MATERIAL FORMING

Instructions 3 periods/week
Duration of university Examination: 3 hours Credits 3
SEE: 70 Marks CIE: 30
Marks
Objectives:
To understand the mechanism of plastic deformation of materials
To study the process parameters and estimation of loads
To acquire the knowledge in bulk deformation processes
To understand the different forming techniques

UNIT-I
Plastic Deformation: Factors affecting plastic deformation, Strain hardening
behavior. Recovery, Recrystallization and grain growth.Ideal & Practical stress-
strain curves. Cold working, warm working and hot working. Plasticity cycle. Yield
criteria.

UNIT-II
Sheet Metal Working: Formability tests for sheet metals. Erichsen and Fukui
tests. F.L.D. and Shape analysis concepts. Sheet metal dies, Process parameters
and estimation of loads in shearing, bending, deep drawing and spinning
operations. Superplasticforming, Stretch forming. Fine blanking. SPIF
UNIT-III
Analysis of plastic deformation: Forging, Rolling, Extrusion, rod/wire drawing
and tube drawing – Effect of friction – calculation of forces, work done –
Process parameters, equipment used – Defects – applications – Recent
advances in Forging, Rolling, Extrusion and Drawing processes – Design
consideration in forming. Hydrostatic Extrusion. Metal working lubricants.

UNIT-IV Powder Metallurgy Technique: Advantages – applications – Powder

preform forging –powder rolling – Tooling, process parameters and
applications. Orbital forging –Isothermal forging – Hot and cold isostatic
pressing – High speed extrusion,

UNIT-V
Unconventional Forming: High energy rate forming. Merits and limitations of
HERF Processes. Principle, merits, limitations and applications ofExplosive
forming, electromagnetic forming, electro -hydraulic forming and water
hammer forming.Forming with rubber pads.

Suggested Reading: 1. Geoffrey W. Rowe, “An introduction to the Principles of Metal Working”,
Edward Arnold Ltd, London, 1990.
2. SeropeKalpakjian, “Mechanical Processing of Materials”, D.VanNostrand Company, Inc., Princeton,
New Jerseey, 1955.
3. Surender Kumar, “Principles of Metal Working”, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., 1985.
4. P.C. Sharma, “A Text Book of Production Engineering”, S.Chand& Co. Ltd. New Delhi.
5. G.E. Dieter, Mechanical Metallurgy, McGraw - Hill Publications, 3rdEdition, 1988.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF METAL
FORMING
There are four basic production processes
for producing desired shape of a product.
These are
• Casting,
• Machining,
• Joining (welding, mechanical fastners,
epoxy, etc.), and
• Deformation processes.
• Deformation processes exploit a remarkable
property of metals, which is their ability to flow
plastically in the solid state without deterioration
of their properties.
• With the application of suitable pressures, the
material is moved to obtain the desired shape
with almost no wastage.
• The required pressures are generally high and
the tools and equipment needed are quite
expensive.
• Large production quantities are often necessary
to justify the process.
• Casting process exploit the fluidity of a
metal in liquid state as it takes shape and
solidifies in a mold.
• Machining processes provide desired
shape with good accuracy and precision
but tend to waste material in the
generation of removed portions called
chips.
• Joining processes permit complex shapes
to be constructed from simpler
components and have a wide domain of
applications.
 Metal Forming:
• Plastic deformation process in which metal
is displaced from one location to another.
• Mass and volume is conserved during the
process
 Classification:
Based on the stresses acting on the work
piece.
• Pure compression
• Pure tension
• Combination of tension and compression
• Pure bending
• Pure shear
 Forging Extrusion

Stretch Forming Rod/Wire Drawing

Bending
Shearing
 Based on the Temperature:
• Cold Working
• Hot Working
• Warm Working
Hot Working
 Cold Working:
• Plastic deformation of metals below the recrystallization
temperature (< 0.5 Tm) is known as cold working.
• It is generally performed at room temperature. In some
cases, slightly elevated temperatures may be used to
provide increased ductility and reduced strength.
• Cold working offers a number of distinct advantages, and
for this reason various cold-working processes have
become extremely important.
• Significant advances in recent years have extended the
use of cold forming, and the trend appears likely to
continue.
 In comparison with hot working, the advantages of cold
working are

1. No heating is required
2. Bettter surface finish is obtained
3. Better dimensional control is achieved; therefore
no secondary machining is generally needed.
4. Products possess better reproducibility and
interchangeablity.
5. Better strength, fatigue, and wear properties of
material.
6. Directional properties can be imparted.
7. Contamination problems are almost negligible
Some disadvantages associated with cold-working
processes are:
1. Higher forces are required for deformation.
2. Heavier and more powerful equipment is required.
3. Less ductility is available.
4. Metal surfaces must be clean and scale-free.
5. Strain hardening occurs ( may require intermediate
annealing ).
6. Undesirable residual stresses may be produced

• Cold forming processes, in general, are better suited to

large-scale production of parts because of the cost of the
required equipment and tooling.
The following properties are affected by cold
work significantly:
• Tensile Strength
• Hardness
• Yield Strength
• Ductility
 Hot Working:
• Plastic deformation of metal carried out at
temperature above the recrystallization
temperature (>0.5 Tm), is called hot
working.
• Under the action of heat and force, when
the atoms of metal reach a certain higher
energy level, the new crystals start
forming. This is called recrystallization.
• When this happens, the old grain structure
deformed by previously carried out
mechanical working no longer exist,
instead new crystals which are strain-free
are formed.

• In hot working, the temperature at which

the working is completed is critical since
any extra heat left in the material after
working will promote grain growth, leading
to poor mechanical properties of material.
 In comparison with cold working, the
advantages of hot working are
• No strain hardening
• Lesser forces are required for deformation
• Greater ductility of material is available,
and therefore more deformation is
possible.
• Favorable grain size is obtained leading to
better mechanical properties of material
• Equipment of lesser power is needed
• No residual stresses in the material.
 Some disadvantages associated in the hot-
working of metals are:
• Heat energy is needed
• Poor surface finish of material due to
scaling of surface
• Poor accuracy and dimensional control of
parts
• Poor reproducibility and interchangeability
of parts
• Handling and maintaining of hot metal is
difficult and troublesome
• Lower life of tooling and equipment.
 Warm Working:
• Metal deformation carried out at
temperatures intermediate to hot and cold
forming is called Warm Forming .

• Plastic deformation of a metal at

temperature below the range of RC and
above RT
Compared to cold forming, warm forming
offers several advantages.

These include:
• Lesser loads on tooling and equipment
• Greater metal ductility
• Fewer number of annealing operation
(because of less strain hardening)
Compared to hot forming, warm forming offers the
following advantages.

• Lesser amount of heat energy requirement

• Better precision of components
• Lesser scaling on parts
• Lesser decarburization of parts
• Better dimensional control
• Better surface finish
• Lesser thermal shock on tooling
• Lesser thermal fatigue to tooling, and so
greater life of tooling.
 Factors affecting plastic
deformation
• Type of metal
• Purity of metal
• Temperature
• Orientation of grain
• Grain size
• Stain rate
• Surface condition of workpiece
 Strain (Work) Hardening
Cold work will lead to:

•Increase of Yielding Strength

•Increase of Tensile Strength

•Reduction of Elongation

Material becomes stronger but

more brittle

Effect of cold work on mechanical properties

of Cu-1.5Ti alloy
Strain (Work) Hardening
 Variables in plastic deformation  ,  , , T
K → strength coefficient
   K  n   ,T n → strain / work hardening coefficient
◘ Cu and brass (n ~ 0.5) can be given large plastic strain more
easily as compared to steels with n ~ 0.15

When true strain is less than 1, the smaller value of ‘n’ dominates over a larger value of ‘n’

 ln   
‘n’ and ‘K’ for selected materials n 
 ln     ,T

Material n K (MPa)
Annealed Cu 0.54 320

Annealed Brass (70/30) 0.49 900

Annealed 0.5% C steel 0.26 530

0.6% carbon steel
0.10 1570
Quenched and Tempered (540C)
 Tensile Test – Work Hardening

log-log curve of  vs.  Various hardening components

- Slope of the curve is n - Lower n means poor respond to work
hardening
What causes Strain hardening? → multiplication of dislocations

 Why increase in dislocation density ?

 Why strain hardening ? X

If dislocations were to leave the surface

of the crystal by slip / glide then the
dislocation density should decrease

 →
on plastic deformation →
but observation is contrary to this

This implies some sources of dislocation

multiplication / creation should exist  →