BASIC MANUFACTURING

PROCESSES

Dr. Trupti Ranjan Mahapatra

Metal Forming Process
 Metal-forming
Fundamentals ofprocesses
metal-forming
Metal-forming: The group of manufacturing processes in which
plastic deformation is used to change the shape of metal work pieces is
called metal-forming. The tool, usually called a die, applies
stresses that exceed yield strength of metal. The metal takes a
shape determined by the geometry of the die.
The deformation of metals, which is achieved by the
displacement of the atoms is achieved by one or more of the
processes called slip and twinning.
The flow of metal can be seen under microscope after polishing
and suitable etching of the metal surface; these visible lines are
called ‘fibre flow lines’. The grains elongate in the direction of
flow and hence it is possible to control these flow lines in any
specific direction by carefully manipulating the applied forces;
that way the mechanical properties of the metal can be
manipulated.
Stresses in Metal Forming:
Stresses to plastically deform the metal are usually
compressive.
Examples: rolling, forging, extrusion
 Metal-forming
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Fundamentals of metal-formingcont.
cont.
Material Properties in Metal Forming:
Desirable material properties:
- Low yield strength and high ductility.
These properties are affected by temperature:
- Ductility increases and yield strength decreases
when work temperature is raised.
Other factors:
- Strain rate and friction.

It may be ‘bulk deformation processes’ or ‘sheet-metal

working’
Bulk Deformation Processes:
- Characterized by significant deformations and massive
shape changes.
- "Bulk" refers to work parts with relatively low surface area :
volume ratio.
- Starting work shapes include cylindrical billets and
rectangular bars.
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Fundamentals of metal-formingcont.
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Bulk Deformation Processes: (a) rolling
(b) forging

(c) extrusion (d) drawing

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Fundamentals of metal-formingcont.
cont.
Sheet Metalworking: Forming and related operations performed
on metal sheets, strips, and coils:
- High surface area : volume ratio of starting metal, which
distinguishes these from bulk deformation.
Often called press working because presses perform these
operations:
- Parts are called stampings. - Usual tooling: punch and
die.

(a) bending (b) drawing (c) shearing

 Metal-forming
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Fundamentals of metal-formingcont.
cont.
Temperature in Metal Forming :
Any deformation operation can be accomplished with lower
forces and power at elevated temperature.
There are TWO main temperature ranges in metal forming:
Cold working Hot working
Cold working:
Performed at room temperature or slightly above.
Many cold forming processes are important mass production
operations.
- Minimum or no machining usually required.
- These operations are near net shape or net shape
processes.
Example- Rolling, forging, extrusion, blanking etc..
Hot working:
Deformation at temperatures above re-crystallization
temperature.
Re-crystallization temperature is defined by the American
 Metal-forming
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Fundamentals of metal-formingcont.
cont.
Temperature in Metal Forming cont. :
In practice, Re-crystallization temperature usually varies in
between one-third (0.3Tm) to one‑half (0.5Tm) of melting point of
the metal on absolute scale.
Minimum Re-crystallization temperature (ReT) for various
Material ReT, 0C Material ReT, 0C
materials
Lead Below Room T Iron 450
(RT)
Tin Below RT Nickel 600
Cadmium RT Titanium 650
Zinc RT Beryllium 700
Manganese 150 Molybdenum 900
Aluminium 150 Tantalum 1000
Copper 200 Tungsten 1200
In hot working, the process may be carried above the ReT with
or without heating; for lead and tin, ReT is below RT, so
working at RT is hot working, whereas, for steel, ReT is ~
10000C, so working just below it is cold working.
 Metal-forming
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Fundamentals of metal-formingcont.
cont.
Temperature in Metal Forming cont. :
ReT depends on the amount of cold-work a material has
already received; the higher the cold-work, the lower would be
the ReT. Besides, other variables also affect ReT.
Variables affecting Re-crystallization temperature (ReT)

Variables Effect on ReT

Solute concentration on solid Generally increases ReT; depends
solution upon effect on melting temperature
Presence of second phase Second-phase particles decrease
ReT
Original grain size before cold Decreasing grain size decreases
working ReT
Rate of plastic deformation Increasing rate decreases ReT
Temperature of cold working Decreasing T of cold-working
In hot working, the Temperature at which the ReT
decreases working is
completed is important since any extra heat left after working
will aid in the grain growth, thus giving poor mechanical
properties. If the hot working is completed just above the re-
 Metal-forming
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Fundamentals of metal-formingcont.
cont.
Advantages of hot working:
(1) Work part shape can be significantly altered since at higher
temperature
the material is ductile. Even brittle materials can be hot
worked.
(2) Lower forces and power required since shear stress gets
reduced at
higher temperature.
(3) Metals that usually fracture in cold working can be hot
formed.
(4) A very favorable grain size control is possible resulting in better
mechani-
-cal properties. Strength properties of product are generally
isotropic.
(5) No strengthening of part occurs from work hardening -
Advantageous in
cases when part is to be subsequently processed by cold
forming.
Disadvantages of hot working:
 Metal-forming
processes
Fundamentals of metal-formingcont.
cont.
Advantages of cold working:
(1) Better accuracy, closer tolerances can be achieved.
(2) Better surface finish is achieved.
(3) Strain hardening increases strength and hardness
which is beneficial in
specific cases.
(4) Grain flow during deformation can cause desirable
directional
properties in product.
(5) No heating of work required; thus (i) no scale formation, (ii) no

decarburization, (iii) economical for smaller sizes.

Disadvantages of cold working:
(1) Higher forces and power required, thus, amount of working is
limited.
(2) Surfaces of starting work piece must be free of scale and dirt.
(3) Ductility and strain hardening limit the amount of
forming:
- In some cases, metal must be annealed to allow
 Metal-forming
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Fundamentals of metal-formingcont.
cont.
Properties obtained by hot rolling and cold rolling in C10
steel
Properties Hot rolled Cold rolled
Ultimate tensile strength, 427 558
MPa
Yield strength, MPa 220.5 345
Brinell Hardness Number 94 174

The wastage of material in metal-working processes is

either negligible or very small, and the production rate
is in general very high.
These two factors give rise to favorable economy in
production.
 Rolling
• The process of plastically deforming metal by
passing it between the rolls is known as rolling.
• The work is subjected to high compressive
stresses from squeezing action of rolls.
• The frictional force between metal and rolls is
responsible for drawing the metal into the rolls.
Classification of Rolling Process
i) Hot Rolling
ii) Cold Rolling
iii) Powder Rolling
 Rolling cont.
Hot Rolling:
- Hot working: above the re-crystallization temperature
- It is employed where large reduction in cross-sectional
area is required.
- Used for bars, rods, rails etc.
Cold Rolling:
- Cold working: below the re-crystallization temperature
- Employed for finishing the metal to given specification of
sizes and surface quality.
- Produces sheets, strips and foils with good surface finish
and increased mechanical strength.
Powder Rolling:
- Metal powder is introduced between the rolls and
turned into a “green strip” which is subsequently sintered
to high density.
- This produces a tough sheet with very fine grain size or
minimum of preferred orientation.
 Rolling cont.
Rolling mills:
• A rolling mill consists basically of rolls, bearings, a
housing for containing these parts, and a drive for
applying power to the rolls and controlling there speeds.
• Rolling mills can be conventionally classified with
respect to the number and arrangement of the rolls.
Classification of rolling mills:
i) Two-high mills
ii) Two-high reversing mills
iii) Three-high mills
iv) Four-high mills
v) Cluster mills
vi) Continuous mills
vii) Planetary mills
 Rolling cont.
Classification of rolling mills cont.:
 Rolling cont.
Continuous rolling:

• Use a series of rolling mill and each set is called a stand.

• The strip will be moving at different velocities at each stage in the
mill.
• The speed of each set of rolls is synchronized so that the input speed
of each stand is equal to the output speed of preceding stand.
• The uncoiler and windup reel not only feed the stock into the rolls
and coiling up the final product but also provide back tension and
Rolling cont.

Ring
rolling:
Rolling cont.
 Rolling cont.
Continuous casting and hot rolling:
 Rolling cont.

Hot rolled coil produced on

strip mill
Plate rolling
 Rolling cont.
Rolled products:
The steel coming out of the blast furnace or a melting shop
is in the form of an ingot, a cross section of 600 x 600 mm.
These ingots are further processed in rolling mills to produce
the intermediate shapes such as blooms, slabs, and
billets.
i) Bloom: Bloom are generally square cross sections of
150 x 150 mm to 400 x 400 mm.
ii) Slab: Slabs are rectangular cross-section with 500 –
1800 mm width and 50 – 300 mm thickness.
iii) Billet: Billets are square cross-section with sizes
varying from 40 x 40 mm to 150 x 150 mm.
iv) Plate: It has thickness greater than 6 mm.
v) Sheet and Strip: Generally have thickness lesser than
6 mm.
vi) Foil: Thickness is very small just as 0.05 mm.

Billets and other unfinished rolling products are further

 Rolling cont.
Rolling process:

• In the process of rolling the billet is fed from one

side into the rolls and reduces in thickness
according to the section and gap between the rolls.
• The reduction ratios have maximum allowable
values for different metals beyond which reduction
is not practicable in a single process.
• Rolling sets in series may be employed.
** There are fundamentally two types of rolls:
i) Supporting rolls
ii) Driving rolls
** the rolls must be rigid or the rolled material will have
a loop like shape.
 Rolling cont.
Hot and cold rolling:

Effect of cold working on

tensile strength, hardness,
ductility and grain size. (The
curve below ductility
represents the change in
grain size)
 Rolling cont.
Roll passes
The final rolled products such as plates, flats, sheets, rounds and
sections are obtained in a number of passes starting from billets or
slabs.
For rolling the flat products, plane cylindrical rolls are used but for
sections, grooved rolls are used. The type of grooving done is
decided by the final section desired.
The roll pass sequence can be broadly categorized into three
types:
Break down passes:
- used for reducing the cross-sectional area nearer to what
is desired.
Roughing passes:
- in these passes, the cross-section is reduced, along with
it the shape of the rolled material also comes to nearer to the
final shape.
Finishing passes:
- These are final passes, which give the required shape to
the rolled section. Generally, the finishing passes followed by
a leader pass.
 Rolling cont.
Break down passes
The principal break down pass sequences are:
(i)Box pass series: used for blooming and billet mills, stronger rolls,
effective de-scaling, smaller elongation (1.05 to 1.15).
(ii)Diamond square series: Used in finishing passes, relatively
larger elongation (1.20 to 1.45).
(iii) Oval square series: The diamond is replaced by the oval shape,
still larger elongation (1.35 to 1.80), may give rise to a defect called
fold.
 Rolling cont.
Break down passes cont.
 Rolling cont.
Roll pass sequences
Designing roll passes is a fairly complex and skilled art. It depends on
the material, type of rolling (hot or cold), type of product, size etc.
Some pass schedules are:
(i)Pass svhedule for blooms: The most normally used passes in
blooming mills are the plain sectioned rolls or bull-headed passes.
(ii)Rolling of rounds: Mostly flat-box passes are incorporated.
(iii) rolling of sections: Uses (a) beam rolling method, or (b)
butterfly method to roll channel/flange sections; uses (a) butterfly
method or (b) universal pass sequence to roll angles.
 Rolling
cont.
Roll pass sequences
cont.
 Rolling
cont.

Roll pass sequences

Extrusion
 Extrusion cont.
Extrusion principle
Extrusion: Extrusion is the process of confining the metal in a
closed cavity and then allowing it to flow from only one opening so
that the metal takes the shape of the opening.
The equipment consists of:
(1) A container that hold the billet
(2) A die and a die-holder
(3) A plunger or ram which will compress
(4) A dummy block – a steel disc of about
40 mm (0.50 to 0.75 of diameter) thickness,
with a diameter slightly less than the
container, is kept between the hot billet and
the ram to protect it from heat and pressure.
Advantages:
(1) Components having a constant cross-section of any length
can be made.
(2) Complexities of parts obtained in extrusion is more than that
of rolling.
(3) It is because the die in extrusion is simple and easy to
 Extrusion cont.
Extrusion principle cont.
Advantages cont.:
(5) The amount of reduction possible in extrusion is large.
(6) Brittle materials can also be easily extruded.
(7) It is possible to produce sharp corners and re-entrant
angles.
(8) It is also possible to get shapes with internal cavities by
using spider dies.
(9) Large diameter and thin-walled tubular products with
excellent concentricity and tolerance characteristics can also
be produced.
(10) Grain structure and strength enhancement is possible.
(11) Very low material wastage.

Typical extrusion
shapes
 Extrusion cont.
Extrusion principle cont.
The flow of metal in the extrusion process is towards the die opening
and subsequently along with the extruded material.
The extrusion ratio is defined as the ratio of (cross-sectional area
of the billet) / (cross-sectional area of the extruded section). The
typical values of extrusion ratio are 20 to 50. Low extrusion ratios are
used for intermediate operations when the billets are extruded to a give
diameter before the final extrusion.

Typical flow of metal

in
extrusion process
 Extrusion cont.
Extrusion principle cont.
The extrusion pressure for a given material depends on the
extrusion temperature, the reduction in area and the extrusion
speed.
Typical extrusion T: 500 to 12000C Typical Pressure: 35
to 1000 MPa
Extrusion speed depends on the work material:
Some of the light alloys: 0.05 m/s Copper alloys: up to
4.50 m/s
Typical
Too high extrusion speed may extrusion
cause excessive heat generation
in the extruded materialpressures
generating lateral cracks.
Materials Pressure, Materials Pressure,
MPs MPs
Soft lead 275 – 420 Hard copper Up to 850
alloys
Copper-bearing 300 – 500 Silicon bronze 950
leads
Tin-bearing 420 – 620 Al-base alloys 70 – 700
alloys
Tin-base alloys 275 – 700 Mg-base alloys 35 – 350
Extrusion cont.
 Extrusion cont.
Hot extrusion processes
Forward (Direct) hot Extrusion: Flow of material in forward
direction (same as the ram motion). Friction between billet and
cylindrical wall is the problem specifically with steel where the
T is high. To reduce this, lubricants are used. At low T, a
mixture of oil and graphite can be used; they too get into
problem at high T. Hence, at high T, molten glass is used which
remain molten and besides providing lubrication, also provides
necessary heat insulation to the hot billet.

To reduce damage to the wall, extrusion is completed

quickly and the cylinder is cooled before further
extrusion.
 Extrusion cont.
Hot extrusion processes cont.
Backward (Indirect) hot Extrusion: Flow of material in
backward direction (through the die in the plunger or ram). Billet is
static, hence no friction between billet and wall, extrusion
pressure is not affected by the length of billet, surface quality is
also good since no heat cracking due to friction. The
disadvantages are: the surface defects of the billet end up in
the final product.

The process is not extensively used since handling of

the extruded material coming through the moving ram
 Extrusion cont.
Cold extrusion processes
Forward (Direct) Cold Extrusion: The forward cold extrusion
is similar to that of the forward hot extrusion except for the fact
that the extrusion ratios possible are lower and extrusion
pressures are higher than that for the hot extrusion. It is
normally used for simple shapes requiring better surface finish
and to improve mechanical properties.
Material Extrusion Pressure, MPa

Pure Al 600 to 1100

Soft brass 450 to 800

Soft copper 400 to 1100

C10 steel 800 to 2500

C20 steel 900 to 3100

Examples: cans, various aluminum brackets, shock-

absorber cylinders, rocket motors and heads etc.
 Extrusion cont.
Cold extrusion processes cont.
Impact Extrusion: The backward cold extrusion, also called
Impact extrusion, is much more common for softer materials
such as aluminum and its alloys. The work (slug) is placed in the
die and the punch gives an impact such that the metal is
extruded through the gap between the die and the punch. The
height of the side walls is controlled by the amount of metal in
the work (slug).

This process is more commonly used for making

collapsible tubes for housing pastes, liquids and similar
articles.
 Extrusion cont.
Cold extrusion processes cont.
Cold Extrusion Forging: Cold extrusion forging is similar to
impact extrusion with difference that the side walls are much
thicker and their height is smaller. The punch slowly descends
over the slug kept on the die, thus forging some metal between
the punch and the die and the rest being extruded through the
clearance between the punch and the die side walls.
Afterwards, the component is ejected by means of the ejector
pin provided in the die.
The backward cold
extrusion processes are
different from other
extrusion processes in
that each stroke of the
punch prepares a
directly usable single
component which may
not necessarily have a
uniform cross-section
over its length.
Further, it is used for
 Extrusion cont.
Extruding tubes
Hollow objects such as tubes and other shapes can also be
obtained by forward hot extrusion. First, the solid ram moves
through the heated metal billet creating a hole in the centre;
later, the hollow ram moves the metal billet through the die.
 Extrusion cont.
Extruding tubes cont.
Another way of obtaining hollow shapes is by using a spider
extruding die. The spider die is essentially an extrusion die with
a stub mandrel, for the hollow portion to be generated. It is
held to the die by means of thin ribs simulating the spider legs.
 Extrusion cont.
Hydrostatic Extrusion
In this process, the metal billet is compressed from all sides by
a liquid rather than a ram. Thus, (a) lubrication is eliminated,
(b) uniform pressing from all sides (highly brittle metals can be
extruded), pressure range: 1110 to 3150 MPs.

Fluids used: Castor oil with 10% alcohol, SAE 30 mineral

lubricating oil, glycerin, ethyl glycol, iso-pentane. Applications:
reactor fuel rods, cladding of metals, making wires of less
ductile metals.
Extrusion cont.
 Extrusion cont.
Extrusion defects

a) Centre-burst: internal crack due to excessive tensile

stress at the centre
possibly because of high die angle, low extrusion ratio.
b) Piping: sink hole at the end of billet under direct
extrusion.
c) Surface cracking: High part temperature due to low
extrusion speed and
 Extrusion cont.
Extrusion defects cont.

b) Schematic illustration of
Chevron cracking (central rigid and plastic zones in
burst) in extruded round extrusion. The tendency
steel bars. Unless the toward chevron cracking
products are inspected, such increases if the two plastic
internal defects may remain zones do not meet. Note
undetected, and later cause that the plastic zone can be
failure of the part in service. made larger either by
This defect can also develop decreasing the die angel or
in the drawing of rod, of by increasing the reduction