
designed coated electrode can be used.

6. It can be used only when A.C. mains supply is 6. An engine driven D.C. generator set can be used

available. even in absence of A.C. mains supply.

7. It is not suitable for non-ferrous metal. 7. It is used for ferrous and non-ferrous metal.
Metal Joining Processes 133

5.4.4 Types of Electrodes :

Classification of electrode is as under:

Table-5.2

Welding Electrodes

Non-consumable electrode Consumable electrode

Carbon or Graphite electrode Tungsten electrode Bare electrode Coated electrode

Pure tungsten electrode Alloy tungsten electrode

(A) Non-consumable electrode :

This type of electrodes are prepared from high melting point materials. Mainly carbon (M.P. 6700° F), pure
tungsten (M.P. 6150° F) and its alloy are used for electrodes. This electrodes does not melt during welding but
due to oxidation and vaporisation length of electrode is reduced.

(B) Consumable electrode :

This type of electrode is prepared from metal. Its one end is kept in electrode holder and then electric supply
is passed through it. This electrode melts during welding process and it works as filler metal. These electrodes
are of two types (1) bare electrodes (2) coated electrodes.
(1) Bare electrode :

This type of electrode is also known as plain electrode. No flux cover on this electrode. This type of
electrodes are used for D.C. supply. This electrode can not prevent oxydation or any reaction with atmospheric
air of molten metal. So some impurity may be added in joint and joint becomes weak in strength. Use of
such electrode is less.

(2) Coated electrode :

This type of electrodes are prepared by coating of flux on metal wire. Due to arc metal of electrode
melts and used as filler metal. Flux melts and forms some gas which prevent contact of oxigen and nitrogen
with molten metal and also flux covers molten metal pool which is known as slag. When metal cools this
slag can be removed by chipping. Coated electrodes are of three type.
) is
(a) Lightly coatedapproximately
electrode:
1.25
. Electrode diameterfactor
and core diameter ratio (coating
(b) Medium coated electrode: Coating factor is approximately 1.45.

(c) Heavy coated electrode: Coating factor is approximately 1.6 to 2.2.

5.4.5 Electrode Coating Ingradients :

Flux which is known as electrode coating have mainly following ingradients:

(1) Slag forming ingradients

(2) Gas forming ingradients

(3) Deoxidizing elements
 134 Manufacturing Engineering.

(4) Alloying elements

(5) Arc stabilizing elements

(6) Binding elements

5.4.6 Functions of Electrode Coating :

(1) It forms slag which is light in weight so it flows on top of molten pool and it prevent contact of air
with molten metal and hence oxidation, also it reduce cooling rate so joint becomes good.
(2) Gas forming element generates inert gas which prevent reaction of oxygen and nitrogen with metal with
the help of cover on molten metal.

(3) By deoxidizing elements molten metal becomes pure.

(4) Alloying element increases strength of weld.
(5) Keeps steady arc.

(6) Minimize spattering effect.

(7) Slag cover will be helpful in overhead and vertical welding process.

(8) It will increase penetration and surface finish.

(9) It will minimize defect like hot and cold cracking.

5.4.7 Electrade Coding:

Electrode is specified by six digit as per ISI coding. Before this digit there is one letter. Detail of this letter
and digit are as under [Ref. IS: 814 - 1963]

1st letter: This letter is one alphabet M, E or R.

M means metal-arc welding electrode.

E means solid extruded electrode.
R means extruded with rainforcement electrode.

1st digit Type of electrode coating specified by figure 1 to 8.

2nd digit: It is specified by digit 1 to 6. It shows position of welding.
3rd digit: It is specified by digit 0 to 7. It shows which electric supply is suitable for this electrode.
4th digit This digit shows minimum tensile strength of weld.
5th digit: This digit shows percentage elongation of weld metal during tensile testing.

6th digit: It shows minimum impact value of weld metal.

5.5 DIFFERENT ARC WELDING METHODS:

Main arc welding methods are as under :

(1) Carbon arc welding

(2) Metal arc welding

(3) Metal Inert Gas (MIG) arc welding

(4) Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) arc welding
(5) Atomic hydrogen arc welding
(6) Plasma arc welding
(7) Submerged arc welding
(8) Electro slag welding
Metal Joining Processes 135

5.6 CARBON ARC WELDING:

In this process carbon electrode is used. Arc is produced between workpiece and electrode. Generally D.C.
supply is used. Workpiece is connected with anode and electrode is connected with cathode. So straight polarity
is used and electrode gets less heat. By this arc 3200° C to 3900° C temperature can be produced.
When filler metal is not required then this process is used. If filler metal is required then additional metal

is added with some flux.

This process is used for steel sheet, copper alloy, brass, bronze metal welding.

COVERED
5.7 METAL ARC WELDING:
ELECTRODE
ELECTRODE HOLDER
Metal electrode is used in metal arc
20%
welding. An arc is produced between electrode CABLE

GASECOUS SHIELD- COREWIRE

and workpiece. Temperature of arc is 2400° C A. C./D.C.
MATERIAL TRANSFER
COATING MOLTEN POWER
to 2600° C. At this temperature electrode and SLAG- POOL
SUPPLY
metal will melt with flux. Flux will form slag COVERING JOB
WELD
on molten metal and protect it from oxidation.
ELECTRIC ARC CRATER
By allowing to cool molten metal a good joint
FIG. 5.16 FLUX SHIELDED MANUAL METAL ARC WELDING
is achieved.

As shown in Fig. 5.16 for this process A.C. or D.C. supply can be used. Use of either supply depends on
type of metal and thickness of metal to joint. Generally coated electrodes are used in this process and we get
satisfactory joint.

5.8 METAL INERT GAS (MIG) ARC WELDING :

Metal Inert Gas welding is very much famous by short name

ELECTRICITY
CONSUMABLE MIG welding. Also this process is known as Gas Metal Arc (GMA)
WIRE ELECTRODE
welding process.
WIRE FEED

ROLLS
As shown in Fig. 5.17 with the help of feed roll bare electrode
WELDING

HEAD is supplied through welding head. An arc is developed between

workpiece and electrode. During this process inert gas is passed

GAS
through welding head. This gas passes surround to electrode and
comes out at welding head end and forms a protecting layer on molten
metal. Electrode is feeded continuous with uniform speed with the
GAS

help of feed roller. A cooling system is provided in torch. By this

ARC

process good strength joint is achieved.

WORKPIECE
D.C. supply is used in this process either by generator set or
FIG. 5.17 METAL INTERT rectifier. Reverse polarity is preferred for this process. 0.9 to 1.6 mm
GAS ARC WELDING
diameter electrode wire is used with 100 to 400 amperage current.

In this process carbon dioxide (CO2) is used for steel work material and argon or argon-helium for aluminium
and copper work material.

5.8.1 Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications of MIG Arc Welding:

Advantages:

In this welding flux is not required, process is speedy. By this process all thick and thin workpiece can be
weld easily. Automatic arrangement can be done for this process. This process gives deep penetration more deposition
rate. All types of metal - aluminium to stainless steel can be weld easily. This process is economical. This process
gives better quality joint.
 136
Manufacturing Engineering-
Disadvantages:

This process cannot move from one place to other place. Equipments are costly. Arc is not stable in outdoor
arrangement. Cooling rate is more as compared to the process with slag.

Applications:

This welding process is used for carbon, silicon and low alloy steel, stainless steel, aluminium, magnesium,
copper, nickel and its alloy, titanium etc. metals. This process is useful for tool steel and die welding, refrigerator
part production. Also it is used in aircraft, automobile, pressure vessel and ship building industries.

5.8.2 Equipment used in Metal Inert Gas Arc Welding :

(1) Inert gas cylinder

(2) Gas regulator and flow meter

(3) Hose and connector

(4) Power supply and cable

) MIG welding head or

(5Gun
(6) Electrode wire spool

(7) Electrode wire feeding mechanism

(8) Water supply.

59 TUNGSTEN INERT GAS ARC WELDING :

Tungsten Inert Gas arc welding is known as TIG welding by short name. This process also known as gas
tungsten are (GTA) welding process.
ELECTRICITY NON-CONSUMABLE
This process is same as metal inert gas arc welding. Basic TUNGSTEN
ELECTRODE
difference in this process is non-consumable tungsten electrode is
used. Arc is produced between tungsten electrode and workpiece. WELDING
HEAD
Tungsten has melting point temperature 6150° F so it is not melting
by arc. In this process if required filler metal is added.
GAS

As shown in Fig. 5.18 tungsten electrode is connected with

electric supply. A.C. or D.C. supply can be used for this process.
GAS
Electrode is passed through welding head and inert gas is passed
ARC
surrounded to electrode which prepare protection layer on molten
metal. This inert gas avoid any chemical reaction with oxygen or WORKPIECE

nitrogen of air, so joint prepared without any impurity. There is water-

FIG. 5.18 TUNGSTEN INTERT
cooling arrangement in welding head. If required filler metal is added.
GAS ARC WELDING
We can get Good joint by this process.

Argon, helium and its mixture is used as inert gas in this process.

5.9.1 Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications of TIG Arc Welding :

Advantages:

A.C. or D.C. supply can be used for this process. Flux is not used in this process so there is no possibility
of impurity in metal weld due to flux. Less spatter effect. It is used for all weld position and gives better quality
joint. Arc and molten metal can be observed easily hence operator can control the process. This process is used
for welding aluminium, magnesium, nickel alloy, copper alloy and stainless steel.
Metal Joining Processes 137

Disadvantages :

TIG welding process have less speed as compared to MIG welding process. In TIG welding process filler

metal is added from outside. If we do not take proper care then impurity can enter with filler metal. If tungsten
metal melts then it makes joint weak. Equipments used in this process are costly. Lead and zinc cannot weld
this process.
by

Application :

TIG welding process is used to join aluminium and its alloy, copper and its alloy, magnesium and its alloy,
nickel alloy, zirconium alloy, titanium alloy, refractory metal, carbon steel, alloy steel, stainless steel, etc. It is
also used for thin section sheet metal work, transistor case instrument, cane sealing, in aircraft and chemical industry
and in fabrication work.

5.9.2 Equipments used in Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding :

(1) Inert gas cylinder

(2) Gas regulator and flowmeter

(3) Hose and connector

(4) Power supply, high frequency unit and cable

(5) Tungsten electrode, welding torch

(6) Feeler metal

(7) Water supply

5.10 ATOMIC HYDROGEN ARC WELDING :

In this process two non-consumable Tungsten

tungsten electrodes are used. An arc is electrodes
Electrode holder

produced between electrodes and hydrogen Electrode

Transfo-
gas is supplied at approximate 0.5 kg/cm² clamp rmer

pressure nearby to electrodes. As shown in

H₂ Pressure
Fig. 5.19 when hydrogen gas is passed Hydrogen
Electrode regulator
through arc then hydrogen molecule is clamp
cylinder

converted into atom and it reach to workpiece

Fan shaped arc
surface, where it combine and atoms getting
FIG. 5.19 ATOMIC HYDROGEN WELDING
transfer back to molecule. Due to this

transformation liberaction of heat takes place. This heat gives temperature of 4000° C to 4200° C which is used
for welding the metal. In this process filler metal can be added as per requirement.

Single phase A.C. supply is used in this process. Hydrogen gas protect the electrode and molten metal from
oxidation. This process gives better quality joint.
This process is used for welding alloy steel, stainless steel and non-ferrous metals.

5.11 PLASMA ARC WELDING:

The scientific concept of the term plasma is "A strem of ionised particles". Fig. 5.20 shows that tungsten
electrode is cathode and water-cooled copper nozzle is anode. Now gas like argon, hydrogen or helium is passed
through nozzle. This gas pass through arc and gets ionised and becomes plasma. This plasma comes to metal
surface and getting transfer back atom to molecule. Due to this phenomenon liberation of heat takes place. This
heat utilized to melt the metal and we get welding of metals.

Manufacturing Engineering-1/2023/18
 138
Manufacturing Engineering-l
High temperature upto 14000° C is
WELDING POWER SUPPLY (D.C.)
achieved by plasma. To control temperature HIGH FREQUENCY GENERATOR ELECTRODE

ofnozzle material water is circulated near to

Le
nozzle tip PLASMA GAS

NOZZLE
Nearly all metal can be weld by this
SHIELDING-
process. This process gives more penetration GAS
RESISTOR
and better quality joint. Filler metal can be
OUTER GAS CUP
added as per requirement. This process has two THROAT-
LENGTH
to five times more speed than TIG welding.
ORIFICE DIA
This process is used for metal cutting JOB

also.
FIG. 5.20 PLASMA ARC WELDING SYSTEM

5.12 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING :

Wire electrode
This process is arc welding process. In this
Feed Rolls
process arc is developed between bare electrode
and

Direction of Granulated flux workpiece. End of electrode is covered by granular

welding flux. Flux gets melt by heat of arc and works as
Unused flux Hopper blanket for molten metal. The arc is submerged SO
Molten flux Current
it cannot seen by eye. This process is also known
as hidden arc welding or flux covered arc welding.
Slag
Workpiece
No pressure is applied to this process and this process
can be automatic or semi-automatic.
Solidified
weld metal Fig. 5.21 shows submerged arc welding process.
Arc submerged
Molten
under flux
A.C. or D.C. supply can be used in this process. Wire
weld metal

FIG. 5.21 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING OPEATION

electrode can be feed by feed roller and flux is
supplied through hopper. Flux will form a slug which
protect weld surface. Electrode works as filler metal and better quality joint can be achieved by this process.

5.12.1 Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications of Submerged Arc Welding:

Advantages:

In this process arc is submerged by flux, so no spatter takes place. This blanket of flux also protects molten
puddle and base metal near the welding against atmospheric contamination. Shallow grooves can be used for making
joints. In some cases no edge preparation is needed. Higher melting speed can be employed. Deposition rate is
very high. Flux acts as a deoxidisor to purify the weld metal. If required, some alloying elements can be added
with flux and transfer them to weld metal. It can be used with equal success for both indoor and outdoor welding
work. Both D.C. and A.C. supply can be used in this process.
Disadvantages:

Operator cannot see the process under flux, so it is difficult to decide correct welding speed. This process
is convenient for simple flat position but difficult for complicated shape. Also this process is not advisable for
thin section. This process is not useful for cast iron, aluminium alloy, magnesium alloy, lead and zink metal welding.
Applications:

This process is useful for welding pressure vessels, boiler, rotary furnace, rail rod, crane, locomotive coach
and fabrication. This process is suitable for welding low carbon steel, medium carbon and low alloy steel, stainless
steel, copper and copper alloy, nickel and nickel alloy.
Metal Joining Processes 139

5,13 ELECTRO SLAG WELDING :

Without preparing edge a thick plate can be weld WIRE GUIDE

by
this process. In this process plates to be joined are FLUX HOPPER ELECTRODE
WIRE
put
in vertical position with a little gap between ends
-PLATE-1
of workpieces. Fig. 5.22 illustrates a schematic diagram MOLTEN
this process. The weld is completed in single pass. SLAG
GAS SHIELDING
(ONLY IN CASE OF
No arc is visible. Flux is poured around the electrode SOLIDIFYING ELECTRO GAS
WELD METAL
and it is converted to slag that floats on a layer of molten WELDNG)
SOLIDIFYIED
metal-confined in the joint by water-cooled copper shoes METAL
WATER
that slide on the sides. CIRCULATION

The equipment basically consists of source of power WATER

CONNECTIONS
supply (A.C. source), a suitable mechanism for feeding
the electrode wire, a hopper to carry flux with a tube COPPER SHOE

10 feed this flux into the joint. PLATE-2 COMPLETED WELD

For commencing welding the flux is first fed into

the joint then current is switched on, which passes FIG. 5.22 ELECTROSLAG WELDING
through layer of flux via electrode wire. The resistance
offered by flux to flow this current creates heat and melt the flux which, in turn, heats and melts the electrode
wire and the base metal. Molten metal puddle being in contact with both shoes, solidifies between the base metal

pieces and form the weld. The solidification is a directional one and non-metallic substance are pushed upward
into slag.

In this process, according to requirements one, two or three electrode wires can be fed simultaneously into
the joint. Electrode wire used can be of solid type of flux coated. This process is quite fast and needs no edge
preparation on the base metal. This process is commonly used for welding metal plate thickness from 25 mm
to 350 mm, alongwith special arrangement higher thickness also can be successfully welded. Most common are
the butt joints to be made through this process. With the use of modified shapes of shoes and techniques, it is
possible to make other joints also, like circumferential joints, corner joints, T joints etc. Special and specific
application of this process are in welding of heavy steel forging, large steel castings, thick steel plate and heavy
structural members.

5.14 ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE WELDING:

It is a plastic or pressure welding. Two workpiece of which welding is done are fixed between two electrode,
a heavy electric arc current is passed through the metal pieces over a limited area, causing them to be locally
heated to plastic state and the weld is completed by the application of pressure. In this process two copper electrodes
are used. The metal pieces to be welded are pressed between electrodes and current is passed through the electrodes.
A transformer in the welding machine reduces voltage to around 4 to 25 volts and raises amperage sufficiently
to produce a good heat.
The amount of heat (H) generated is given by the following relation :
H = 12 RT

where, H = The heat generated in the workpiece (in joules)

I = Electric current (Amperes)

R = Resistance of the joint (Ohms)

T = Time of current flow (seconds)

 140 Manufacturing Engineering-

AIR

A.C. TIMER ELECTRIC SWITCH

SUPPLY
AIR VALVE

TEMP WELDING
ELECTRODE

TEMP

THE OF
WATER WATER

WATER

EFFECT
IN OUT

NUGGET

DIAG R A M

HEATING
Собобовод
A
WORKPIECE

TEMPERATURE
WATER
WATER

IN OUT
STEP DOWN
TRANSFORMER ELECTRODE

FIG. 5.23 AN ILLUSTRATION OF THE PRINCIPLES OF RESISTANCE WELDING

For good resistance welding the following factors are properly controlled :

(A) Welding current: Enough current is required to bring the workpiece to plastic state for welding. It
is properly adjusted on the current control device on the machine. Generally single phase A.C. is used.
(B) Resistance: It is important to generate heat. It is developed between electrode and workpiece surface
and workpiece to workpiece surface. Here the resistance developed between two workpiece surface is
important. This resistance depends on surface quality.

(C) Weld time: It is a time span for current passes through two electrode and workpiece. It plays an important
role to heat workpiece to reach plastic state. Timer is used in welding process to identify required time
for welding. The following other times are used in welding:

(D) Squeeze time or forging time: Workpiece is heated up to plastic state and with electrode forging pressure
is applied on it. Squeeze time is the time span from completion of welding to forging pressure.

(E) Hold time: The pressure is applied till the weld cools and regain sufficient solidification. This time
span is known as hold time. This time is also known as cooling time.

(F) Off time After completing hold time the forging pressure is released and workpiece is separated from
electrode. So other workpiece can be mount. The time span between releasing forging pressure and
workpiece from electrode is called off time.

(G) Cycle time It is a combination of weld time, forging time, hold time and off time.

(H) Contact area of electrode: The workpiece will make contact with the tip of electrode end, which is
known as contact area of electrode which is useful to get weld size.

(I) Welding pressure: Mechanical pressure is required to hold the workpiece and squeeze the pieces to
form the weld during plastic state. It is a combination of weld pressure and forge pressure.
Different methods like pneumatic, hydraulic or mechanical are used for welding pressure. The pressure about
300 kg/cm2 is applied.
MetalJoining Processes 141

The electrode used in this process are from conductive material and should possess required strength of

appropriate weld pressure. Generally electrode are from copper and chromium alloy or copper and tungsten alloy..
mass production process electrode are cooled by water flow.
In
In this process the sheet metal used is about thickness of 0.5 to 3.2 mm. This process is used to join tubes

and pipe. This process used for steel, stainless steel, monel metal and silicon bronze.
The following are the types of resistance welding:
(1) Spot welding
(2) Seam welding
(3) Upset butt welding
(4) Flash butt welding

(5) Projection welding

(6) Percussion welding

5.14.1 Spot Welding :

This is probably the simplest form of resistance welding and best suited for ordinary sheet steel, plate. It

is desirable to clean the sheets throughly before welding. The workpiece is placed in between two electrode and
with foot lever pressure is applied on workpiece. After that current is passed by operating timer switch between
(wo electrodes and heat is generated. This heats workpiece to its plastic state. Foot lever is again operated and
more pressure is applied on it and at solidification it will join together. Water is circulated through electrode to
maintain temperature.

Rocker arm

For adjusting
Throat
depth
Welding pressure

welding pressure
spring
Welding
electrodes
Rod

Initiating
switch

Current
Foot
1. ELECTRODE regulator
lever
2. WORKPIECE
3. CLAMP

FIG. 5.24 SPOT WELDING FIG. 5.25 FOOT-OPERATED ROCKER-ARM SPOT WELDING MACHINE

Timer switch is used to set time of operation, which depends on type of sheet metal and thickness. It is
generally 3 to 5 second, which is called weld time.
As shown in Fig. 5.24 it makes spot at joint. So it is called spot welding process. Fig. 5.25 shows the schematic
diagram of machine. Here electrode, connected with rocker, is movable. It gives required space by moving it and
other electrode is fixed. In the figure the timer switch is available in current regulator.
Generally up to 12 mm thickness job can be welded with this machine useful for ferrous and non-ferrous
material. Application to metal fabrication, box, cane, structure, and furniture etc.
In this process generally copper and copper alloy electrodes are used.
 142
Manufacturing Engineering.
5.14.2 Seam welding :

Seam welding is used for making continuous welds between two overlapping

pieces of sheet metals. In this process the current is passed continuously and is
regulated by a timer. The work to be welded is placed between the two copper
alloy wheels which apply sufficient pressure between the sheets and also carry
sufficient current for producing continuous welds. The heat is generated due to
passing of the current through the resistance in the welding circuit. The heat
generated can be controlled by either varying the current, or pressure between the
sheets which varies the contact resistance. If the heat rate is high then the speed
of rollers is increased thereby reducing the weld time and vice versa. The electrodes

are made of copper alloys and the refrigerent is circulated in order to dissipate
heat from them. Seam welding is generally used where a water or gas-tight joint
☐
is required. This process is used for up to 10 mm thickness plate and pressure 1. Wheel 2. Worpiece
is up to 200 kg/cm² is applied. FIG. 5.26 SEAM WELDING

In seam welding a series of over-lapping spot welds are formed as shown in Fig. 5.26, and these have sufficient
overlap to provide a pressure-tight joint. The metals like mild steel, carbon and low alloy steel, stainless steel,
aluminium and its alloys, nickel and its alloys, and magnesium can be welded.

In seam welding the electrode, from copper and copper alloy is used with diameter of 50 to 60 mm and
for workpiece thickness of 10 to 20 mm.

5.14.3 Upset Butt and Flash Butt Welding:

Fixed
1. Upset butt welding:
clamp Weld Pressure
Upset butt welding is used to join two ends of workpiece.
The two pieces of metal of same cross-section are gripped
Movable together and pressed while heat is generated in the contact
clamp surface by electrical resistance when the current is passed. As
pressure keeps on acting continuously, the joint is upset slightly
eeeeeeeeeeee
which has to be rounded up by machining or grinding. This
00000000000000
process is generally used for non-ferrous materials, for making
joints at wire, tube, pipe and rod.

Workpieces
FIG. 5.27 PRINCIPLE OF BUTT WELDING
Flash

2. Flash butt welding :

In this method, the parts are brought together in a very light contact.
A high voltage starts a flashing action. The parts keep on moving against
each other till forging temperature is reached and then sufficient pressure

is applied to effect the weld. The pressure squeezes out from the joint
faces any unwanted slag, oxides and overheated metal. Due to upsetting
FIG. 5.28 FLASH BUTT WELDING
action, slight budging occurs around the weld. In this process it is very

important to have proper timing and current for the size and section of parts used.

This process is used to automobile body, axle, wheel, frame and other parts. It is used to join sheet,
strip or bar ends. Also used in continuous rolling mill to join two ends of coil. This process is also applicable
to dissimilar metal.
Metal Joining Processes 143

5.14.4 Projection Welding :

This is one kind of spot welding. In this process, current and pressure are localised at the weld section by
the use of embossed or coined projections of diameter equal to thickness of sheet on one or both pieces of work.
The depth of projection is about 60% of sheet thickness. The work is held between two copper plates and pressure
is applies by the movable arm, the fixed arm supporting the work. The current is then passed and good welds
at
all points of contact are made due to flattening out of the projections under heat and pressure. Fig 4.29 shows
projection welding process.

ELECTRODES
PROJECTIONS
WIRES

CONTACT

STAMPED RING STUD CROSSED WIRES

PROJECTIONS

FIG. 5.29 TYPES OF PROJECTION WELDS

The workpiece also can be joined without projection by keeping ring, stud or cross wire in between, known
as stud welding.
All the metals, joined by spot welding will be welded by projection welding. It require more pressure then
spot welding.

5.14.5 Percussion Welding:

This is a recent development in the field of welding which depends on the arc effect for heating and not
on the resistance. One of the two pieces to be welded is held in a stationary holder and the other in a clamp
mounted in a slide and backed up by a heavy spring pressure for welding, the movable clamp is released. When
pieces are very closed to each other a sudden discharge of electric energy takes place causing an intense arcing
over the surfaces and heating them. As pieces come in contact with each other render heavy pressure the arc
is extinguished due to the percussion blow of the two parts and the force between them effects the weld.

The action of the process is so rapid that there is little heating effect in the material near to the weld. It
is used for welding stellite tips to tools, copper to aluminium or stainless steel, silver contact tips to copper. The
equipment used for this process is quite expensive as it must be extermly rugged and provided with accurate holding
fixtures and sensitive timing devices etc.

5.14.6 Advantages, Disadvantages and Application of Resistence Welding:

Advantages:

(1) Filler rod is not required.

(2) Semi automatic machine can be used.

(.

(4) Semi skilled operator can use this machine.

(5) Similar and dissimilar metals can be joined.

(.

(7) Current and pressure is easily maintained.

 144 -I
Disadvantages:

(1) Large thickness and diameter job cannot welded.

(2) Initial cost is high.

(3) Maintenance is required continuously.
Applications:

(1) For making furniture.

(2) For welding sheet metal, tube.

(3) Welding of circuit and automobile parts.

(4) For welding of oil tank, fuel container, tank etc.

(5) Welding of dissimilar metal.

(6) For making electrical component.

(7) Welding of airconditioner and cooler parts.

5.15 THERMIT WELDING :

This process is basically a fusion welding

process in which welding is effected by pouring
super heated steel around the parts to be welded.
In this process, neither arc is produced to the parts
nor flame is used. In this an exothermic chemical

reaction is utilized for developing high temperature.

A mixture of finely divided aluminium and iron
oxide called 'Thermit mixture' is kept in a crucible
hanging over the mould. The thermit mixture is
1. CRUCIBLE 2. SLAG BASIN 3. RUNNER 4. WAX PATTERN 5. SAND PLUG
ignited using a magnesium ribbon or highly
6. PREHEATING GATE 7. WORKPIECE 8. RISER
inflemmable powder having barium peroxide. The
FIG. 5.30 THERMIT WELDING
reaction takes about 30 seconds only and heat is

liberated which is twice the temperature of melting point of steel. The following reaction takes place as per equation
8 Al +3 Fe3O4Al2O3 + 9Fe + heat.

The resultant is super heated molten iron. The molten iron is made to flow into the mould and fuse with
the parts to be jointed.

Fig. 5.30 shows the method of preparing the mould. The two pieces to be joined are cleaned and a gap
is left between them. Then wax is poured on the joint and a wax pattern is formed. Moulding sand is rammed
around the wax pattern and pouring, heating and risering gates are cut. A gas flame is used which melts the
wax pattern at the same time preheats the parts to be welded. Then the preheating gate is plugged with sand.

Then molten iron is poured in basin. This molten iron will fill the gap prepared by mould, and join two
workpieces by applying pressure.

5.15.1 Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications of Thermit Welding:

Advantages:

(1) The welds are sound and free from internal residual stresses.

(2) Broken parts can be welded on the site itself.

(3) The heat necessary for welding is obtained from a chemical reaction and thus no costly power supply
is required.
 145
Metal Joining Processes
Disadvantages:

Thermit welding is applicable only to ferrous metal parts of heavy sections. This process is economic for

big job but costly for small parts and time consuming.
Applications:

Thermit welding is applicable to rail track, pipeline, crank, shaft, machine frame repairing. It is also applied
for joining two casting where it is difficult to make big casting, so two parts separately made and joined. It is
used to repair gear teeth, rolling mill roller and pinion welding.

5.16 FORGED WELDING :

Forged welding is very old welding method. This process is carried out in smithy shop. The workpiece to
be welded is heated in furnace up to plastic state. The ends are joined together by hammering. The hammering
can be manual or power press operated. Generally this method is not used. The following are four joints prepared
by forged welding method:
(1) Lap weld
(2) Butt weld

(3) Tee weld

(4) V weld

5.17 SOLDERING :

It is a method of joining two or more pieces of metal sheets by means of a fusible alloy or metal called
solder applied in the molten state. Solder generally make from lead and tin. Two types of soldering process:
(1) Soft soldering (2) Hard soldering.

(1) Soft soldering :

Soft soldering is used to join thin sheets. This process is not generally used to workpiece under higher
temperature or heavy weight or under pressure. In soft soldering the melting point of tin and lead is around 150°
C to 350° C is used. The melting point of Tin is 350° C by adding lead for the melting point again gets down.
In this process the soldering iron is heated by blow lamp or by electric power and with soldering metal it is

soldered. Soft soldering is done with necessary flux. The flux helps to prevent from oxidation and cleaning of
the surface. Composition of soft soldering is given below:

Sr. Composition in % Temp. Remarks

12-
No.

1.
Tin

50
Lead Antimony

49.17 0.50
Bismith

0.25
Copper

0.08
Solidus

182
Liquidus

210 For stainless steel soldering

2. 40 59.17 0.50 0.25 0.08 182 238 For general use

23
3. 25 74.17 0.50 0.25 0.08 182 266 Used as plumber solder

4. 95 5 -
300 314 For electric solder

In soft soldering, zinc chloride and resin, hydrogen mixture and amonium chloride used as flux.

(2) Hard soldering :

The melting point of hard solder is high. The joint by hard soldering gives good strength then soft sol-
In this solder tin is mixed with silver instead of lead. The melting point is around 600° C to 900° C.
is in paste and it is pasted with the help of brush and to heat it blow torch is used.

cturing Engineering-I/2023/19
 146 Manufacturing Engineering.

5.17.1 Procedure for Soldering:

(1) Clean the surface where soldering is to be done. Clean oil, dust, grease, or any impurities.

(2) Arrange properly all the parts where soldering is to be carried out.

(3) Heat the soldering iron with burner or torch take place with iron bit and spread on iron surface where
soldering is to be done.

(4) Rub the soldering iron with solder wire so the metal will stick on it.

(5) Now rub this on the surface where soldering is to be done, it will make joint or fill the gap.
(6) After completing all the step clean the surface. In this process electric solder also can be used.

5.17.2 Fluxes Used in Soldering and their Functions:

Three types of fluxes are used

:

(1) Corrosive flux

(2) Mild flux

(3) Rasin or non-corrosive flux

(1) Corrosive flux :

Mainly zinc and amonium chloride is used as corrosive flux. Sometimes sodium or potassium chloride is
also used. They all are inorganic material.
(2) Mild flux:

Mainly lactic acid, stearic acid, benzoic acid and glutamic acid are used. They are organic material.

(3) Rasin or non-corrosive flux :

It is a juce from pine tree. In rasin flux alchohole or tarpentine is added.

Functions of flux :

(i) It cleans the surface.

(ii) It prevents the surface from reoxydation.

(iii) It helps in proper joining of work-piece.

(iv) It improves wetting action on workpiece surface.

5.17.3 Soldering Methods:

(1) Soldering iron method

(2) Torch method

(3) Dip and wave method

(4) Induction method

(5) Resistance method

(6) Furnace and hot plate method

(7) Spray method

(8) Ultrasonic method

Generally first three methods are used for general purpose.

Metal Joining Processes 147

) Soldering iron method:

Soldering iron is a big iron rod, having wood handle at one end and at other end is chisel shape. This chisel
end having copper bit. This iron is heated on burner, furnace or by electricity. The flux is pasted on hot part
and solder metal is rubed on it and soldering is carried out. It is a slow process.

(2) Torch method:

In this method the torch is used. It is used when the surface is large and soldering is not possible with
soldering iron.
(3) Dip and wave method:
In this method the solder metal is kept in tub in liquid form. The part of workpiece to be solder is dip
in tub and taking out and required soldering is done.

Wave soldering is also one kind of dip soldering. Here the part of workpiece is not to be dip in tub but
the workpiece is passed through conveyor from solder metal tub, and with pump, waves are generated that wave
stick on workpiece and make joints. This process is used in printed circuit board soldering and generally used
for mass production.

5.17.4 Applications of Soldering:

Soldering is used for carbon and low alloy steel, cast iron, stainless steel, copper and alloys, nickel alloys
(except aluminium and titanium alloy).

5.18 BRAZING:

It is a process of joining two pieces of metals in which a non-ferrous filler metal or alloy is introduced
between the pieces to be joined. The melting point of the filler metal is above 450° C, but lower than the melting
temperature of metal. The filler metal is distributed between the surfaces by capillary action. The copper base
alloys and silver base alloys are commonly used as filler metal in brazing. A suitable flux such as borax is used.

5.18.1 Procedure for Brazing:

(1) Clean the surface, clean dust particle, oil, greese or any impurity from the surface of parts where brazing
is to be done. Clean parts of workpiece by brush or file or with chemicals like sulphuric acid, hydrochloric
acid and then wash by water.

(2) After cleaning of surface stick flux which is available in the form of powder or paste. Borex,,borex
acid, floride and chloride are flux used for brazing.

(3) Arrange properly the workpiece, that is very much important. Arrange the workpiece with appropriate
gap before or after applying flux, if required use clamp.

(4) Heat the base metal.

(5) Apply brazing filler metal in the joint. After heating base metal apply spelter in gap, due to heat spelter
will melt and at solidification it will join two parts.
(6) Remove flux residue from completed joint. This is cleaning process after completing brazing operation.
5.18.2 Brazing Filler Alloy :

Metal is added in brazing so it gives better strength than soldering. This added metal is alloy so the melting
point is lower than base metal. This mixture consist mainly copper and silver. Copper alloy is mixture of lead,
tin, silicon, phosphorus or nickel. The melting point of these alloys is 650° C to 1050° C. 80% copper and 20%
tin alloy used in brazing. Silver alloy consists of silver, copper, cadmium, tin. The melting point of these any
is around 600° C to 850° C. This is used for ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
 148 Manufacturing Engineering-

Alloys used for brazing are available in tin wire, rod or plate. This metal enters in joints due to capillary
action. Strength of joints depends on alloys. Generally used filler metal are discussed below:
(1) Aluminium-silicon alloy : This filler metal mainly used for aluminium and its alloy joints.

(2) Magnesium filler metal: This filler metal used for magnesium alloy.

(3) Copper and copper zink filler metal: This filler metal used for ferrous alloy, nickel base and copper
nickel alloys.

(4) Copper phosphorus metal : This filler metal used for copper, copper alloy (except aluminium), ferrous
alloy, carbon and alloy steel, nickel and nickel alloy and stainless steel.

(5) Gold-Au filler metal :

(6) Nickel filler metal : } Used for above discussed in 4 number point.

(7) Silver Ag-filler metal: This is used for mainly ferrous and non-ferrous metal (Except Aluminium and
Magnesium).

The following are the properties of filler metal :

(a) It provides strength of joint.

(b) Should possess flowability and capillary action.

(c) Reliability and durability.

5.18.3 Flux Used in Brazing and their Functions:

The following flux are used :

(1) Borax

(2) Sodium, potesium and lithium boret

(3) Fluoborate

(4) Sodium and potesium hydroxide

(5) Chloride

(6) Boric acid

(7) Sodium, potesium and lithium floride

Functions of flux :

(a) Removes oxides from workpiece and takes them on the top of liquid filler metal.

(b) Prevents surface from oxidation.

(c) Promote for capillary action to filler metal.

5.18.4 Brazing Process:

The following are brazing process:

(1) Torch brazing

(2) Furnace brazing

(3) Vacuum brazing

(4) Induction brazing

(5) Dip brazing

 149
Metal Joining Processes
(6) Resistance brazing
(7) Infrared brazing
(8) Flow brazing

(1) Torch brazing :

Torth brazing is a simple process. This used in industry for repairing. In this process oxy-acetylene torch

is
used for heating and melting spelter to get joint. Oxygen hydrogen torch can also be used.

Furnace brazing :
(2)
In this process the workpiece is heated in furnace. Due to heat spelter metal melts and join the two ends.
Different furnace like box type, wire-mesh, belt type or roller hearth can be used.
(3) Vacuum brazing :
In this process the workpiece with spelter placed in retort, then it is sealed and vacuum is created. Retort
is heated from outside and workpiece joint is prepared. In this process flux is not used.

(4) Induction brazing :

In this process the induction coil is turned arround workpiece. First flux is pasted to workpiece having spelter

metal. Secondly high frequency current is passed through wound coil. So due to induction, heat is generated and
metal becomes hot that melts filler metal and at cooling it joins ends.

(5) Dip brazing :

Dip brazing is carried out on assemble workpiece by merging it into filler metal tub and by cooling it fills
gap and joins two end.
(6) Resistance brazing :
Electric current is used in resistance brazing. Here workpiece is arranged and pasting flux with filler metal

and current is passed through it. Resistance developed on surface where the joints to be done and heat is generated
which melts filler metal and at solidification joins two ends.

(7) Infrared brazing :

In this process work-piece assembly is placed in retort having high power lamp. Air is sucked out from retort
and inert gas is filled then switching on the lamp which develops infrared ray that gives heat to workpiece, and
joints is prepared. Hidden and unvisible joints are made by this method.

(8) Flow brazing :

This is simple and easy method. A liquid filler poured on workpiece and at cooling gives joints.

5.18.5 Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications of Brazing:

Advantages:

(1) With brazing dissimilar metals can be joined.

(2) Leak proof and pressure tight joints achieved.

(3) It is applied thin sheet to thick plate.

(4) Used to join thin wall, which is not possible by welding easily.
(5) Workpiece distortion is not possible.

(6) Fast process.

(7) Residual stresses are not developed.

 150 Manufacturing Engineering-l
(8) Process applied on hidden and unvisible parts of workpiece.
(9) Economic and quality joints achieved.

Disadvantages:

(1) This process is not applied to big job.

(2) Joints prepared by brazing may not withstand at high temperature.

(3) Skilled operator required for this operation.

(4) Flux may generates toxis gas which is harmful.

(5) Corrosion may possible due to flux residue.

Applications:

The following are the applications:

(1) Brazing used for cast iron, steel, copper, copper alloy, aluminium and aluminium alloy, magnesium and
its alloy.

(2) Brazing used for pipe, heat exchanger parts joining.

(3) Repairing of rediator.
(4) To join dissimilar metal.

(5) To join carbide tip to tool shank for different cutting tool.
(6) Joining of electrical parts.

5.18.6 Braze Welding:

Braze welding is one kind of welding process. In braze welding non-ferrous metal is joined in the shape
of groove, fillet, plug or slot. The metal used in this process having melting point lower than base metal and
it is higher than 427° C.

In this process the filler metal is heated up to its melting point, and joint is achieved by bonding of metals.
Capillary action will not take place in braze welding.

The workpiece is first of all cleaned and heated up to braze welding temperature with flux and filler metal,
and by cooling required joints is achieved. Muffle furnace, electric induction furnace or carbon arc furnace is
used for heating workpiece. Generally oxy acetylene gas can also be used for heating workpiece.

5.18.7 Advantages of Braze Welding :

(1) Comparatively less heat required than other welding.

(2) The metal which cannot be joined by fusion welding such as. copper and steel, then braze welding is
easily used.

(3) Develops less residual stress and machining of the joint is possible.

(4) Brittle metal can also be welded.

5.18.8 Disadvantages of Braze Welding:

(1) Braze welded joint is not satisfactory at the temperature higher than 260° C.

(2) Cannot take dynamic load of more than 1000 kg/cm².

(3) Corrosion may possible by contact with other chemical.

(4) Colour difference in braze filler metal and base metal is observed.
Metal Joining Processes 151

5.18.9 Applications of Braze Welding :

It is used for bicycle, automobile, refrigerator and other home appliances, also for furniture and ferrous casting

and machine parts.

4.19 COMPARISON OF SOLDERING, BRAZING AND WELDING :

(1) In soldering and brazing, base metal will not melt only filler metal will melt while in welding base
metal also melt.

(2) Small gap is required in soldering and brazing between two workpiece, so due to capillary action filler
metal penetrates into gap while in welding this gap is larger than soldering and filler metal enters due
to gravity.

(3) Melting point of filler metal is very low in brazing and soldering than base metal.

(4) Soldering and brazing used for joining two dissimilar metal, while welding used for same metal.

(5) Brazing gives better strength than soldering and welding gives more strength than brazing.

(6) Melting point of filler metal is less than 427° C in soldering. Melting point of filler metal is more than
427° C and less than base metal in brazing while in welding it may be equal to base metal.

(7) The temperature resistance is higher in brazing than soldering.

(8) Soldering and brazing widely used for sheet metal while for thick plate welding is used.

5.20 REPRESENTATION AND SYMBOL OF WELD :

Welding is very old method of joining and widely used in industry. Process information is transferred by

weld designer through drawings.

Weld type, size, weld position are identified by specific symbol on drawing, from drawing different information
is interpreted. Some information are given below :

(1) To show type of weld (Basic symbol)

(2) To show weld position by arrow and reference line.

(3) To show weld finish.

(4) Weld cross section and length measurement.

Fig. 5.31 shows Indian standards institutes code IS: 813-1961 for weld representation.

FINISH SYMBOL· LENGTH OF WELD

CONTOUR SYMBOL-
F UNWELDED LENGTH

SIZE- FIELD WELD SYMBOL

REFERENCE SIDES OTHER SIDE WELD ALL AROUND SYMBOL

LINE L-P

BOTH AR OW SIDE
BASIC WELD SYMBOL: ARROW CONNECTING

OR DETAILS REFERENCE REFERENCE LINE TO ARROW SIDE

OF JOINT TO EDGE PREPARED
MEMBER OR BOTH

FIG. 5.31 REPRESENTATION OF WELD JOINT

 152 Manufacturing Engineering-
Weld Symbols As per IS: 969 - 1960, type, size, weld posion in fusion welded joints using gap or are
welding process are shown in Fig. 5.32.

WELDED JOINTS

SECTIONAL
APPROPRIATE SECTIONAL APPROPRIATE
FORM OF WELD REPRESENT- FORM OF WELD
SYMBOL REPRESENTATION SYMBOL
ATION

FILLET
D SEALING RUN

SQUARE BUTT ก SPOT Ж

SINGLE V BUTT D SEAM XXX

DOUBLE V BUTT STITCH XK

8

SINGLE U BUTT 0 PLUG OR SLOT

DOUBLE U BUTT 8 BACKING STRIP

SINGLE BEVEL

BUTT
D MASHED SEAM ☑
BEFORE AFTER

DOUBLE BEVEL
MASHED STITCH
BUTT
E NK
BEFORE AFTER

PROJECTION
SINGLE J BUTT D wwwwwwwwww Δ
BEFORE AFTER

DOUBLE J BUTT (6) FLASH

И
9

ROD OR BAR TUBE

.
BUTT RESISTANCE

STUD OR PRESSURE
1 (UPSET) ROD OR BAR TUBE

BEAD (EDGE

OR SEAL)

FIG. 5.32 TYPES OF WELDS AND SYMBOLS

Fig. 5.32 shows weld type and symbols.

5.21 :

(1) Backing Required support to control penetration in joints.

(2) Base metal Joining or cutting metal

(3) Bead or weld bead: Adding metal which is different than base metal.

(4) Crater In are welding it is a crater on metal at the arc stricking.

(5) Deposition rate: Metal deposition rate in kg/hr.
(6) Penetration Joining of base metal with weld metal to specified depth from specified height.
(7) Puddle Melted part required to join by welding.
Metal Joining Processes 153

(8) Root Point of two surface which are closer to each other in gap (space between two workpiece).

(9) Weld face Weld surface which exposed.

(10) Weld metal It is tough part of weld or mixture of base metal and filler metal.
(11) Torch Used to generate flame in welding, also used for making required gas mixture.

(12) Weld pass It is a directional flow from welding torch or electrode to joint.

(13) Butt weld By placing two workpiece nearer and in gap welding done through fusion.

(14) Fillet weld Joining two parts perpendicular and corner is welded by fusions.

5.22 INDIAN STANDARDS RELATED TO WELDING:

(1) Glossery of terms relating to welding and cutting of metals. IS 812 1957

(2) Scheme of symbols for welding. IS 813-1961

(3) Classification and coding of covered electrodes for metal arc welding of mild
steel and low-alloy steels. : 815 - 1966

(. IS: 822 1970

(5) Code of practice for training and testing of metal arc welders. IS: 817 1966
-

(6) Code of practice for safety and health requirements in electric and gas welding

and cutting. IS 818- 1968

(7) Filler rods and wires for gas welding. IS: 1278 1967
-

(8) Filler rods and wires for TIG welding. IS 2680 1968

IS 4972 1968
(9) Resistance spot welding electrode

(10) Recommendations for submerged arc welding of mild steel and low alloy steels. IS 4353 - 1967

5.23 DEFECTS IN WELDED JOINT :

It is very much important to check whether the welded joint made properly or not, any defect in the joint
rejects the workpiece. The factors like improper base metal, wrong metal, method of welding may give defects.
The most common defects in welding are :

(1) Cracks

(2) Distortion

(3) Incomplete penetration

(4) Inclusions

(5) Porosity and blow holes

(6) Poor fusion

(7) Under cutting

(8) Overlapping

(1) Cracks:

The cracks will be possible in weld joint, in base metal, or in border of weld metal and base metal. These
cracks are micro or may be visible.

Manufacturing Engineering-I/2023/20
 184 Manufacturing Engineering
Causes (1) Rigidity of joints

(2) Low ductility of base metal

(3) Possibility of sulpher and carbon in base metal
(4) Possibility of weld bead concave
(5) Fast welding

(6) Uneven shrinkage of base metal and weld metal

(7) Hydrogen in electrode

(8) Improper welding method.

Due to above reasons stress may develop and cracks are possible.
(2) Distortion :

In welding joints ends are heated and other parts will be at normal temperature, so due to uneven temperature
shrinkage in metal distorts workpiece.

Causes (1) Joint shape may be U or V type

(2) Low arc speed

(3) Presence of high residual stress

(4) Not followed welding procedure
(5) Large weld pass.

(3) Incomplete penetration :

Depth from metal surface of weld bead is metal penetration, if this depth is not proper then this defects
may occure.

Causes (1) Improper joint design

(2) Root surface is more than required.

(3) Low root gap

(4) Low bevel angle

(5) Low current

(6) Speedy arc

(7) High arc length

(8) Larger diameter electrode used

(9) Improper polarity

(4) Inclusions:

If molten metals impurities will not come on top of the surface in form of slag and will be remains in between
joints known as inclusion. This defects makes joint weak.

Causes (1) Improper or higher current used

(2) Larger diameter electrode used

(3) Large arc length

(4) Under cutting of joint

(5) Tack welding not properly done
(6) Joint with small edges and corner.
 Metal Joining Processes 155

(5) Porosity and blow holes :

Small holes on weld surface or porous surface of weld is porosity and big holes are blow holes. This defects

comes after solidification of weld and some gases in the weld joint.
Causes (1) Improper welding method

(2) Improper coating of flux on electrode

(3) Not properly clean workpiece surface

(4) Not properly control of current

(5) Higher arc speed

(6) Higher arc length

(6) Poor fusion :

Poor fusion due to non-homogeneous mixture at the time of heating between two end of workpiece, they

gives poor joint.

Causes (1) Low arc current

(2) Higher speed of arc

(3) Impurities in surface

(4) Improper edge preparation

(5) Improper use of electrode

(6) Improper welding method

(7) Under cutting:

Grooves developed in base metal near to weld metal is called under cutting. This groove decreases the thickness
and strength.

Causes (1) Wrong inclination of electrode and unnecessary movement of electrode

(2) Large diameter of electrode

(3) Higher current

(4) More length of arc

(5) Higher speed of arc

(6) Corrosion and other impurities

) Over lapping :
It is reverse of undercutting. Melted part of electrode or base metal may flow on base metal surface, and

after cooling, it will stick there known as over lapping.

Causes (1) Low current

(2) Slow speed of arc

(3) Long arc

(4) Irregular geometry of joint

(5) Improper diameter of electrode

 156 -I

(
a
)
UNDERCUT
Engineering
Manufacturing
The above mentioned defects are shown in Fig. 5.33.

(b) CRACKS (c) POROSITY

(d) SLAG INCLUSIONS (e) LACK OF FUSION (f) LACK OF PENETRATION

FIG. 5.33

5.24 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS IN METAL JOINING PROCESSES:

Indian Standard Institute has proposed some safety precautions in gas and arc welding. Below mentioned
are some recommendations.

5.21.1 Safety Recommendations for Gas Welding and Cutting :

General:

(1) Do not weld metal near highly inflammable products, and do welding of such unit after taking some
precautions.

(2) Keep and maintain fire extinguisher, water and sand easily available.

(3) Do not do welding in narrow space or without ventilation area.

(4) Do not lift hot job.

(5) Wear glows, gogals, glass shield, appron for welding, cutting or any other process.
For use of gas cylinders:

(1) Keep away Kerosine, Petrol, Diesel, grease from welding area.
(2) Store separately oxygen and acetylene

(3) Check leakage of cylinder by soap foam

(4) Keep cylinder properly

(5) After using cylinder or before changing the cylinder position use safety cap on cylinder.
(6) Maintain proper ventilation

(7) Take care of hard particles that do not make accidents with cylinder.
(8) Opening of cylinder, closing and maintenance should be done by skilled operator.
(9) Keep acetylene cylinder in vertical position.
(10) Do not put heavy part on cylinder.
(11) Use cylinder with appropriate pressure.
(12) Take care of cylinders placed in open space.
(13) Close valve immediately at the time of fire, always fit valve key on cylinder.
(14) Do not use other cylinder's regulator, hose pipe and any other equipment.
(15) Do not fill other gas in oxygen and acetylene cylinder or do not change it.
(16) Do not fill gas with more than 1.0 kg/cm²
(17) Do not apply hammer to open oxygen cylinder valve.
Metal Joining Processes 157

For use of hose, tube fitting, regulators, torch, gloves etc.

(1) Do not interchange oxygen and acetylene cylinder hose.

(2) Do not rub hose pipe on ground and do not walk on it.
(3) Keep away flame, grease, oil, hot component from hose pipe or regulator.
(4) Clamp properly hose pipe with other equipment.
(5) Do not hange hose pipe on cylinder.
(6) Keep hose pipe on reel after use.

(7) Wear proper gogles while welding or cutting.

(8) Do not take oil, grease or hot workpiece by hand gloves.

(9) Maintain torch properly.

(10) Check torch, regulators, hose pipe before use and check leakage of fittings.

(11) While changing torch tip, take care that nozzle nut should not damage.
(12) Check regulator at specified time duration.
(13) Do not use hammer or spanner to open regulator valve.
(14) Use certified regulator.

(15) Do not apply oil, grease, or any lubricant for fitting regulator.

(16) Close valve if the process is idle for long time, also release gas from hose pipe and torch.

5.24.2 Safety Recommendations for Arc Welding and Cutting :

The following are main recommendations :

(1) Welding area must be clean and moisture free.
(2) Welding machine also must be clean and environment must be moisture free.

(3) Cable connection must be leakage proof otherwise arc may develop from leakage.

(4) Cable wire must be properly insulated and coated.

(5) Electrode holder and earthing should not be defective.
(6) Electrode holder should be supported in proper stand, not in contact with ground surface.

(7) Do not weld the vessels containing kerosine, gas or highly imflammable product.
(8) Electricity and machine installation should be as per rules.
(9) Electric machine and other equipment should be certified and quality product.
(10) Regularly maintenance of electric machine is required.
(11) Only skilled operator can use the machine.
(12) Wear goggles while welding.
(13) Do not wear oily, greasy gloves.
(14) Proper ventilation and light required at welding area.
(15) Wear appron while welding for protection from spark.

5.25 RECENT PROCESSES OF METAL JOINING :

The following are the recent developments in welding of metal, divided in two parts:
(A) Solid state welding

(B) Energy-ray welding

 158
Manufacturing Engineering-
5.26 SOLID STATE WELDING :

Ultrasonic welding and explosive welding are two main process of solid state welding. In this method the
extra metal such as filler metal is not used and metal is heated at room temperature or higher than that (below
melting point) and metal is joined.

5.26.1 Ultrasonic Welding:

In ultrasonic welding, the weld joint is obtained by applying pressure and high frequency vibration motions
(20 KHz). Pieces to be welded are placed between sonotrode tip and drill as shown in Fig. 5.34.

TIP MOTION
ELECTRIC TO CONVERTED TO
220 VOLTS 2400 WATTS MOTION TIP MOTION
MAGNETIC TO LEAST AT
50 Hz MAX 20kHz AMPLIFIED AT 20kHz
KINETIC MOTION INTERFACES

DISPLACEMENT METER
WELDING
POWER ACOUSTICAL TIP

OSCILLATOR TRANSDUCER TRANSFORMER

& DC SUPPLY (COUPLING) P.C.A

CLAMPING P.C.B
FORCE

INSTRUMEAO
DC BIAS
ANVIL
PRESSURE
CONTROL CONTROL
REGULATORS
DOWN
TIMER TIMER AND CONTROLS
STRAIN

GUAGE
UP
WATTMETER
FREQUENCY CLOCK STRAIN
USED IN PREVIOUS AIR
METER TIMER GUAGE
WORK CYLINDER

INSTRUMENTATION

FIG. 5.34 ULTRASONIC WELDING SYSTEM AND ENERGY FLOW

The combined clamping pressure and vibratory forces introduce dynamic interfacial stresses between the pieces
to be joined, then deformation occures at the interface. Due to pressure the workpiece gets welded.

In ultrasonic, main two units used which are :

(1) Power unit

(2) Transducer unit

Power unit consists of electronic oscillator and amplifier also known as generator. It increases frequency of
current. Transducer is connected with power unit. Transducer transfers electric energy into mechanical energy.
Transducer ends give ultrasonic vibration. This property is known as magnetostriction. Transducer is made from
Nickel and its alloys. Transducer ends also known as welding tip or sonotrode.

Workpiece is placed on anvil in over lap position. Welding tip gives vibration to top positioned workpiece
and it gets friction. In starting condition it removes oxides from surface, static clamping force is applied to welding
tip and anvil that is perpendicular to weld surface.

Dynamic shear stress developed in workpiece due to joint effect of ultrasonic vibration and static clamping
force which makes local plastic deformation in the workpiece surface and bonding is done.

Ultrasonic welding can also used as spot welding or seam welding process. With this machine the workpiece
thickness of 0.38 to 2.5 mm can be joined. Glass and plastic can also be joined.
Metal Joining Processes 159

The following equipments are used in ultrasonic welding:

(1) Power oscillator

(2) Transducer
(3) Anvil

(4) Force application device

(5) Timer

(A) Advantages of ultrasonic welding :

(1) Preparation of surface is not necessary.
(2) No defects possible by arc, gas and filler.
(3) Dissimilar metals having different melting point can also be joined.
(4) Low deformation possible on surface.
(5) Thin sheet can be welded.
(6) Thin cross-section workpiece can be joined with thick cross-section workpiece.

(7) Process is carried out at low temperature so basic property of metal is not changed.

(8) Plastic and glass can be joined.

(9) Semi-skilled operator can operate and process is simple.

(B) Disadvantages of ultrasonic welding:

(1) It is not economic than other welding process.

(2) During process, possibility of metal welding with Anvil and welding tip.
(3) Life of equipment may decrease due to fatigue loading.
(4) Due to stress hard metal gets fatigue.

(5) Plastic deformation possible due to ultrasonic strain to soft metal.

(C) Applications of ultrasonic welding:

(1) Thin section metal in overlap position, this process is used.

(2) Welding of electrical and electronics parts.

(3) Welding of aluminium sheets and wire.

(4) To join two dissimilar metal.

(5) Welding of heat exchanger parts.

(6) Welding of capillary tube of refrigerator and airconditioner equipments.

5.26.2 Explosive Welding :

Explosive welding is a solid state welding process. In this process, the weld joint is made with high relati
velocity at a high pressure using high explosives. As the plate moves at high velocity and meets the other
with massive impact, high stress waves created between the plates, which clears all the oxides and scales p=
in the interface and make a clean joint. Explosive welding eliminates the problems associated with fusion
methods such as the heat affected zone etc. Generally low detonation velocity explosives are used in

welding. The detonation velocity depends on the thickness of the plate being welded.
 160
Manufacturing Engineering-1
Fig. 5.35 illustrates the two common setup used in explosive welding. It contains four basic components
(1) Target Plate

(2) Flyer plate

(3) Buffer plate

(4) Explosive and a detonator

EXPLOSIVE
DETONATOR

DETONATOR EXPLOSIVE
WELD IN PROGRESS METAL-1
METAL-1
METAL-2 YOURK

ANVIL ANVIL ANVIL ANVIL

METAL-2

PARALLEL ARRANGEMENT INCLINED ARRANGEMENT

FIG. 5.35 EXPLOSIVE WELDING

The target plate is fixed in an anvil of large mass. When the explosive is detonated, it thrusts the flyer plate
towards the target plate. To protect the flyer plate from surface damage due to impact, a thin layer of rubber
or PVC sheet is placed between the flyer plate and the explosive. The explosive may be in sheet form or grannular
form which is spread uniformly over the buffer plate. Welding is completed in microseconds.

The explosives and their speeds are given as :

Explosive Explosive speed m/sec.

PETN 8190

TNT 6600

RDX 8100

Metabel (I.C.I.) 6900

7800
Tetryl

(A) Advantages of explosive welding :

(1) It is easy process.

(2) Larger surface areas can be welded.

(3) This process will not affect microstructure of metal.
(4) Thin sheet can be joined to thick plate.
(5) Different thickness plate can be welded.

(6) Provide better strength.

(7) Porosity free joints achieved.

(B) Disadvantages of explosive welding :

(1) In industrial area it is not allowed because it makes noise and great vibration to ground.

(2) Difficult to store explosive.

(3) Misuse of explosive may be danger.
(4) Not applicable to brittle metal.

(5) For thicker plate, large quantity of explosive require, which develop high sound.
(6) Not used for berelium, tungsten, boron, glass and ceramic material.
Metal Joining Processes 161

(C) Applications of explosive welding:

(1) Useful for the material like aluminium and steel, aluminium and stainless steel, nickel alloy, copper and
stainless steel etc.

(2) Metal welding, which cannot be possible by other method that can be easily joined by explosive welding.
(3) Pipe and tube up to 1.5 m can be joined easily.

(4) Fabrication work of space and nuclear application.

(5) Application to pressure vessels, boilers and heat exchanger.
(6) Used for making die in die casting industry.

(7) Pluging of nuclear heat exchanger.

(8) Automobile industry, bimetallic disk break etc.

(9) Chemical vessel, electrical industry and application to cryogenic industry.

5.27 ENERGY RAY WELDING :

In this process the heat is generated from radient energy for welding. Ray will be concentrated on workpiece
and welding is done. Two main types are :

(1) Electron beam welding

(2) Laser beam welding

5.27.1 Electron Beam Welding :

In electron beam welding, the heat required for the welding is obtained by bombarding high velocity electron
beam on to the workpieces to be joined.

In this process, the electrons emitted from the cathode of electron gun accelerated towards anode and aligned
by means of focus lenses and finally strikes the workpiece. When the beam strikes the workpieces, the kinetic
energy of high velocity electrons is converted into heat. This heat is sufficient to melt and fuse the metal. It is

carried in vacuum. Fig. 5.36 shows schematic diagram of an electron beam welding operation.

FUNCTIONS

CATHODE CATHODE

ELECTRONS EMITTED:
leeee
QUANTITY DEPENDS ON BEAM CURRENT

ELECTRONS ACCELERATED: ANODE

BY POTENTIAL BETWEEN CATHODE AND ANODE.

ENERGY DELIVERED IS PRODUCT OF BEAM

ANODE
CURRENT AND ACCELERATING-POTENTIAL. LENS
BEAM

区 ☑
BEAM FOCUSED
☑ ☑
HIGH
LENS
TO CONCENTRATE ENERGY ON WORK. VACCUM

APERATURES
EXHAUST
HIGH VACCUM
WORK WORK
EFFECTIVENESS OF BEAM DEPENDS ON

ENERGY DELIVERED PER UNIT OF AREA

OF BEAM SPOT ON WORKPIECE.

FIG. 5.36 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF AN ELECTRON-BEAM WELDING OPERATION

Steps of electron beam welding :

(1) Joint preparation

(2) Cleaning of workpieces

Manufacturing Engineering-I/2023/21
 162
Manufacturing Engineering-I

(3) Fixturing of workpieces

(4) Demagnetization of workpieces

(5) Setting up workpieces
(6) Suck air from chamber (pump down)

(7) Carry out welding

This process can be done in vacuum chamber or outside the chamber.

(A:
) Electron beam welding equipments

(1) Electron beam gun: In vacuum chamber, the electron gun from which electrons are emitted by a
hot filament of tungston cathod (-) or tantalum usually connected to a 12 volts supply. The electrons
emitted from filament by thermonic emission are accelerated to a high velocity to the anode (+) (metal
ring) fed with a D.C. high voltage supply at 5 to 150 kV.

(2) Lens or focusing coil: The electron beam is then focused by a magnetic lens system (consisting of

.
(3) Work holding device: To clamp workpiece rigidly at proper place.

(4) Vacuum pumping system: In electron beam welding, the beam passed through vacuum chamber, that
is around 133×10-6 N/mm². To create vacuum in chamber, pump system is used.

(B) Advantages of electron beam welding:

(1) Better quality welding is possible.

(2) Minimum heat zone on workpiece which gives very less effect of heat.

(3) Reactive metals easily welded in vacuum chamber.

(4) Butt joint of upto 6 mm possible without edge preparation.

(5) Welding is clean so after operation cleaning is not required.

(6) Thin sheet can be welded with thick plate.

(7) Process can be possible remote location.

(C) Disadvantages of electron beam welding:

(1) Initial investment is high and equipment cannot be transfer from one place to other place casily.
(2) All the time vacuum is created for all new jobs that increase time and cost.

(3) Skilled operator is required.

(4) Big job is difficult to position in chamber.

(5) Workpiece manipulation required more care and specific equipment in vacuum chamber.

(6) Electron beam moves in straight line so in between parts cannot be welded.
(D) Applications of electron beam welding:

(1) Used for welding reactive and refractory metal.

(2) To join different metals like stainless steel, titanium and copper.
(3) Used in welding of automobile and aircraft parts.

(4) Used when other welding method fails.

5.27.2 Laser Beam Welding:

This process is also known as LBW. The laser beam is produced by firing a brilliant light (capacitor discharge
into xenon tubes or almost instant ignitions of aluminium or magnesium foil or wire) and directing this intense
light into the ruby by using parabolic mirrors.
Metal Joining Processes 163

LASER Light Amplified by Stimulated Emission

-

ELECTRICAL INPUT

of Radiation. It is highly directional and strong, CAPACITOR BANK

COOLING
monochromatic and coherent. SYSTEM
LASER BEAM
MIRROR
Two methods are used for laser beam: FOCUSING LENS

(1) Solid state ruby crystal

(2) Carbon dioxide gas.

ww
(1) Ruby crystal laser :
XENON FLASH TUBE LASER CRYSTAL JOB
The ruby crystal is prepared from aluminium oxide (PUMPING SOURCE) (RUBY)

MIRROR SURFACE CONCENTRATED

and chromium. It is tube shape. Fig. 5.37 shows that OPTICAL CAVITY
LASER BEAM

the photons are reflected repeatedly from one mirror to FIG. 5.37 LASER BEAM WELDING
the other mirror at the two ends of the ruby crystal,

increasingly the exitation of chromium atoms to form a narrow beam of red light which leaves crystal through
the small hole in the mirror at one end of the crystal. By suitable focussing, welding can be done. To control
heat, gas or liquid cooling is provided.
(2) Carbon dioxide laser :

In this process carbon dioxide gas is used instead of ruby crystal. Laser beam is produced from carbon dioxide
molecules. It gives better capacity to convert electric energy to light energy. Difficulties in changing flash tube
can be minimised.

With above two methods welding is done in fraction of second so melted metal will not be affected by

atmosphere or other chemical process, it is also not required protection from atmosphere contemination.
(A) Advantages of laser beam welding:

(1) Welding is done inside the transparent glass or plastic housing.

(2) Electrode is not used, so electrode contamination is not possible.

(3) Vacuum chamber is not required like EBW.

(4) Used in not readily accessible area.

(5) Laser beam generates heat in concentric area so other part of workpiece will not be affected by heat.

(6) Easily control of laser beam.

(7) Quality welding is possible.

(B) Disadvantages of laser beam welding:

(1) It is slow process (25 to 250 mm/ minute).

(2) Life of flash tube is less, so cost is high.

(3) Low depth (1.5 mm) welding is possible.

(4) Welding of Magnesium metal is difficult.

(C) Applications of laser beam welding:

(1) Used for the metal having high melting point and hard metal.
(2) Welding and cutting is possible with laser beam.

(3) Used for small electronic parts joining and I.C. manufacturing.
(4) Application to space and aircraft industry.
 164 Manufacturing Engineering-I

(5) To join dissimilar metal.

(6) Used for micro-welding.

(7) Used for copper, nickel, aluminium, stainless steel, tungsten, titanium, zirconium, tantalium welding.
5.28 INSPECTION AND TESTING OF WELD :

After welding, testing of joints is required, that can be done by below mentioned two methods:
(A) Destructive testing

(B) Non-destructive testing

(A) Destructive test :

(1) Tensile test

(2) Bend test

(3) Impact test

(4) Nick break test

(5) Hardness test

(6) Etch test

Destructive testing is done by sample testing. This process destroy workpiece so after test we cannot use
workpiece.

(B) Non-destructive test:

(1) Visual inspection

(2) Sound test

(3) X-ray and y-ray radiography

(4) Magnetic particle inspection

(5) Liquid (Dye) penetrant test

) Ultrasonic test

(7) Eddy current test

In non-destructive testing the workpiece is not destroyed. After testing it is decided to use the component
for application. Tested workpiece can be used. It is easy and economic process.

5.29 ADHESIVE BONDING:

It is a joining process with the help of glue, cement, fevicol, fevifix, m-

seal like adhesive. This joint is also known as two surface interaction. While
in contact only few points of surface make contact with each other and rest
as voids as shown in Fig. 5.38. This voids are filled with adhesive. This adhesive (a) Without (b) With
Adhesive Adhesive
after cooling or by chemical effect it becomes hard and solid joint provides
between two surfaces. FIG. 5.38 ADHESIVE
BONDING OF TWO SURFACES

5.29.1 Procedural Steps for Adhesive Bonding Process:

The following are the steps for adhesive bonding

:

(A) Surface preparation

(B) Applying the primer

(C) Applying the adhesive

 165
Joining Processes
Metal
(D) Assembling adhesive coated components
(E) Curing the assembly
(F) Testing of adhesive bonded joint
Surface preparation :
)
Cleaning of surface is very much important in adhesive bonding, to get better joint the surfaces should be
wet by adhesive. Dust, oil, grease, corrosion must be removed from surface to be joined, known as surface
preparation.
The following are the processes for metallic surface :
(1) Remove oil and grease by vapour degreasing
(2) Clean the surface by chemical etching
(3) Wash the surface
(4) Dry the surface
The following are the processes for non-metallic surfaces:
(1) Clean the surface by solvent.
(2) Rub the surface.
(3) Again clean the surface by solvent.
(4) Protect the surface from atmospheric contamination.

(B) Applying the primer :

Apply the primer by brush or spray. Primer helps in better joint and provide appropriate strength to joint.

(C) Applying the adhessive:

After applying primer wait for some time to dry surface then apply the adhesive. Adhesive can be applied by:
(1) Apply manually by brush, roller, trovel.
(2) By semiautomatic spray gun or by high pressure extension gun.
(3) For mass production automatic machines are used.

(D) Assembling adhesive coated components :

Remove solvent if there is adhesive by heating it. Then immediately assemble parts. Keep them in the steady
position up to curing. For applying required pressure it can be clamped with pin, tape or put in fixture.

(E) Curing the assembly:

Curing is required if more strength and heat resistance required in joint.

Curing is done by :

(1) giving heat.

(2) applying pressure.

(3) giving heat and applying pressure.
Generally curing temperature for fenolic base adhesive is 150° C to 204° C and time 30 minute to 2 hours.
Low temperature required more time.

(F:
) Testing of adhesive bonded joint
Testing of adhesive bonded joint is done by below mentioned two methods:

(1) Non-destructive test such as visual inspection, ultrasonic test, radio-graphic test and leakage te
(2) Destructive test such as tensile test, shear test, pile test and clivage test.
 166 Manufacturing Engineering-I

5.29.2 Types of Adhesives:

Generally following types are :

(A) Thermoplastic adhesive

(B) Thermo-setting adhesive
(A) Thermoplastic adhesive :
Thermoplastic adhesive becomes soft at higher temperatur. They are devided in three types:

(1) By drying in air and after removing solvent, joint becomes stronger.

(2) Fusible solid adhesive which becomes liquid by applying heat and pouring it in gap gives strong bond
after cooling.

(3) Pressure tape type which gives strong bond by applying pressure on joint.

(B) Thermo-setting adhesive :

Thermosetting adhesive chemical process which cured by polymerization, condensation, cross linking,
valcanisation or by oxidation.

In this process catalyst are added or for energy curing heat, pressure or radiation used.

Thermosetting adhesive never becomes soft after making joint between parts even by applying heat.

5.29.3 Synthetic Adhesive:

Synthetic adhesive of polymer type are :

(1) Finolic

(2) Acrylic

(3) Apoxy

(4) Olifin polymer

(5) Polyairomatic

(6) Polyurothin

(7) Uriya

5.29.4 Commercial names of adhesive :

(1) Airldied

(2) M-seal

(3) Quick-fix

(4) Fevicol
(5) Dunlop-solution

(6) PVC Cement

(7) Metal proof gasket cement

5.29.5 Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications of Adhesive Bonding :

Advantages:

(1) Similar and dissimilar parts can be joined.

(2) Parts of any dimensions can be joined.
(3) Very soft part can be joined with large section parts and foil can be joined to any parts.
 167

Me Joining Processes
(4) Adhesive provides smooth surface without hole.
(5) Provide resistance to shock and vibration.
(6) Stress concentration not possible because uniformly distribution of stress on entire parts.
(7) Higher temperature not required just like in welding and brazing.
(8) Skilled operator is not required.

(9) Economic process.

(10) Adhesive bond provides fatigue resistance, uniform load distribution and heat resistance to joint.
(11) Gives protection to moisture and other atmospheric effect.
Disadvantages:

(1) Care required in surface preparation, applying adhesive and curing otherwise better joint is not achieved.
(2) Adhesive not safe on more than 170° C temperature.
(3) Jig and fixtures are required.
(4) Difficult to test joint by non-destructive method.

(5) Selection of adhesive is complicated to work under moisture and special atmosphere.
(6) Adhesive joint cannot be easily opened.

(7) Adhesive bonding required heat and pressure also time increases.

(8) Low strength compare to other process.

Applications:

Adhesive bonding is used in following industries :

(1) Automobile
(2) Aircraft

(3) Building product

(4) Packaging

(5) Shoe making

(6) Furniture

(7) Book-binding

(8) Electrical

(9) Rail-rod

(10) Ship-building

(11) Medical and dentist

(12) Tap making

5.29.6 Selection of Adhesive :

The selection of adhesive is based on following parameters:

(1) Types of material to be joined.

(2) Performance requirement of the assembly.

(3) Method to apply the adhesive on surface to be joined.

The adhesive are available in the form of liquid, paste, emulsion, tape, film or powder.
 168 Manufacturing Engineering-

POINTS TO REMEMBER

1. Metal joining is divided in two parts:

(a) Permanent joint (b) Temporary joint

2. Temporary joints are nut, bolt, screw, clamp, coupling.

3. Permanent joints are welding, soldering, brazing.

4. Welding is classified in two ways:

(a) Fusion or non-pressure welding (b) Plastic or pressure welding

5. Non-pressure welding is classified in three ways:

(a) Energy ray (b) Electric arc (c) Chemical energy

6. Chemical energy processes are gas welding and thermit welding.

7. In gas welding mainly acetylene and oxygen or air is used.

.

8. In electric arc welding: Carbon arc, metal arc, TIG, MIG, SAW, PAW are the processes.

9. In energy ray welding Electron beam welding and laser beam welding are the processes.
10. In fusion welding metal is heated upto melting point temperature.

11. Base metal not melted in soldering and brazing.

12. Gas welding can be done with or without filler metal

13. Fuel of gas welding are: Acetylene, Hydrogen, MAPP, propeline, propen and natural gas.

14. In oxygen cylinder gas capacity is 40 litre, temperature is 21° C and pressure is 150 kg/cm².
15. One pressure regulator and two pressure gauge are attached in oxygen cylinder.
16. Three flames are produced by oxygen and acetylene
:

(a) Oxidising flame (b) Neutral flame (c) Carburising flame

17. Proper mixture of oxygen and acetylene done by welding torch or blowpipe.
18. Two types of welding torch :

(a) Low pressure torch (b) High pressure torch

19. Cleaning of metal workpiece is must in gas welding.

20. D erent joints like butt, lap, T, corner and edge are produced by gas welding.

21. main gas welding techniques are :

(a) Fore hand welding (b) Back hand welding.

22. Gas welding can be done in different positions like flat, horizontal, vertical, over head position.

23. Arc welding is fusion process. In this process low voltage current is passed through two electrode and arc
is developed between electrode and workpiece which helps in producing heat for welding.

24. 15 to 60 volt and 25 to 800 amp current is required for arc.

25. In arc welding DC generator or AC transformer is used.

26. Electrode used in arc welding depends on :
Base metal composition
- A.C., D.C. or A.C./D.C. current

- Consumable/ Non-consumable
Metal Joining Processes 169

- Welding position

- Coating type

Mechanical property
Two types of welding rod (a) Coated welding rod (b) Bare welding rod
27.

28. Straight polarity and reverse polarity depends on workpiece and weldjoint.
29. Coated electrode used to prevent joint from oxidation.
Flux is coated on electrode, different flux components are:
30.
- Slag forming components

-
Gas forming components

- Dioxidising components

- Alloying components

- Arc stabilising components

-

Binder

31. Following points are consider for arc welding :

- Proper welding current

- Type of electrode and size

- Edge preparation of workpiece

- Welding position

Weld deposition

- Removing slag from workpiece after cooling.

32. Safety precaution must be followed.

33. Flux quantity and electrode feed is controlled in SAW.

34. SAW applied on flat horizont position workpiece.

35. Non-consumbale tungston electrode used in TIG welding.

36. Consumable electrode used in MIG welding.

37. MIG welding used in all condition.

38. Resistance welding is a process of plastic or pressure welding.
39. Current, workpiece resistance and current time are the affecting parameter of heat development in resistance
welding.

40. Spot welding done on spot point metal.

41. Seam welding is used to achieve continuous spot.

42. Leakproof joint possible by seam welding.

43. Upset welding is used to join two workpiece, workpiece will be in contact before welding.

44. Flash-butt welding also used to join workpiece, some gap is required in between two workpiece before welding.

45. Thermit welding is fusion welding. Thermit mixture is used to make joint.

46. Aluminium and iron oxide are used in thermit mixture.

Manufacturing Engineering-1/2023/22
 170 Manufacturing Engineering-
47. Thermit welding used for railway track, crankshaft, machine frame welding.

48. Two main types of soldering: (a) Soft soldering (b) Hard soldering

49. Solder metals are: Tin, lead, antimony, bismuth and copper.

50. Soft soldering done at 350° C temperature. While hard soldering done at 600° C to 900° C temperature.
51. Base metal must be clean in soldering process.

52. Three flux are used in soldering :

Corrosive flux

- Mild flux

Rasin flux

53. Soldering done by : Iron process, torch process, deep and wave are main.
54. Brazing is similar to soldering.

55. Brazing provide better strength than soldering.

56. Metal used in brazing having melting point is around 450° C.

57. Filler metal used in brazing are: Aluminium, silicon, magnisum, copper and copper-zinc alloy.
58. Different flux used in brazing are :
- Borex

- Sodium, potesium and lithium boret

- Fluoborate

- Chloride

- Sodium and potesium hydroxide

- Boric acid etc.

59. Brazing methods are :

- Torch brazing

- Furnace brazing

Vacuum brazing
Induction brazing

- Deep brazing

- Resistance brazing

Infrared brazing
Flow brazing

60. Sometimes brazing is beneficial than arc welding and soldering.

61. IS 813-1961 is for welding process joint detail.

62. Defects in welding are :

- Crack

- Distortion

- Incomplete penetration
- Inclusions
 171
Metal Joining Processes
Parosity and blow holes
- Poor fusion

Under cutting

Over lapping

63. Safety precausions required during welding.

64. Gas cylinder, pipe and regulator should be of quality product.
65. In arc welding, welding machine, cable, electrode holder are checked for proper connection.
66. Arc welding is carried under clean place, moisture free and proper ventation environment.
67. Goggles, screen and handgloves required to wear during arc welding process.
68. Ultrasonic welding, electron beam and laser beam welding are modern welding process.
69. Ultrasonic welding used for thin metal.
70. High frequency vibration used in ultrasonic welding.
71. Different explosive in explosive welding are: PETN, TNT, RDX, Metabel and Tetryl.

72. Electron beam welding used to make joint of dimension 0.75 to 3 mm.

73. Laser beam used for small parts joining.

74. Laser beam produced by ruby crystal or carbon dioxide.

75. Adhesive bonding is also joining process.

76. Types of adhesives are: (a) Thermo-plastic (b) Thermo-setting
77. Adhesive welding used for metal and non-metal.

EXERCISE

1. Give classification of metal joining process. (September 2021)

2. Differentiate between soldering, brazing and welding. (October 2000, September 2021)

3. Classify welding process as per I.S. (May 1998, October 1998, Sept. 2021, Feb. 2022, June 2022)

4. State names of different pressure and non-pressure welding processes.

5. Explain principle of gas welding and give its advantages and disadvantages. (October 1998)

6. List the equipments used in gas welding. State functions of each. (June 2022)

7. Explain the requirement of gas quality for good welding.

8. Draw three types of oxy-acetylene flames showing clearly different zones.

(May 1998, October 2000, May 2001)

9. Explain with neat sketches forehand and back hand gas welding. (May 1998, Oct. 1999, October 2000)

10. Give applications of gas wedling.

11. Explain with sketch back hand oxy-acetyline welding process with angle of torch and welding rod position.
(October 1997)

12. State gas welding techniques and describe in brief giving sketch of each. (February 2021)

13. Describe different gas flame with sketch. (Oct. 1997, Feb. 2021, Sept. 2021, Feb. 2022, June 2022)
 172 Manufacturing Engineering-
14. Describe steps of correct gas welding procedure.

15. What is meant by preparation for gas welding? Explain.

16. Describe the appearance and properties of neutral flame, reducing flame and oxydising flame. (October 1999
17. What is the difference in constrcution of oxygen and acetylene cylinder ?
(October 1999)
18. State safety precautions in gas welding. (February 2022, June 2022)
19. State the common defects with their causes in gas welding job.
(May 1998)
20. List the equipments need in gas welding. (October 2000)
21. Explain with help of a sketch the construction and working of a gas welding torch.

22. Write short notes on:

(1) Advantages and disadvantages of gas welding

(2) Gas cutting

23. How the ends for joint prepared? Explain.

24. Explain the principle of arc welding. Give its advantages, disadvantages and uses.
(May 1998, October 1999, October 2000, September 2021)
25. Explain in brief: Carbon arc welding.

26. State precautions to be observed during arc welding. (May 1998)

27. State the characteristics of TIG. (May 1998)
28. What are the general safety precautions to be observed in a welding shop. (October 1998)
29. Discuss the role of welding process in present age.

30. State the name of equipment used in arc welding. Give functions of each.

31. State step by step procedure of arc welding.

32. Why is it important to clean the surfaces to be welded ?

33. Explain advantages and disadvantages of A.C. and D.C. power used in an arc welding process.

34. Explain difference between straight polarity and reverse polarity in arc welding.

35. What are the functions of flux in a metal arc welding? State names of various materials used as flux.
(September 2021)

36. Write short note on electrodes used in arc welding, state its application. (October 1999)

37. What is the difference between shielded and unshielded arc-welding processes? Give schematic representation

of shielded metal arc.

38. State functions of flux used in submerged arc welding. (October 1997)

39. State names of coating materials used on arc welding electrodes and give functions of coating.
(February 2021)

40. What factors must be considered when selecting a coated welding rod ?

41. State factors affecting weldability.

42. Explain Submerged arc welding. (May 2001, February 2021, June 2022)

43. Stated advantages, disadvantages and uses of submerged arc welding.

44. Describe with the help of sketch submerged arc welding. (May 1998, October 1999)
Metal Joining Processes 173

State four advantages of TIG and MIG welding processes over arc welding. (October 1997)
45.
State different advance welding processes and explain any one in brief. (May 1999)
46.
17. Explain the principle of MIG welding and state its applications. (October 2000)

State applications of submerged arc welding.

48.

49. Explain the meaning of TIG and MIG welding.

List important qualities of TIG and MIG welding.
50.
State advantages, disadvantages and uses of TIG and MIG welding. (September 2021)
51.
With a neat sketch, explain MIG. (October 2000)

State the salient features of TIG welding. (May 2001)

Write short note on the following:

54.
(1) Metal arc welding (February 2022)

(2) Tungsten inert gas arc welding (February 2022)

(3) Metal inert gas arc welding

(4) Submerged arc welding

(5) Plasma arc welding

(6) Thermit welding (October 1998, February 2021, September 2021)

55. What is the principle of resistance welding ? State the formula to find heat required in gesistance welding.
(October 2000, September 202 February 2022)

56. State names of methods of resistance welding. Explain any one of it.
(October 1997, May 1994, May 1998, May 2001, February 2021)

57. Explain the following terms with help of sketches: (September 2021)

(1) Spot welding (2) Seam welding (3) Projection welding

58. Give advantages, disadvantages and applications of resistance welding. (October 2000)

59. Write short note on the following:

(1) Spot welding

(2) Seam welding (October 1997, October 2001)

(3) Projection welding

(4) Upset welding

(5) Flash welding

(6) Percussion welding (May 2001)

60. Explain the principle of thermit welding.

61. State method of representing "weld" as per IS: 813 1961. -

(February 2021)

62. Define the terms related to welding and cutting as per IS: 812 - 1957.
63. What are the general safety precautions to be observed in welding shop?

64. Define soldering process and explain soldering process.

65. Describe step by step procedure for soldering.

66. State names of metals used as "solder" and give functions of each.
 174 Manufacturing Engineering.

67. State fluxes used in soldering. (February 2021)

68. Give criterion for soldering. (February 2022)

69. State the applications of soldering.

70. State difference between soldering and brazing. (October 1997, May 1998, October 1999)
71. Define brazing. How brazing differs from braze welding ?

72. List the reasons why soldering or brazing is used instead of welding.

73. Explain with neat sketch the principle of Thermit welding. (May 1998, May 2001)
74. Explain with neat sketch the principle of Electron Beam Welding. (May 1998, October 1998)
75. Describe briefly the seam welding process. (October 1998, October 2000)
76. List the sequence of steps for brazing process.
77. State filler metals used in brazing giving functions of each.
78. Why brazing is preferred instead of welding for tool bits? (October 1997, October 1999)
79. Write in breif about methods of brazing. (February 2021)
80. Explain safety instructions as per IS: 818 1968 in arc welding. (October 1997, October 1999)
81. Write in brief about defects in weld joint. (February 2021)
82. Write short notes on the following:

(1) Ultrasonic welding

(2) Explosive welding

(3) Electron beam welding

(4) Laser welding (May 2001, February 2022)

83. What is adhesive joint ? Give its advantages and disadvantages.
84. State step by step procedure for adhesive joint. (February 2022)

85. State importance of adhesive joint. State various adhesive materials used for adhesive joint, giving purpose
of each.
(September 2021)
86. State any two type of materials used for adhesive joint, giving its use.
87. List the name of destructive and non-destructive test for weld joint.

* ■
 176 Manufacturing Engineering-I
(c) Prepare neat sketch of a gating system. Describe functions of various components of gating

system. 04
OR

(c) State the defects generally found in castings. Give causes and remedies for any four defects. 04

(d) State various arc welding processes. Describe SAW with neat sketch. 04
OR

(d) State various welding defects along with causes and remedies. 04

4. (a) State the types of furnace used in foundry. Describe any one furnace with neat sketch briefly. 03
OR

(a) Give the classification of moulding processes. Describe any one briefly. 03

(b) State the types of electrical resistance welding. Describe any one with neat sketch. 04

OR

(b) Describe thermit welding process with neat sketch. State its limitations and applications. 04

(c) Prepare a sketch of oxy-acetylene welding set up. Describe function of its each component briefly. 07
5.
(a) State various special casting processes. Describe any one with neat sketch. 04

(b) Describe blow moulding process with neat sketch. 04

(c) State the classification of manufacturing processes with at least three examples of each class. 03

(d) With neat sketch describe spinning process. State examples of its products. 33
GTU Question Papers 177

SEPTEMBER-2021

Answer any seven out of ten : 14

1.

(1) Write two applications of fastening process.

(2) Write two differences between brazing and soldering.
(3) Write two applications of wax and metal as pattern materials.
(4) How coke is combusted in pit furnace ?
(5) State four factors which are affecting on recrystallization temperature.
(6) Define hot forging and write its two advantages.

(extrusion
7) State four factors which are affecting on process.
(8) Enlist fluxes used in welding process.

(9) Write working principle of arc welding.

(10) According to ISI Code No.: IS 1513: 1971, following colour codes for patterns are used for which
indication? 1. no colour 2. red strips on yellow colour

2. (a) Write classification of manufacturing processes. 60

03

OR

03
(a) Define residual stresses and write its effect on manufacturing process.

(b) Write advantages and disadvantages of cold working of metals.

33
03

OR

03
(b) State differences between hot rolling and cold rolling.
༔
(c) List various types of rolling mills and explain three high rolling mill with neat sketch. 04

OR

04
(c) State factors affecting on rolling process and their function.

(d) Write sequence of operations with sketch in manufacturing of hexagonal head of bolt by forging
04
process.

OR

04
(d) Compare press forging with machine forging.
3. (a) List all types of patterns and explain sweep pattern with neat sketch. 03

OR

(a) Enlist all types of pattern allowances and explain draft allowance. 03

(b) State important characteristics of moulding sand.

33
03

OR

03
(b) Enlist types of core and explain any two of them.
04
(c) On which basis you may select metal furnaces in casting process? Explain with example.

OR

04
(c) Explain induction furnace with neat sketch.

Manufacturing Engineering-I/2023/23
 178 Manufacturing Engineering-I

(d) Draw neat sketch of cupola furnace and show all main zones. 04

OR

(d) What is investment casting ? State its applications.

4. (a) State working field of any three welding processes. 03

OR

(a) Enlist types of gas flames and state when such types of gas flames used. 03

(b) Compare metal inert gas welding with tungsten inert gas welding process. 33
04
OR

(b) Write principle of resistance welding and draw neat sketch of seam welding. 04

(c) Classify die casting processes and explain cold chamber die casting with neat sketch. 07

ཙཙཎྜུ
5. (a) Explain thermit welding process with neat sketch. 04

(b) Enlist various adhesives available in market. Also state applications of adhesive joining. 04

(c) Explain tube drawing process with neat sketch. 03

༄
(d) Define: 1. spinning 2. bloom 3. toughness 4. blow hole 5. shot peening 6. rightward welding 03
 GTU Question Papers 179

FEBRUARY-2022

1. Answer any seven out of ten : 14

(1) Give Any Four names of manufacturing process.

(2) List main five steps of casting.
(3) Define (1) Hardness (2) Strength

(4) Classify moulding Sand.

(5) List out any four welding defects.

(6) What is straight polarity in arc welding process ?

(7) Explain Blanking process.

(8) Define recrystallization temperature.
(9) List out types of cores used in foundry.

(10) Give full name of MIG, TIG, PAW and SAW.

03
2. (a) Explain factors affecting the Drawing process.
OR

03
(a) What is Pattern? Explain the necessity of pattern in casting.
03
(b) What are the advantages and disadvantages of Hot working process.
OR

03
(b) List various factors which are considered for selection of pattern materials.
(c) Name various types of forging method and explain any one of them. 04

OR

04
(c) List various types of rolling mills and explain any of them.

(d) Explain forward extrusion process with the help of neat sketch. 04

OR

(d) Draw the neat sketch of cupola furnace and label it. 04

3. (a) Explain gated pattern. Why such a pattern made?

༄་ྱ
03

OR

03
(a) Explain colour codes for pattern as per I.S.

(b) Explain centrifugal casting process.

33
03

OR

03
(b) Explain MIG welding process.
(c) Explain TIG welding Process. 04

OR

04
(c) Give differences between Hot working and cold working process.
04
(d) State important characteristics of moulding sand.
OR

04
(d) Explain investment casting process.
 180
Manufacturing Engineering-I
4. (a) Classify welding process.
03
OR

(a) Write short note on various gas flames. 03

(b) Explain principle of electric resistance welding and applications of it. 04

OR

304 5
(b) Write short note on laser beam welding process.

(c) Write brief notes on defects in casting, causes and its remedies.
07

5. (a) Write process and application of adhesive joining.

3
04

(b) Give differences between punching and blanking process. 3

04

(c) List out safety wears used in welding process.

03
3
(d) List reasons why soldering is used instead of welding.
3
03
 GTU Question Papers 181

JUNE-2022

1. Answer any seven out of ten : 14

(1) Classify welding processes.

(2) Give a full names of MIG, PAW, TIG and SAW.

(3) Name any four components produced by Casting Process.

(4) Define Blanking and Piercing.processes.

(5) Define Hardness and Stiffness.

(6) List out various defects arise in casting process.

(7) Define Hot working and Cold working processes.

(8) Classify Manufacturing Processes.

(9) List out types of flames used in Gas welding and prepare sketch for Carburizing flame.

(10) List out different allowances provided in casting process.

2. (a) Define any three mechanical properties of metals. 03

OR

03
(a) List out the safety equipment for welding process. State their uses.

03
(b) List the types of core and Explain any one in detail.
OR

03
(b) State the steps involved in core making and describe core baking process.

(c) Differentiate Hot rolling and Cold rolling. 04

OR

04
(c) State the types of Rolling mills and Explain any one with figure.

(d) List the types of Arc welding processes and Explain SAW (Submerged Arc Welding) process with
04
figure.
OR

(d) Explain with neat sketch: Backward extrusion process. 04

3. . 03

OR

(a) State the factors affecting the Drawing processes. 03

(b) Define and explain Injection moulding process with figure. 03

OR

(b) What are the required properties of moulding sand? State their effects on casting. 03

(c) Draw neat sketch and label Cupola furnace. 04

OR

(c) State at least eight defects generally found in Forging process along with causes. 04
 182
Manufacturing Engineering-I

(d) Explain with neat sketch: Die casting. 04

OR

(d) Define the followings and explain with figure :

(1) Coining (2) Embossing (3) Shearing (4) Curling 04

4. (a) State the advantages and disadvantages of Hot working process. 03

OR

(a) What are the principle ingredients of moulding sand ? State the function of each.
03

(b) Write and Explain the working principle of Submerged Arc Welding. Also state its application. 04
3
OR

(b) List the various cause of casting defects and give their remedies. 04

(c) List the various equipment used in Gas welding & Explain their working. 07
5. (a) Write down the Working principle of Press and classify it.

ཙྪུསྦྱོ
04
(b) Explain Spinning process with neat sketch.
04

ཙཛྫ
(c) State different safety precautions in foundry.
03
(d) Explain with neat sketch: Centrifugal casting.
03
 183
GTU Question Papers

MARCH-2023

1. (a) Define the term pattern & state the purpose of pattern. 03

(b)

(c)
Classify the manufacturing processes ?

List the various types of rolling mills and explain cluster rolling mill.
ggÊ
04

07

OR

➢g
(c) Give difference between Hot rolling & Cold rolling processes. 07

2. (a) Define (1) Shearing (2) Blanking (3) Lancing. 03

ཙྪུརྗེ
(b) Select the appropriate Extrusion method to manufacture tooth paste tube and explain it. 04

(c) Explain wire drawing process with neat sketch. 07

OR

༄03
2. (a) Define the Recrystallization temperature and Explain it.

ཟུ
(b) Select the appropriate forging method to manufacture connecting rod and explain it. 04

➢
07
(c) State different methods of extrusion process. Explain any one with neat sketch.

ཥྛཿ
3. (a) State essential properties of moulding sand and explain the effect of each property on casting. 03

ཟ
0ླ4
(b) Identify all main zones of cupola furnace with neat sketch.
༤
07
(c) State common defect found in casting. Explain any four defects.
OR

3.
(a) List the hand tools used in preparing mould. 60
03

(b) Select the appropriate casting method to prepare small parts with complicated shape and
04
explain it.

(c) State various types of cores and describe any two types of core with neat sketch. 07

GEOG
4. (a) Explain "Shrinkage allowances". 03

(b) Explain Submerged Arc Welding with sketch. 04

(c) Explain Injection moulding process with neat sketch. 07

OR

4.
(a) Explain core making steps. 03
ཤྩ

(b) Explain Metal Inert Gas (MIG) welding with neat sketch. 04

(c) Explain Safety precautions in plastic processing. 07

དྱེ
5.
(a) Write short note on various gas flames. 03
ྱ

(b) Choose appropriate welding process to join rail track and Explain it. 04

(c) State principle of resistance welding and draw neat sketch of seam welding.
ཙྪཎྜཱ
07

OR
8

5. (a) Give the difference between soldering and brazing. 03

2

(b) Identify appropriate welding process which use non-consumable electrode and Explain it. 04
3

(c) State the Equipment used in Gas Welding with its function. 07

*
 184
Manufacturing Engineering-I

JULY-2023

1. (a) Explain the term polymerization and discuss the various methods of polymerization. 03

(b) Define recrystallisation temperature. List various factors on which recrystallisation temperature of
metal depends. 04

(e) List the various types of rolling mills and explain any two. 07

OR

(c) List the factor influencing rolling operation and explain each of them. 07

2. (a)

(b)
What is hot working process? State the advantages of it.

Explain ingot, billet, bloom, slab. 289

03

04

(c) Simplify the forging? List the sequence of operation in manufacturing of hexagonal bolt and link
for a chain. 07
50
OR

g
2. (a) What is cold working process ? Sate the advantages of it. 03

ཙྪུ
(b) State the advantage and disadvantage of investment moulding process. 04

ཊྛི
(c) Simplify the forming process? List the forming process and explain any three. 07

3. (a) What is compression moulding? List the advantage of injection moulding over compression moulding
03
process of plastic.
(b)

(c)
Classify the color code of core.

Explain pattern allowance, name various pattern allowance giving purpose of each.
35
04

07

OR

3. (a) Identify the laminated plastics ? Sate their characteristic and use. 03

928
(b) Explain the color code on different surface of a pattern. 04

(c) Classify the type of furnaces used in foundries and discuss in brief the working of induction furnace. 07

4. (a) Define blow holes, misrun, fins. 03

(b) Show the gatting system ? What is its function and state the function of runner and riser. 04

(c) Explain the principle of centrifugal casting and explain in brief it's working with sketch. 07

OR

4. (a) State the advantages of laser beam welding. 03

(b) State the function of flux used in submerged arc welding. 04

(c) What is welding defect? Explain brief any four. 07

5.
(a) Differentiate between soldering, brazing and welding. 03

(b) Explain the welding positioning with neat sketch. 04

(c) State gas welding techniques and describe in brief giving sketch of each. $
07

OR

5.
(a) What is electrode ? States consumable and non-consumable electrode. 03

(b) Describe different gas flame with sketch. 04

(c) State the name of methods of resistance welding. Explain any one of it. ཎྜརྗ
07

■ * ■