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Introduction To Complex Analysis
Lecture 2
za
Geometrical Interpretation of H a {z : Im( ) 0}, b 0
b
z
We first give the geometrical of H 0 {z : Im( ) 0, b 1} , i.e.
b
when a = 0 and b 1.
In this case, write z r (cos i sin ) and b cos i sin ,
then
z
r[cos( ) i sin( )] .
b
a
b
L a
z
Now, z H 0 sin( ) 0 ( Im( ) 0)
b
0
H 0 is the half plane lying to the left of line L passing
through origin, if one walks along L in the direction of b .
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Now,
awa w
w H 0 a w H a ( Im( ) Im( ) 0) .
b b
Therefore, H a is the half plane lying to the left of line La
passing through a and in the direction of
b (as we walk in the
direction of b ).
Ellipses in terms of Complex Numbers
z a z a 2 r represents an ellipse for r > 0 and a r
z
r
a a
0
z a z a 2 r represents the interior of the above ellipse
z a z a 2r represents the exterior of the above ellipse.
Annulus
r1 z a r2 r
2
z
r
a1
Half ‐Plane in terms of Complex Numbers
H 0 {z : z 1 z 1}represents the right half plane.
z
1 1
i
Another way to represent H 0 is
z
H 0 z : Im 0 z : Re z 0
i
Hyperbola in terms of Complex Numbers
The hyperbola is represented by the parametric equation
1 1
z t i ( x t , y xy 1)
t t
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Interior Point of a Set, Open Set, Connected Set and Domain
of Complex Numbers:
Interior Point, Exterior Point of a Set: A point is called
interior point of a set A C if an open disk centered at this
point and contained in A can be found.
A point is called exterior point of a set A if it is an interior
point of Ac (complement of A ).
Example: Every point of A {z : z a z a 2r}is an interior
point of set A. Every point of A* {z : z a z a 2r} is an
exterior point of set A.
Open Set: A set G C is called an open set if every point of G
is an interior point of G .
Example: The set A {z : z a z a 2 r} is an open set.
Connected Set: A set A C is called connected, if for every pair
of points in A, a continuous curve contained in A can be found
that joins these points.
Example: (i) The set A {z : z a z a 2 r} is connected
(ii) union of two disjoint disks is not a connected set.
Domain: A set A C which is both open and connected is
called domain.
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Example: (i) The set A {z : z a z a 2 r} is a domain (ii)
union of two disjoint disks is not a domain (iii) The set
A {z : z a z a 2r} is not a domain.
Convergent Sequences of Complex Numbers. A sequence
zn of complex numbers is said to be convergent if, for some
z0 and every 0 , there exists a non‐negative integer
n0 such that is
zn z0 for all n n0 (*)
z0 is called limit of the sequence and we use the notation
z0 lim zn .
n
It is easily seen that zn xn i yn converges to z0 x0 i y0 iff
and only if xn converges to x0 and yn converges to y0 (use
| xn x0 || zn z0 |,| yn y0 || zn z0 |)
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All the results as well as their proofs about convergence of
sequences of complex numbers are analogous to
corresponding results and their proofs for convergence of
sequences of real numbers.
For example, it can be easily shown by arguments similar to
those for real sequences that the sequence {z n }converges to
complex number 0 as n if z 1 (using (*)), while, for
| z | 1, the sequence {z n } does not converge, since
cos n i sin n , real , does not converge (since, the sequence
cos n of its real part does not converge as n ).
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Continuous Functions. A function f : is called
continuous at z0 , if for any 0 , there exists a 0 such
that
f ( z ) f ( z0 ) for z z0 .
The function f is said to be continuous in a set A if f is
continuous at all the points of A.
The definition of continuity is meaningful only if f is defined in
some neighbourhood of z0 (i.e. a disk centered at z0 ).
Example 1: Let
xy z2
2 Im( ) if ( x, y ) (0,0)
f ( x, y ) x y 2
2z
2
0 if ( x, y ) (0,0)
m
Then, f ( x, y ) along the line y mx as ( x, y ) 0,0 .
1 m 2
Consequently, f is not continuous at (0, 0).
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Example 2: Let
x2 y
4 if ( x, y ) (0,0)
f ( x, y ) x y 2
0 if ( x, y ) (0,0)
Then, f ( x, y ) 0 along the line y mx as ( x, y ) 0,0
1
but f ( x, y ) along y x 2 as ( x, y ) (0,0) .
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Consequently, f is not continuous at (0, 0).
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Proposition 1. TFAE ( The following are equivalent)
(i) f is continuous at z0
(ii) zn z0 f ( zn ) f ( z0 )
Proof.
Equivalence of (i) and (ii)
(i ) (ii ) : Let for any 0 , there exists a 0 such that
f ( z ) f ( z0 ) for z z0 . ……………(1)
Now, zn z0 zn z z0 for all n n0
f ( zn ) f ( z0 ) for all n n0
f ( zn ) f ( z0 )
(ii ) (i ) : Let zn z0 f ( zn ) f ( z0 ) . Let f be not
continuous at z0 . Then, 0 such that, for every natural
number n,
0 z z0 1 / n contains a point zn* satisfying
f ( zn* ) f ( z0 ) 0 .
zn* z0 but f ( zn* ) f ( z0 ) .
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Proposition 2. The functions f g , f , fg , f / g ( g 0) are
continuous whenever f and g are continuous. Converse need
not be true.
Proposition 3. If f is continuous in A and g is continuous in the
range of f, then g f is continuous in A.
The proofs of above propositions are analogous to
corresponding proofs for real valued functions of real
variables.
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Examples.
(i) Any polynomial in z is continuous in
(use Proposition 2).
(ii) f is continuous if and only if Re( f ) and Im( f ) are
continuous
(use Proposition 2 and Re( f ) f , Im( f ) f ).
(iii) f is continuous if and only if f is continuous
(use f f ).
(iv) f is continuous, then f is continuous. Converse need
not be true, e.g. consider, f ( z ) u ( z ) i v ( z ) , where
, if z has rational coordinates
u( z ) , v ( z ) .
, otherwise
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Differentiable Functions.
A function f : is called differentiable at z0 if
f ( z 0 ) f ( z0 )
lim (1)
0
exists finitely. In that case, the limit in (1) is called the
derivative of f(z) at the point z0 and is denoted by f ( z0 ) . Note
that f ( z0 ) can also be written as
f ( z0 z ) f ( z0 ) f ( z ) f ( z0 )
f ( z0 ) lim lim
z 0 z z z0 z z0
(take z z0 z )
Remark. All the results on differentiability of functions
f : are true for differentiability of functions
f : and can be proved analogously.
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Note: If f is diff. it is cont. but the converse need not be true.
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(Ex. f ( z ) z is cont. everywhere but is diff. only at 0)
___
2 2 2 2 2
z0 z z0 z0 z z0 z z0 z z0
lim lim
z 0 z z 0 z
___
___ z
lim ( z0 z z0 )
z 0 z
= 0 if z0 0 (limit does not exist if z0 0 )
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Analytic Function. A function f is said to be analytic at z0 if f
(i) f is differentiable at z0 and (ii) f is differentiable in some
neighbourhood of z0 (i.e. in a disk centered at z0 ).
The function f is said to be analytic in a set A, if f is analytic at
all points of A.
It is clear that if f is differentiable in any open set G , then
f is analytic in G . Converse holds obviously.
Examples:
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(i) z is not analytic anywhere.
(ii) Any polynomial is analytic at all points of .
