MT-323

Part V
Metal Forming And Sheet
Metalworking

Lecture : 7

Thursday, November 28, 2024 Manufacturing Processes 1

Fundamentals of Metal Forming
• Overview of Metal Forming

• Material Behavior in Metal Forming

• Temperature in Metal Forming

• Strain Rate Sensitivity

• Friction and Lubrication in Metal Forming

 Metal Forming
• Group of manufacturing processes in which plastic
deformation is used to change the shape of metal
workpieces

• The tool, usually called a die, applies stresses that

exceed yield strength of metal (plastic deformation)

• The metal takes a shape determined by the geometry of

the die
 Stresses in Metal Forming

• Stresses used to plastically deform the metal are usually

compressive
– Examples: rolling, forging, extrusion

• However, some forming processes

– Stretch the metal (tensile stresses)
– Others bend the metal (tensile and compressive)
– Still others apply shear stresses
 Material Properties in Metal
Forming
• Desirable material properties:
– Low yield strength and high ductility

• These properties are affected by temperature:

– Ductility increases and yield strength decreases when
work temperature is raised

• Strain rate and friction are additional factors that

affect performance in metal forming
 Bulk Deformation

• Metal forming operations which cause significant shape

change by deformation in metal parts whose initial form
is bulk rather than sheet

• Starting forms: cylindrical bars and billets, rectangular

billets and slabs, and similar shapes

• These processes work by stressing metal sufficiently to

cause plastic flow into desired shape

• Performed as cold, warm, and hot working operations

Bulk Deformation Processes

• Characterized by significant deformations and massive

shape changes

• "Bulk" refers to workparts with relatively low surface

area-to-volume ratios

• Starting work shapes include cylindrical billets and

rectangular bars
 Four Basic Bulk Deformation
Processes
• Rolling – slab or plate is squeezed between opposing
rolls

• Forging – work is squeezed and shaped between

between opposing dies

• Extrusion – work is squeezed through a die opening,

thereby taking the shape of the opening

• Wire and bar drawing – diameter of wire or bar is

reduced by pulling it through a die opening
Importance of Bulk Deformation

• In hot working, significant shape change can be

accomplished

• In cold working, strength can be increased during shape

change

• Little or no waste - some operations are near net shape

or net shape processes
– The parts require little or no subsequent machining
 Material Behavior in
Metal Forming
• Plastic region of stress-strain curve is of primary interest
in sheet-metal forming; because material is plastically
deformed

• In plastic region, metal's behavior is expressed by the flow

curve: Where:
 = K n K = strength coefficient;
n = strain hardening exponent
• Stress and strain in flow curve are true stress and true
strain
 Flow Stress
• For most metals at room temperature, strength
increases when deformed due to strain hardening

• Flow stress is the instantaneous value of stress

required to continue deforming the material

Y f = K n

Where:
Yf = flow stress, that is, yield strength as a function
of strain
Temperature in Metal Forming

• For any metal, K and n in the flow curve depend on

temperature:
– Strength and Strain hardening are reduced at higher
temperatures
– Ductility is increased at higher temperatures
Temperature in Metal Forming

• Any deformation operation can be accomplished with

lower forces and power at elevated temperature
• Three temperature ranges in metal forming:
– Cold working
– Warm working
– Hot working
 Cold Working

• Cold working is also known as cold forming

• Performed at room temperature or slightly above
• Many cold forming processes are important mass
production operations
• Minimum or no machining usually required
– These operations are near net shape or net shape
processes
Advantages of Cold Forming vs.
Hot Working
• Better accuracy, closer tolerances
• Better surface finish
• Strain hardening increases strength and hardness
• Grain flow during deformation can cause desirable
directional properties in product
• No heating of the work is required, saving on furnace
and fuel costs and permits higher production rates
• Cold forming processes have become important
mass-production process
Disadvantages of Cold Forming

• Higher forces and power required

• Ductility and strain hardening limits the amount of
forming that can be done
– In some operations, metal must be annealed to
allow further deformation
– In other cases, metal is simply not ductile enough to
be cold worked
 Warm Working

• Performed at temperatures above room temperature but

below re-crystallization temperature
• Dividing line between cold working and warm working
often expressed in terms of melting point:
▪ Warm working Temperature = 0.3 Tm
➢ where Tm = melting point of metal
(absolute temperature)
Advantages of Warm Working

• Lower forces and power than in cold working

• More intricate work geometries possible
• Need for annealing may be reduced or eliminated
 Hot Working
• Deformation at temperatures above recrystallization
temperature
• Recrystallization temperature = about one-half of
melting point on absolute scale
– In practice, hot working usually performed somewhat
above 0.5 Tm

– Metal continues to soften as temperature increases above

0.5 Tm; enhancing advantage of hot working above this
level

– Hot working temperatures are usually maintained within

the range 0.5Tm to 0.75Tm to avoid localized melting
 Why Hot Working?

• Capability of substantially more plastic deformation of the

metal is possible than with cold working or warm working
• Why?
– Strength coefficient at recrystallization temperature is
substantially less than at room temperature
– Strain hardening exponent is zero (theoretically)
– Ductility is significantly increased
 Advantages of Hot Working vs.
Cold Working
• Workpart shape can be significantly altered
• Lower forces and power required
• Metals that usually fracture in cold working can be hot formed
• Strength properties of product are generally isotropic
• No strengthening of part occurs from work hardening
– Advantageous in cases when part is to be subsequently
processed by cold forming
Disadvantages of Hot Working

• Lower dimensional accuracy

• Higher total energy required (due to the thermal
energy to heat the workpiece)
• Work surface oxidation (scale), poorer surface finish
• Shorter tool-life
 Bulk Deformation Processes
Rolling

• This is a compressive
deformation process in which
the thickness of a slab or
plate is reduced by two
opposing cylindrical tools called
rolls. The rolls rotate so as to
draw the work into the gap
between them and squeeze it.

Basic bulk deformation processes: (a) rolling

 The Rolls

• The rotating rolls perform two main functions:

• Pull the work into the gap between them by friction
between workpart and rolls
• Simultaneously squeeze the work to reduce cross section
 Types of Rolling
• By geometry of work:

– Flat rolling - used to reduce thickness of a rectangular

cross-section

– Shape rolling - a square cross-section is formed into a

shape such as an I-beam

• By temperature of work:

– Hot Rolling – most common due to the large amount of

deformation required

– Cold rolling – produces finished sheet and plate stock

Rolling Mill Steel Products
 Flat Rolling – Terminology
• Draft = amount of thickness
reduction
d = to − t f
where d = draft; to = starting
thickness; and tf = final
thickness

• Reduction = draft expressed

as a fraction of starting stock
thickness: d
r= Side view of flat rolling,
to indicating before and after
where r = reduction thicknesses, work velocities,
angle of contact with rolls, and
other features
 Shape Rolling

• Work is deformed into a contoured cross-section rather

than flat (rectangular)
• Accomplished by passing work through rolls that have
the reverse of desired shape
• Products include:
– Construction shapes such as I-beams, L-beams, and
U-channels
– Rails for railroad tracks
– Round and square bars and rods
 Rolling Mills
• A rolling mill for hot flat
rolling; the steel plate is
seen as the glowing strip
extending diagonally from
the lower left corner
 Rolling Mills
• Equipment is massive and expensive
• Rolling mill configurations:
a) Two-high – two opposing large
diameter rolls
b) Three-high – work passes through
both directions
c) Four-high – backing rolls support
smaller work rolls
d) Cluster mill – multiple backing rolls
on smaller rolls; Multiple backing
rolls allow even smaller roll
diameters Tandem rolling mill –
sequence of two-high mills

e) Tandem Rollin mill; A series of

rolling stands in sequence
 Thread Rolling
• Bulk deformation process used to form threads on
cylindrical parts by rolling them between two dies
• Most important commercial process for mass
producing bolts and screws
• Performed by cold working in thread rolling machines
• Advantages over thread cutting (machining):
a) Higher production rates
b) Better material utilization
c) Stronger threads due to work hardening
d) Better fatigue resistance due to compressive
stresses introduced by rolling Thread rolling with flat dies:
(1) start of cycle
(2) end of cycle
 Ring Rolling
• Deformation process in which a thick-walled
ring of smaller diameter is rolled into a
thin-walled ring of larger diameter
• As thick-walled ring is compressed, deformed
metal elongates, causing diameter of ring to
be enlarged
• Hot working process for large rings and cold
working process for smaller rings
• Applications: ball and roller bearing races,
steel tires for railroad wheels, and rings for
pipes, pressure vessels, and rotating
machinery Ring rolling used to reduce
the wall thickness and
• Advantages: material savings, ideal grain increase the diameter of a
orientation, strengthening through cold ring:
working (1) start
(2) completion of process
 Bulk Deformation Processes
Forging
• In forging, a workpiece is
compressed between
two opposing dies, so
that the die shapes are
imparted to the work.
Forging is traditionally a
hot working process,
but many types of forging
are performed cold.

Figure 18.2 – Basic bulk deformation processes: (b) forging

 Classification of Forging
Operations
Cold vs. hot forging:
a) Hot or warm forging – most common, due to the
significant deformation and the need to reduce
strength and increase ductility of work metal
b) Cold forging - advantage is increased strength
that results from strain hardening
Impact vs. press forging:
a) Forge hammer - applies an impact load
b) Forge press - applies gradual pressure
 Types of Forging Dies
• Open-die forging - work is
compressed between two flat
dies, allowing metal to flow
laterally without constraint
• Impression-die forging - die
surfaces contain a cavity or
impression that is imparted to
workpart, thus constraining metal
flow - flash is created
• Flashless forging - workpart is
completely constrained in die and
no excess flash is produced
 Open-Die Forging

• Compression of workpart with cylindrical cross-section

between two flat dies
• Similar to compression test
• Deformation operation reduces height and increases
diameter of work
• Common names include upsetting or upset forging
Open-Die Forging with No Friction
• If no friction occurs between work and die surfaces, then
homogeneous deformation occurs, so that radial flow is
uniform throughout workpart height and true strain is
given by:
ho
 = ln
h
Where:
ho= starting height;
h = height at some point during compression
• At h = final value hf, true strain is at maximum value
 Open-Die Forging
Homogeneous deformation of a
cylindrical workpart under ideal
conditions in an open-die forging
operation:
1. Start of process with workpiece
at its original length and
diameter

2. Partial compression

3. Final size
Open-Die Forging with Friction

• Friction between work and die surfaces constrains lateral

flow of work, resulting in barreling effect
• In hot open-die forging, effect is even more pronounced
due to heat transfer at and near die surfaces, which
cools the metal and increases its resistance to
deformation
 Impression-Die Forging
• Compression of workpart by dies with inverse of desired
part shape
• Flash is formed by metal that flows beyond die cavity
into small gap between die plates
• Flash must be later trimmed from part, but it serves an
important function during compression:
– As flash forms, friction resists continued metal flow
into gap, constraining material to fill die cavity
– In hot forging, metal flow is further restricted by
cooling against die plates
Impression-Die Forging

Sequence in impression-die forging:

(1) just prior to initial contact with raw workpiece,
(2) partial compression, and
(3) final die closure, causing flash to form in gap between die plates
Impression-Die Forging Practice

• Several forming steps often required, with separate die

cavities for each step
– Beginning steps redistribute metal for more uniform
deformation and desired metallurgical structure in
subsequent steps
– Final steps bring the part to its final geometry
– Impression-die forging is often performed manually
by skilled operator under adverse conditions
 Impression-Die Forging
Advantages and Limitations
• Advantages compared to machining from solid stock:
– Higher production rates
– Conservation of metal (less waste)
– Greater strength
– Favorable grain orientation in the metal
• Limitations:
– Not capable of close tolerances
– Machining often required to achieve accuracies and
features needed, such as holes, threads, and mating
surfaces that fit with other components
 Flashless Forging
• Compression of work in punch and die tooling whose
cavity does allow for flash
• Starting workpart volume must equal die cavity volume
within very close tolerance
• Process control more demanding than impression-die
forging
• Best suited to part geometries that are simple and
symmetrical
• Often classified as a precision forging process
 Flashless Forging

Flashless forging:
• Just before initial contact with workpiece,
• Partial compression, and
• Final punch and die closure
 Forging Hammers (Drop
Hammers)
• Hammers apply an impact load against workpart
• Two types of hammers used for forging are:
– Gravity drop hammers - impact energy from free
fall of a heavy ram
– Power drop hammers - the ram is accelerated by
pressurized air or steam
• Disadvantage: impact energy transmitted through anvil
into floor of building causing massive vibrations
• Most commonly used for impression-die forging
 Drop Hammers

Drop forging hammer, fed by conveyor and Diagram showing details of a drop
heating units at the right of the scene hammer for impression-die forging
 Forging Presses

• Presses apply gradual pressure to accomplish compression

operation:
– Mechanical presses – Rotation of drive motor is
converted into linear motion of ram
– Hydraulic presses – A hydraulic piston actuates the ram
– Screw presses – A screw mechanism drives the ram
 Upsetting and Heading

• Forging process used to form heads on nails, bolts

and similar hardware products
• More parts produced by upsetting than any other forging
operation
• Performed cold, warm, or hot on machines called
headers or formers
• Wire or bar stock is fed into machine, end is headed,
then piece is cut to length
• For bolts and screws, thread rolling is then used to form
threads
 Upsetting and Heading

An Upset forging operation to form a head on a bolt or similar

hardware item. The cycle consists of:
(1) Wire stock is fed to the stop
(2) Gripping dies close on the stock and the stop is retracted
(3) Punch moves forward
(4) Compresses the stock to form the head
 Upsetting and Heading

Examples of Heading (upset forging) operations:

a) Heading a nail using open dies
b) Round head formed by punch
c) & d) Two common head styles for screws formed by die
e) Carriage bolt head formed by punch and die
 Swaging

• Accomplished by rotating dies that hammer a workpiece

radially inward to taper it as the piece is fed into the dies
• Used to reduce diameter of tube or solid rod stock
• Mandrel sometimes required to control shape and size of
internal diameter of tubular parts
 Swaging

Swaging process is used to reduce solid rod stock diameter.

– In Swaging the dies rotates, during hammering of the work.
– In radial forging, the workpiece rotates, while the dies remain in a fixed
orientation during hammering of the work.
 Trimming

• Cutting operation to remove flash from workpart in

impression-die forging
• Usually done while work is still hot, so a separate
trimming press is included at the forging station
• Trimming can also be done by alternative methods, such
as grinding or sawing
 Trimming

Trimming operation (shearing process) to

remove the flash after impression-die forging
 Bulk Deformation Processes
Extrusion
• This is a compression process in which
the work metal is forced to flow
through a die opening, thereby
taking the shape of the opening as its
own cross section.
• Process is similar to squeezing
toothpaste out of a toothpaste tube
• In general, extrusion is used to produce
long parts of uniform cross-sections
• Two basic types of extrusion:
- Direct extrusion
Figure 18.2 – Basic bulk
- Indirect extrusion
deformation processes:
(c) extrusion
Direct Extrusion

Direct Extrusion
 Direct Extrusion

Direct extrusion process for producing:

(a) Hollow cross-sections
(b) Semi-hollow cross-sections
 Indirect Extrusion

Indirect extrusion process for producing:

(a) Solid cross-sections
(b) Hollow cross-sections
Comments on Indirect Extrusion

• Also called backward extrusion and reverse extrusion

• Limitations of indirect extrusion are imposed by the
lower rigidity of hollow ram and difficulty in supporting
extruded product as it exits die
General Advantages of Extrusion

• Variety of shapes possible, especially in hot extrusion

– Limitation: product cross-section must be uniform
throughout length
• Grain structure and strength enhanced in cold and warm
extrusion
• Close tolerances possible, especially in cold extrusion
• In some operations, little or no waste of material
 Hot Vs. Cold Extrusion

• Hot extrusion - prior heating of billet to above its

recrystallization temperature
– This reduces strength and increases ductility of the
metal, permitting more size reductions and more
complex shapes
• Cold extrusion - generally used to produce discrete parts
– The term impact extrusion is used to indicate high
speed cold extrusion
 Extrusion Ratio
• Also called the reduction ratio, it is defined as
Ao
rx =
Af
• Where:
– rx = Extrusion ratio;
– Ao = Cross-sectional area of the starting billet;
– Af = Final cross-sectional area of the extruded section

Applies to both direct and indirect extrusion

 Extrusion Example

A complex extruded cross-section for a heat sink

 Die Angle

(a) Definition of die angle in direct extrusion;

(b) effect of die angle on ram force
 Comments on Die Angle

• Low die angle - surface area is large, leading to

increased friction at die-billet interface
– Higher friction results in larger ram force
• Large die angle - more turbulence in metal flow during
reduction
– Turbulence increases ram force required
• Optimum angle depends on work material, billet
temperature, and lubrication
 Bulk Deformation Processes
Drawing
• In this forming process, the
diameter of a round wire or bar is
reduced by pulling it through a die
opening.

• Similar to extrusion except work is

pulled through die in drawing (while it is
pushed through in extrusion)
• Although drawing applies tensile stress,
compression also plays a significant role
since metal is squeezed as it passes
through die opening
Wire and Bar Drawing

Drawing of bars, rods or wires

 Area Reduction in Drawing

• Change in size of work is usually given by area

reduction:
Ao − A f
r=
Ao

• Where:
– r = Area reduction in drawing process;
– Ao = Original workpiece area;
– Af = Final workpiece area.
Wire Drawing vs. Bar Drawing

• Difference between bar drawing and wire drawing is

stock size
– Bar drawing - large diameter bar and rod stock
– Wire drawing - small diameter stock - wire sizes down
to 0.03 mm (0.001 in.) are possible
• Although the mechanics are the same, the methods,
equipment, and even terminology are different
Drawing Practice and Products

• Drawing practice:
– Usually performed as cold working
– Most frequently used for round cross-sections
• Products:
– Wire: electrical wire; wire stock for fences, coat
hangers, and shopping carts
– Rod stock for nails, screws, rivets, and springs
– Bar stock: metal bars for machining, forging, and
other processes
 Wire Drawing
• Continuous drawing machines consisting of multiple draw dies
(typically 4 to 12) separated by accumulating drums
– Each drum (capstan) provides proper force to draw wire stock
through upstream die
– Each die provides a small reduction, so desired total reduction
is achieved by the series
– Annealing sometimes required between dies

Continuous drawing of wire

 Bar Drawing
• Accomplished as a single-draft operation - the stock is
pulled through one die opening
• Beginning stock has large diameter and is a straight
cylinder

Hydraulically operated draw

bench for drawing metal bars
 Preparation of the Work for
Wire or Bar Drawing
• Annealing – to increase ductility of stock
• Cleaning - to prevent damage to work surface and
draw die
• Pointing – to reduce diameter of starting end to allow
insertion through draw die
 Features of a Draw Die
• Entry region - funnels lubricant into the die to prevent scoring of
work and die
• Approach - cone-shaped region where drawing occurs
• Bearing surface - determines final stock size
• Back relief - exit zone - provided with a back relief angle
(half-angle) of about 30
• Die materials: tool steels or cemented carbides
 Problem# 01

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 Problem# 02

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 Problem# 03

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 Problem# 04

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