Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is the process by which photoautotrophic organisms convert light

energy (usually from the Sun) into chemical energy (glucose). The photosynthetic
process uses light energy to produce glucose from water and carbon dioxide, releasing
oxygen gas as a byproduct.

Visible light
Define Visible Light
Visible light is a form of electromagnetic radiation, like radio waves, infrared radiation,
ultraviolet radiation, X-rays and microwaves. Visible light is defined as the wavelengths
that are visible to most human eyes. This broad range of wavelengths is known as the
electromagnetic spectrum.

State the relationship between wavelength and energy

Energy is inversely proportional to the wavelength. Shorter wavelengths have more
energy and longer wavelengths have less energy.
- Sun energy is greater – shorter wavelength
- Light reflected from earth is less –longer wavelength

State the range of wavelengths that fall within the visible spectrum
A typical human eye will respond to wavelengths from about 390 to 700 nanometers.
The order of colors in light, arranged from shortest wavelength to longest:
Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Indigo Violet

Pigments
Define pigment
- a substance that imparts colour.
- found in plants of characteristic colour
- chemical compounds which reflect only certain wavelengths of visible light.
State the primary and accessory pigments found in
chloroplasts.
- "Chlorophyll a" is the primary pigment that
intercepts sunlight to utilize it for the process of
photosynthesis.
- "Xanthophyll", "Carotenoids" and "chlorophyll b"
are accessory pigments as they are incapable of
transferring the absorbed light to the photosynthetic
pathway. The energy that is absorbed by them is
transferred to chlorophyll a, through various
reactions, which then transfers energy into the
photosynthetic pathway.

Explain why plants are green.

Plants are green because they contain a pigment called
chlorophyll. Chlorophyll is a green pigment found in
photosynthetic organisms that is responsible for light
absorption. Chlorophyll absorbs certain wavelengths of
light within the visible light spectrum. Green light is not
absorbed but reflected, making the plant appear green.

Reaction centres
- A photosynthetic reaction centre is a protein that is the site of the light reactions
of photosynthesis. The reaction centre contains pigments such as chlorophyll
and carotenoids. These absorb light, promoting an electron to a higher energy
level within the pigment. The free energy created is used to reduce an electron
acceptor and is critical for the production of chemical energy during
photosynthesis.
- Green plants have two reaction centres known as photosystem I and
photosystem II and the structures of these centres are complex involving a
multisubunit protein.
 - A reaction centre is laid out in such a way that it captures the energy of a photon
using pigment molecules and turns it into a usable form

Photosystems
- A membrane-bound protein complex in plants and photosynthetic bacteria,
responsible for light harvesting and primary electron transfer.
- Comprises light-harvesting pigments such as chlorophyll; a primary electron-
transfer center, and secondary electron carriers.
- In green plant photosynthesis, Photosystem I transfers electrons from
plastocyanin to a [2Fe-2S] ferredoxin, and contains iron-sulfur proteins.
- Photosystem II transfers electrons from the oxygen-evolving complex to
plastoquinone, and contains an iron center.

Action and Absorption Spectrum

Pigments absorb light as a source of energy for photosynthesis
- The absorption spectrum indicates the wavelengths of light absorbed by each
pigment (e.g. chlorophyll)
- The action spectrum indicates the overall rate of photosynthesis at each
wavelength of light

There is a strong correlation between the cumulative absorption spectra of all pigments
and the action spectrum
- Both display two main peaks – a larger peak at the blue region (~450 nm) and a
smaller peak at the red region (~670 nm)
- Both display a trough in the green / yellow portion of the visible spectra (~550
nm)
Chloroplasts
Chloroplasts are the ’solar energy plants’ of a cell – they convert light energy into
chemical energy
■ This chemical energy may be either ATP (light dependent) or organic compounds
(light independent)
■ Only photosynthetic tissue possess chloroplasts (e.g. is present in leaves but not
roots of plants)

Chloroplasts are thought to have once been independent prokaryotes that were
internalised by eukaryotes via endosymbiosis
■ They have a double membrane structure (due to vesicular coating as part of the
endocytotic process)
■ They have their own DNA (circular and naked) and ribosomes (70S)
■ Their metabolic processes are susceptible to certain antibiotics

The structure of the chloroplast is adapted to the function it performs:

Thylakoids
flattened discs have a small internal volume to maximise hydrogen gradient upon proton
accumulation

Grana
thylakoids are arranged into
stacks to increase
Surface:Volume ratio of the
thylakoid membrane

Photosystems
pigments organised into
photosystems in the thylakoid
membrane to maximise light
absorption

Stroma
the central cavity that contains appropriate enzymes and a suitable pH for the Calvin
cycle to occur

Lamellae
connects and separates thylakoid stacks (grana), maximising photosynthetic efficiency
 REACTIONS
Photosynthesis is a two step process:
■ The light dependent reactions convert light energy from the Sun into chemical
energy (ATP)
■ The light independent reactions use the chemical energy to synthesise organic
compounds (e.g. carbohydrates)

The light-dependent reactions produce compounds that are used in the light-
independent reactions. Both the light-dependent and the light-independent reactions
take place in the chloroplasts of plant cells.The stroma contains the enzymes required
for the light-independent reactions and the stacks of thylakoid membranes increase the
surface area for the light-dependent reactions.

Both of these sets of reactions are part of photosynthesis and can only occur when
there is sufficient light. Light-dependent reactions can only take place in the light, and
although light-independent reactions do not require light directly – and can take place
when it is dark – they do require the products of the light-dependent reaction.

Light Dependent Reactions

The light-dependent reactions occur on the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast
and are powered by light energy from the Sun.

Each thylakoid is a flattened sac so the space in the middle is narrow. The thylakoid
membranes form stacks called grana, which may be joined together by inter-granule
membranes.

Light is absorbed by photosynthetic pigments such as chlorophyll, which are found on

the granal membranes. The pigments are associated with proteins that are involved in
electron transport, proton pumping and chemiosmosis. The photosynthetic pigments are
combined into two complex groups called photosystems I and II, which absorb the light
energy and use this to boost electrons to a higher energy level so that they become
‘excited’.

1. The first step in the light-dependent reaction is the photoactivation of

photosystem II. Pigment molecules in the photosystem absorb light energy and
boost electrons in a molecule of chlorophyll to a higher energy level. The
electrons are accepted by a carrier protein molecule at the start of the electron
transport chain.
 2. Photosystem II has to replace these lost electrons and it does this by taking them
from water. Water is split into electrons, protons (hydrogen ions) and an oxygen
atom. Since the splitting is brought about by light energy, it is called photolysis.
The oxygen is released as an excretory product.

3. Excited electrons travel along the electron transport chain into photosystem I.
As they do this, they lose energy but this is used to pump protons into the
thylakoid interior (in a similar way as occurs in the electron transport chain in the
mitochondrion). The thylakoid interior is small and so a proton concentration
gradient builds up quickly. The protons then flow out through a large channel
protein, almost identical to the one in mitochondria, which contains the enzyme
ATP synthase. This time though, the formation of ATP is called
photophosphorylation and it occurs between photosystems II and I

4. Reduction of NADP+: Absorption of light energy causes photoactivation in

photosystem I, boosting more electrons to an even higher energy level. The
electrons that arrive from photosystem II replace those that are displaced. The
electrons at the higher energy level are combined with protons in the hydrogen
carrier NADP+ to form NADPH + H+.

The two products of the light-dependent reaction, 18 ATP and 12 NADPH + H+, are
used to drive the light-independent reaction.

Photolysis
Define photolysis.
Photolysis is a chemical process by which molecules are broken down into smaller units
through the absorption of light.

State the equation for photolysis.

Photolysis is a process where light is used to split water molecules as represented by
the following equation:
2H2O → 4H+ + 4e- + O2
Oxygen (O2) is liberated to the atmosphere as a waste product in this process.
Photophosphorylation
The production of ATP by the light dependent reactions is called photophosphorylation,
as it uses light as an energy source. Photophosphorylation may be either a cyclic
process or a non-cyclic process

Cyclic Photophosphorylation
Cyclic photophosphorylation involves the use of only one photosystem (PS I) and does
not involve the reduction of NADP+
1) When light is absorbed by Photosystem I, the excited electron may enter into an
electron transport chain to produce ATP
2) Following this, the de-energised electron returns to the photosystem, restoring its
electron supply (hence: cyclic)
3) As the electron returns to the photosystem, NADP+ is not reduced and water is
not needed to replenish the electron supply

Non-Cyclic Photophosphorylation
Non-cyclic photophosphorylation involves two photosystems (PS I and PS II) and does
involve the reduction of NADP+
 Light-independent reactions

The light-independent reactions occur in the stroma of the chloroplast and comprise a
cyclic pathway called the Calvin cycle. ATP and NADPH + H+ formed during the light-
dependent stage supply energy and reducing power for the Calvin cycle. The final
product of the cycle is carbohydrate.

1. At the start of the cycle, the acceptor molecule ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP)
combines with incoming carbon dioxide from the air to form glycerate 3-
phosphate (G3P). This reaction is called carbon fixation. It is catalysed by
RuBP carboxylase, an enzyme that is sometimes called Rubisco.

2. Reduction of G3P to triose phosphate: The ATP and NADPH + H+ from the
light-dependent reaction convert the glycerate 3-phosphate into triose phosphate
(TP). Glycerate 3-phosphate, therefore, becomes reduced to triose phosphate.
No more phosphate is added so the only input from ATP is energy
 3. Regeneration of RuBP from triose phosphate: Six molecules of triose
phosphate are produced but only five are needed to regenerate the ribulose
bisphosphate to keep the cycle going. The extra triose phosphate leaves the
cycle and is used to synthesise organic molecules such as glucose or amino
acids. Since the triose phosphate that leaves the cycle takes a phosphate with it,
this is replaced in the cycle with phosphate from ATP, as the five remaining triose
phosphates are converted back to three ribulose bisphosphate molecules, and
the cycle begins again.

Six turns of the Calvin cycle produces two triose phosphate molecules, which can be
combined to form the final product, glucose. Some triose phosphate molecules will
follow other pathways to make other organic carbohydrate molecules, such as sucrose
or cellulose, or other molecules that the plant needs, such as amino acids, fatty acids or
vitamins.

For the net synthesis of one glucose molecule, the Calvin cycle uses the products
of the light reactions:
- 18 ATP molecules
- 12 NADPH molecules
 Lollipop Experiment
The light independent reactions are also collectively known as the Calvin cycle – named
after American chemist Melvin Calvin. Calvin’s elucidation of photosynthetic carbon
compounds is commonly classed the ‘lollipop experiment’
■ Radioactive carbon-14 is added to a ‘lollipop’ apparatus containing green algae
(Chlorella)
■ Light is shone on the apparatus to induce photosynthesis (which will incorporate
the carbon-14 into organic compounds)
■ After different periods of time, the algae is killed by running it into a solution of
heated alcohol (stops cell metabolism)
■ Dead algal samples are analysed using 2D chromatography, which separates out
the different carbon compounds
■ Any radioactive carbon compounds on the chromatogram were then identified
using autoradiography (X-ray film exposure)
■ By comparing different periods of light exposure, the order by which carbon
compounds are generated was determined
■ Calvin used this information to propose a sequence of events known as the
Calvin cycle (light independent reactions)

Photorespiration
- Photorespiration is a wasteful pathway that occurs when the Calvin cycle
enzyme rubisco acts on oxygen rather than carbon dioxide.
- The majority of plants are C3 plants, which have no special features to combat
photorespiration.
- C4 plants minimize photorespiration by separating initial CO2 fixation and the
Calvin cycle in space, performing these steps in different cell types.
- Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) plants minimize photorespiration and
save water by separating these steps in time, between night and day.

Factors affecting Photosynthesis

The rate of photosynthesis can be
affected by three main factors;
temperature, light intensity, and
carbon dioxide concentration.

To start, off, photosynthesis is

controlled by enzymes, which are (by
themselves) very sensitive to
temperature fluctuations. The
slightest change in temperature could cause them to denature. As temperature
increases, the reaction rate will also increase, as reactants have greater kinetic
energy and more collisions result. However, above a certain temperature the rate
of photosynthesis will decrease as esse ntial enzymes will begin to denature.
 Secondly, light intensity can also have
an effect on the rate of photosynthesis,
as light is absorbed by chlorophyll,
which converts the radiant energy into
chemical energy (ATP). As light
intensity increases, the reaction rate
will also increase, as more chlorophyll
is being photo-activated. At a certain
light intensity, photosynthetic rates will
plateau, as all available chlorophyll are
saturated with light. Different
wavelengths of light will have different effects on the rate of photosynthesis.

And lastly, carbon dioxide

concentration can also affect the rate of
photosynthesis seeing as CO2 is
involved in the fixation of carbon atoms
to form organic molecules. As carbon
dioxide concentration increases, the
reaction rate will increase, as more
organic molecules are being produced.
At a certain concentration of CO2,
photosynthetic rates will plateau, as the
enzymes responsible for carbon fixation
are saturated.

Oxygenation of Earth

Photosynthesis causes a rise in the concentration of oxygen in the Earth’s

atmosphere, also known as the Great Oxidation Event. Along with that, glaciation
occurs due to reduction of the greenhouse effect, which is due to rising oxygen
because concentrations of methane and carbon dioxide dropped. Another part is
the oxidation of iron deposits in water that resulted in precipitation on the sea-bed
called banded iron formation; this then led to the creation of iron ores.

a. plants/producers/autotrophs convert light to chemical energy by photosynthesis

b. chlorophyll/photosynthetic pigments absorb light
c. electrons are excited/raised to higher energy level
d. excited electrons pass along chain of electron carriers
e. energy from electrons used to pump protons across thylakoid membrane/into thylakoid space
f. chemiosmosis/proton gradient used to make ATP
g. ATP synthase generates ATP
h. pigments arranged in photosystems
i. electrons from Photosystem II flow via the electron chain to Photosystem I
j. electrons from Photosystem I are used to reduce NADP
k. ATP and reduced NADP used in the light independent reactions/Calvin cycle
l. carbohydrate/glucose/carbon compounds produced containing energy