Complex Analysis

Pinaki Pal

Department of Mathematics
National Institute of Technology Durgapur
West Bengal, India
pinaki.pal@maths.nitdgp.ac.in

Pinaki Pal (NIT Durgapur) MA331; Odd Semester, 2022-23 1 / 32

Syllabus and books

Syllabus
Functions of complex variable, Limit, Continuity and Derivative;
Analytic function; Harmonic function; Complex integration; Cauchy’s
integral theorem; Cauchy’s integral formula; Taylor’s theorem,
Laurent’s theorem (Statement only); Singular points and residues;
Cauchy’s residue theorem.

Reference
Engineering Mathematics- Babu Ram
Engineering Mathematics (Oxford University Press)- S. Pal and
S.C. Bhunia
Advanced Engineering Mathematics- E. Kreyszig

Pinaki Pal (NIT Durgapur) MA331; Odd Semester, 2022-23 2 / 32

Complex numbers
A complex number z is an ordered pair (x, y ) of real numbers x and y
and the set of all complex numbers is denoted by C, i.e.,
C = {z = (x, y ) : x, y ∈ R}.
The sets C and R2 = R × R are same as sets, but the algebra in these
sets are different.
For two complex numbers z1 = (x1 , y1 ) and z2 = (x2 , y2 ), the addition
and multiplication are defined as
z1 + z2 = (x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 )
z1 z2 = (x1 , y1 )(x2 , y2 ) = (x1 x2 − y1 y2 , x1 y2 + x2 y1 )
The complex number (x, 0) is simply denoted by x (indeed, a real
number).
i = (0, 1). Then i 2 = (0, 1)(0, 1) = (−1, 0) = −1 and so we can write
Let √
i = −1 (notation).
Then z = (x, y ) = (x, 0) + (0, y ) = (x, 0) + (0, 1)(y , 0) = x + iy .
The number x and y are called the real and imaginary parts of z and we
write Re z = x and Im z = y
Pinaki Pal (NIT Durgapur) MA331; Odd Semester, 2022-23 3 / 32
Geometric representation: polar form

Figure: Argand diagram

Let z = x + iy 6= 0 and x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ. Then

z = r (cos θ + i sin θ) = reiθ
(Euler formula)
p
The modulus (or absolute value) of z is |z| = r = x 2 + y 2 .
The angle θ is called the amplitude or argument of the complex
number z and denoted by arg z = θ and we have tan θ = yx .
Pinaki Pal (NIT Durgapur) MA331; Odd Semester, 2022-23 4 / 32
 If α is an argument of an complex number z then α + 2k π, k ∈ Z is
also an argument of the same complex number z.
Among infinitely many values of θ, the one which lies in (−π, π] is
called the principal argument of z and is denoted by Arg z.
The conjugate of a complex number z is defined by z = x − iy .

Some properties of complex numbers

1 |z| = 0 ⇐⇒ z = 0
2 zz = |z|2
3 |z| = |z|
4 z1 ± z2 = z1 ± z2
5 |z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 |
6 arg z n = n arg z
7 |z1 − z2 | represent the distance between the complex numbers z1
and z2 .
8 |z − z0 | = r represent a circle with center at z0 and radius r .
Pinaki Pal (NIT Durgapur) MA331; Odd Semester, 2022-23 5 / 32
Topology of complex plane: Some definition
1 Neighbourhood: Let z0 be a point in the complex plane. Then the set of
all points z such that |z − z0 | < δ where δ > 0 is called neighbourhood or
δ-neighbourhood of z0 .
2 Interior point: A point z0 is called an interior point of set S if there exists
a neighbourhood of z0 lying wholly in S.
3 Open set: A set S is said to be open if every point of S is an interior
point.
4 Limit point: A point z0 is called a limit point of a point set S if every
neighbourhood of z0 contains at least one point of S other than z0 .
5 Closure: The union of a set S and the set of its limit points is called the
closure of S and is denoted by S.
6 Closed set: A set S is said to be closed if it contains all of its limit points.
7 A set S is said to be closed if and only if its complement S c is open.
8 Bounded set: A set S is said to be bounded if there exist M > 0 such
that |z| ≤ M for all z ∈ M i.e., S is contained in some disk of radius M.

Pinaki Pal (NIT Durgapur) MA331; Odd Semester, 2022-23 6 / 32

Connected Set

1 Connected Set: A set S is said to be connected if there do not

exist two non-empty disjoint open sets A and B such that
S ⊆ A ∪ B, A ∩ S 6= φ, B ∩ S 6= φ.
2 Domain: An open connected set is called a domain.
3 Any two points in a domain can be joined by a polygonal line that
lies in the domain.
Example:

A = {z ∈ C : |z| < 1}, B = {z ∈ C : |z − 2| ≤ 1}, S =A∪B

A is open and connected set. B is closed and connected set. S is

neither open nor closed but S is connected.

Pinaki Pal (NIT Durgapur) MA331; Odd Semester, 2022-23 7 / 32

Complex Functions

Functions of a complex Variable: Let D ⊂ C. A function f defined on

D is a rule that assigns a complex number w to each complex number
z in D.

w = f (z) = u + iv ⇐⇒ w = f (x + iy ) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y )

If only one value of w corresponds to each value of z, we say that

w = f (z) is a single-valued function of z or that f (z) is single valued.
If more than one value of w corresponds to a value of z, then f (z) is
called multiple-valued or many-valued function of z.
Example: Let w = f (z) = z 2 .
Then f (z) = (x + iy )2 = (x 2 − y 2 ) + i2xy . Here u(x, y ) = x 2 − y 2 and
v = 2xy .

Pinaki Pal (NIT Durgapur) MA331; Odd Semester, 2022-23 8 / 32

Limit
Limit of a functions of a complex variable: Let f (z) be defined and
single valued in a deleted nbd of z0 . The function f (z) is said to have
the limit l as z approaches z0 if for given  > 0, there exists a δ > 0
such that
|f (z) − l| <  whenever 0 < |z − z0 | < δ
We then write lim f (z) = l. Here the limit is independent of the
z→z0
direction of approach of z to z0 .

Figure: limit of a function

Pinaki Pal (NIT Durgapur) MA331; Odd Semester, 2022-23 9 / 32
Limit
Limit in terms of its real and imaginary parts of a complex functions:
Let f (z) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y ), l = l1 + il2 and z0 = x0 + iy0 . Then

lim f (z) = l ⇐⇒ lim u(x, y ) = l1 & lim v (x, y ) = l2 .

z→z0 (x,y )→(x0 ,y0 ) (x,y )→(x0 ,y0 )

Example: lim |z|2 = lim (x 2 + y 2 ) = 5

z→1+2i (x,y )→(1,2)

Example:
z 2 − 3z + 1 (z − 1)(z − 2)
lim = lim = lim (z − 2) = −1 + 3i.
z→1+3i z −1 z→1+3i z −1 z→1+3i

z
Example: lim does not exist.
z→0 z
z x
Along x-axis (y = 0), we have lim = lim = 1.
z x→0 x
z→0

z −iy
Along y -axis (x = 0), we have lim = lim = −1.
z→0 z y →0 iy

Pinaki Pal (NIT Durgapur) MA331; Odd Semester, 2022-23 10 / 32

Continuity

Continuous functions: Let f (z) be defined and single valued in a nbd

of z0 . The function f (z) is said to be continuous at z0 if for given  > 0,
there exists a δ > 0 such that

|f (z) − f (z0 )| <  whenever |z − z0 | < δ

Alternatively, the function f (z) is said to be continuous at z0 if

lim f (z) exist and is equal to f (z0 ).
z→z0

Theorem
A function f (z) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y ) is continuous at z0 = x0 + iy0 if and
only if the functions u(x, y ) and v (x, y ) are continuous at (x0 , y0 ).

Pinaki Pal (NIT Durgapur) MA331; Odd Semester, 2022-23 11 / 32

Continuity
Example: Let f (z) = z 2 + 1 = (x 2 − y 2 + 1) + i2xy .
Then
lim (z 2 + 1) = 0 = f (i).
z→i
Thus f (z) is continuous at z = i.
Example: The signum function defined by
(
|z|
z 6= 0
f (z) = z
0 z=0
is continuous in C \ {0}.
Solution: Let z0 6= 0. Then
lim f (z)
z→z0

But (
|z| 1 when z = x + i.0 & x → 0+
lim =
z→0 z −1 when z = x + i.0 & x → 0−
Thus f is not continuous at z = 0.
Pinaki Pal (NIT Durgapur) MA331; Odd Semester, 2022-23 12 / 32
Differentiability
Differentiable functions: A function f : D → C is said to be differentiable at
z0 ∈ D if
f (z) − f (z0 ) f (z0 + h) − f (z0 )
lim or lim
z→z0 z − z0 h→0 h
exists and it is denoted by f 0 (z0 ).

If f is differentiable at each point of D, we say that f is differentiable in D.

Theorem
If f : D → C is differentiable at z0 ∈ D, then f is continuous at z0 .

Proof:
f (z) − f (z0 )
lim (f (z) − f (z0 )) = lim .(z − z0 )
z→z0 z→z0 z − z0
f (z) − f (z0 )
= lim . lim (z − z0 )
z→z0 z − z0 z→z0
0
=f (z0 ).0 = 0.
Thus f is continuous.
Pinaki Pal (NIT Durgapur) MA331; Odd Semester, 2022-23 13 / 32
Differentiability

Example: Let f (z) = z 2 , z ∈ C. Then

f (z + h) − f (z) (z + h)2 − z 2
f 0 (z) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
2
h + 2zh
= lim = lim (h + 2z) = 2z
h→0 h h→0

Example: The function f (z) = z is continuous everywhere but not

differentiable at any point.
(
f (z + h) − f (z) z +h−z h 1 if h → 0 along real axis
= = →
h h h −1 if h → 0 along imaginary axis

Thus f is not differentiable at any point. But clearly f is continuous at all

points.

Pinaki Pal (NIT Durgapur) MA331; Odd Semester, 2022-23 14 / 32

Differentiability p
Example: Let f (z) = |z| = x 2 + y 2 , z ∈ C. Then f is continuous on C but
not differentiable at the origin.
Clearly, lim f (z) − f (0) = 0. But,
z→0


1 if z = x > 0, x → 0+
= x < 0, x → 0+

f (z) − f (0) |z|  −1 if z
= →
z −0 z 

 −i if z = iy , y → 0+
i if z = iy , y → 0−


Thus f is not differentiable at z = 0.

Theorem
Let f : D → C and g : D → C be two differentiable function. Then
(i) (f ± g)0 = f 0 ± g 0 ;
(ii) (fg)0 = f 0 g + fg 0 ;
 0 0 0
(iii) gf = f g−fg g2
, g 6= 0;

(iv) [f (g(z))]0 = f 0 (g(z)).g 0 (z);

Pinaki Pal (NIT Durgapur) MA331; Odd Semester, 2022-23 15 / 32
Theorem
A real valued function of a complex variable either has derivative zero
or the derivative does not exist.
Proof: Suppose that f : D → R is differentiable at z0 ∈ D. Then
f (z0 + h) − f (z0 )
f 0 (z0 ) = lim
h→0 h
exist. If h → 0 along real axis, then f 0 (z0 ) is purely real and if h → 0
along imaginary axis, then f 0 (z0 ) is purely imaginary. This is possible
only when f 0 (z0 ) = 0.

Example: Show that f (z) = Re(z) is nowhere differentiable.

Hint:
(
f (z0 + h) − f (z0 ) Re(h) 1 for h = h1 + i.0 ∈ R\{0}
= =
h h 0 for h = 0 + i.h2 ∈ i R\{0}
Example: Show that the functions Im(z), z̄, Arg (z) is nowhere
differentiable.
Pinaki Pal (NIT Durgapur) MA331; Odd Semester, 2022-23 16 / 32
Cauchy-Riemann equation
Theorem (Necessary condition for derivative)
If f (z) = u + iv is differentiable at z0 , then fx = ux + ivx and fy = uy + ivy
exists at z0 and satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann(C-R) equation at z0 , i.e,

fy (z0 ) = ifx (z0 ) or, equivalently ux (z0 ) = vy (z0 ) & uy (z0 ) = −vx (z0 ).

Proof: Let f 0 (z0 ) exists finitely. Then

f (z0 + h) − f (z0 )
f 0 (z0 ) = lim
h→0 h
exists and is independent of the path along which h = h1 + ih2 approaches to
0. In particular, along x-axis we have
f (x0 + h1 , y0 ) − f (x0 , y0 )
f 0 (z0 ) = lim = fx (z0 )
h1 →0 h1 + i.0
u(x0 + h1 , y0 ) − u(x0 , y0 ) v (x0 + h1 , y0 ) − v (x0 , y0 )
= lim + i lim
h1 →0 h1 h1 →0 h1
= ux (z0 ) + ivx (z0 ) (1)

Pinaki Pal (NIT Durgapur) MA331; Odd Semester, 2022-23 17 / 32

Cauchy-Riemann equation
Again, along y -axis we have
f (x0 , y0 + h2 ) − f (x0 , y0 ) 1
f 0 (z0 ) = lim = fy (z0 )
h2 →0 0 + i.h2 i
1 u(x0 , y0 + h2 ) − u(x0 , y0 ) v (x0 , y0 + h2 ) − v (x0 , y0 )
= lim + i lim
i h2 →0 h2 h2 →0 h2
1
= (uy (z0 ) + ivy (z0 ))
i
= vy (z0 ) − iuy (z0 ) (2)
From (1) and (2), we have
fy = ifx or equivalently ux = vy , uy = −vx .
Note 1: If a function f (z) is known to be differentiable then its derivative is
given by
f 0 (z) = fx = −ify = ux + ivx = vy − iuy .
Note 2: The C-R equations are necessary condition for f to be differentiable
at a point. If they are not satisfied at a point then f 0 (z) does not exist at that
point.
If C-R equation hold a point z0 then f may or may not be differentiable at z0 .
Pinaki Pal (NIT Durgapur) MA331; Odd Semester, 2022-23 18 / 32
 p p
Example: Let f (z) = |Re zIm z| = |xy |. Then f satisfies the C-R equation
at z = 0 but f 0 (0) does not exists.
p
Solution: Here u(x, y ) = |xy | and v (x, y ) = 0. Then
u(h, 0) − u(0, 0)
ux (0, 0) = lim =0
h→0 h

u(0, k ) − u(0, 0)
uy (0, 0) = lim =0
k →0 k
Similarly, vx (0, 0) = vy (0, 0) = 0. Thus, f satisfy C-R equation.

p √ √
f (z) − f (0) |xy | m m
lim = lim = lim (along y = mx) =
z→0 z −0 (x,y )→(0,0) x + iy x→0 1 + im 1 + im
which is different for different values of m. Thus f 0 (0) does not exist
Example: Show that the function
(
xy
2 2 , for z 6= 0
f (z) = x +y
0, for z = 0

satisfy C-R equation at z = 0 but f 0 (0) does not exists.

Pinaki Pal (NIT Durgapur) MA331; Odd Semester, 2022-23 19 / 32
Theorem
Let f = u + iv be differentiable in a domain D. Show that f is constant in D, if
one of the following conditions hold
(i) f 0 (z) ≡ 0 in D.
(ii) Re f (z) is constant in D.
(iii) Im f (z) is constant in D.
(iv) |f (z)| is constant in D.

Proof: (i) If f 0 (z) = fx = ux + ivx = 0 then ux = vx = 0 in D. The by C-R

equation uy = vy = 0 in D. Thus u and v both are constant in D and
consequently, f is constant in D.

(ii) If Re f (z) = u = c then ux = uy = 0. By C-R equation vx = vy = 0. and so

f 0 (z) = 0 in D. Thus f is constant in D.
(iv ) Let |f (z)| = k , a constant. Then
u 2 + v 2 = k 2 =⇒ uux + vvx = 0 and uuy + vvy = 0
=⇒ (u + v )(ux + uy2 ) = 0
2 2 2
[squaring and adding]
=⇒ k 2 |f 0 (z)|2 = 0
=⇒ f 0 (z) =
Pinaki Pal (NIT Durgapur) 0. Odd Semester, 2022-23
MA331; 20 / 32
Analytic Function
Analytic Function: A function f : D → C is said to be analytic at a point
z0 ∈ D if it is differentiable at every point of some neighbourhood of z0 .
Alternative terms for analytic functions are regular function or
holomorphic function.
The function f is said to be analytic on D if it analytic at every point of D.
A function which is analytic at every point in the complex plane is called
entire function.
Example: Show that the function f (z) = z̄ = x − iy is nowhere analytic.
Solution:
Here u(x, y ) = x and v (x, y ) = −y .
Then ux = 1 & uy = 0 and vx = 0 & vy = −1.
Thus f (z) does not satisfy the CR equation at any point (alternatively,
fz = 1 6= 0).
Thus f is not differentiable at any point and so f is not analytic at any
point.
Pinaki Pal (NIT Durgapur) MA331; Odd Semester, 2022-23 21 / 32
Analytic Function
Example: The function f (z) = |z|2 = z z̄ is differentiable only at the origin and
hence nowhere analytic.
Solution: Here u(x, y ) = x 2 + y 2 and v (x, y ) = 0. Then ux = 2x & uy = 2y
and vx = 0 & vy = 0. Thus f (z) satisfy the CR equation only at the origin
(alternatively, fz = z). Thus f is not differentiable at z if z 6= 0 and so f is not
analytic at any point. You can check that f is differentiable at origin.
Example:
1 Any polynomial p(z) = a0 + a1 z + a2 z 2 + . . . + an z n is entire function.
2 The function sin z, cos z, ez are entire function.
z
3 The function f (z) = 1−z is analytic in C\{1}.
4 The functions f( z) = Rez = z+2 z̄ , f2 (z) = Imz = z−z̄
2i , f3 (z) = ez̄ are
nowhere differentiable/analytic.
5 The function Log z = log |z| + iArg z is analytic in C \ (−∞, 0].
6 We can not talk about the analyticity of the function
log z = log |z| + i arg z as it is a multi-valued function.

Pinaki Pal (NIT Durgapur) MA331; Odd Semester, 2022-23 22 / 32

Harmonic Function
Harmonic Function: A function φ : Ω → R is said to be harmonic in
an open set Ω if it has continuous partial derivatives of second order
and satisfies the Laplace equation

∂2φ ∂2φ
+ = φxx + φyy = 0.
∂x 2 ∂y 2

Theorem
Both the real and imaginary parts of an analytic function are harmonic.

Proof: If f = u + iv is analytic then f 0 (z) = ux + ivx . By C-R equation,

ux = vy , & uy = −vx . Thus uxx = vxy , uyy = −vyx . Therefore
uxx + uyy = 0.

Example: The functions u(x, y ) = x, v (x, y ) = −y both are harmonic

in C. But f = u + iv = z̄ is not analytic at any point of C.

Pinaki Pal (NIT Durgapur) MA331; Odd Semester, 2022-23 23 / 32

Harmonic Function

Theorem
Let u be a harmonic function in a simply connected domain (to be
discussed latter). Then there exist another harmonic function v such
that f = u + iv is analytic. (The function v is called the harmonic
conjugate of u.)

The harmonic conjugate v is unique, upto an addition of a real

constant.
Indeed, if v1 is another harmonic conjugate, then F = u + iv1 is
also analytic in Ω and so F − f = i(v1 − v ) becomes analytic in Ω.
But then Re (F − f ) = 0 and so F − f = c (constant).

Pinaki Pal (NIT Durgapur) MA331; Odd Semester, 2022-23 24 / 32

Harmonic Function
Example: Show that u(x, y ) = 4xy − x 3 + 3xy 2 harmonic and find v
such that f = u + iv is analytic.

Here
ux = 4y − 3x 2 + 3y 2 , uy = 4x + 6xy , uxx = −6x, uyy = 6x.
So, uxx + uyy = 0 and therefore u is harmonic in C.
Now
ux = 4y − 3x 2 + 3y 2 = vy
ˆ
=⇒ v = vy dy + φ(x) = 2y 2 − 3x 2 y + y 3 + φ(x)

=⇒ vx = −6xy + φ0 (x) = −uy = −4x − 6xy

=⇒ φ0 (x) = −4x
=⇒ φ(x) = −2x 2 + k k is a real constant

Therefore v = 2y 2 − 3x 2 y + y 3 − 2x 2 + k and hence f = u + iv is

analytic.
Pinaki Pal (NIT Durgapur) MA331; Odd Semester, 2022-23 25 / 32
To find the function: Let f = u + iv is the corresponding analytic
function. Then by C-R equation

f 0 (z) = ux + ivx = ux − iuy = (4y − 3x 2 + 3y 2 ) − i(4x + 6xy )

= −3(x 2 − y 2 + 2ixy ) − 4i(x + iy ) = −3z 2 − 4iz.

Thus f (z) = −z 3 − 2iz 2 + c.

Pinaki Pal (NIT Durgapur) MA331; Odd Semester, 2022-23 26 / 32

Harmonic Function
Example: Find the analytic function f = u + iv given that
u(x, y ) = x 3 − 3xy 2 .

Here ux = 3x 2 − 3y 2 , uy = −6xy , uxx = 6x, uyy = −6x.

So, uxx + uyy = 0 and therefore u is harmonic in C.
Now
ux = 3x 2 − 3y 2 = vy
ˆ
=⇒ v = vy dy + φ(x) = 3x 2 y − y 3 + φ(x)

=⇒ vx = 6xy + φ0 (x) = −uy = 6xy

=⇒ φ0 (x) = 0
=⇒ φ(x) = k k is a real constant

Therefore v = 3x 2 y − y 3 + k . Hence
f = u + iv = (x 3 − 3xy 2 ) + i(3x 2 y − y 3 + k ) = (x + iy )3 + ik = z 3 + c.

Pinaki Pal (NIT Durgapur) MA331; Odd Semester, 2022-23 27 / 32

The Extended complex plane and Stereographic
projection

The extended complex plane is

the complex plane together with
the point at infinity.
The extended complex plane is
denoted by C∞ so that
C∞ = C ∪ {∞}.
One way to visualize the
extended complex plane is the
Stereographic projection.
We consider a sphere of radius 1
centered at the origin (0, 0, 0) in
Figure: Stereographic projection R3 .
We identify the complex number
z = x + iy by (x, y , 0) in R3 .

Pinaki Pal (NIT Durgapur) MA331; Odd Semester, 2022-23 28 / 32

 If P(X , Y , Z ) is any point on the unit sphere other than the north
pole N(0, 0, 1) then the straight line joining P and N meets the
complex plane at exact one point, namely at z = x + iy or (x, y , 0).
Thus to each point on sphere (except the north pole N(0, 0, 1))
there correspond one and only one point on the complex plane
and conversely.
For completeness, we say that the north pole N(0, 0, 1)
correspond to the point at infinity (∞).

Analyticity at point at infinity

Any nbd of the point of infinity is the set of all complex number
(including ∞) lies in |z| > M where M > 0.
A function f (z) is continuous/differentiable/analytic at z = ∞ iff the
function f (1/z) is continuous/differentiable/analytic at z = 0
respectively.

Pinaki Pal (NIT Durgapur) MA331; Odd Semester, 2022-23 29 / 32

Curves

Figure: Curve Figure: Simple closed Figure: Not simple closed

curve curve

Curve: A continuous curve or simply curve or arc in C is a continuous mapping γ : [a, b] → C and is defined
parametrically by γ : z(t) = x(t) + iy (t), t ∈ [a, b] where x(t) and y (t) are continuous real valued functions on [a, b].
A curve may have more than one parametrization. For example, z1 (t) = t, t ∈ [0, 1] and z2 (t) = t 2 , t ∈ [0, 1]
represent the curve.
For the parameterized curve γ : [a, b] → C, the point γ(a) is called the initial point and γ(b) is called the terminal point
of γ.
If γ(a) = γ(b) then it is called a closed curve.
The curve γ is called simple or Jordan arc if γ(t) is one one (injective) with possible exception that γ(a) = γ(b).
A simple closed curve is called a Jordan curve. A domain D bounded by a Jordan curve is called a Jordan domain.

Pinaki Pal (NIT Durgapur) MA331; Odd Semester, 2022-23 30 / 32

Curves

Figure: Simply connected domain Figure: Multiply connected domain

A domain D is called simply connected if each simple closed

curve contained in D contains only points of D inside.
A domain D is called simply connected if each simple closed curve
contained in D can be contracted to a point without leaving D.
A domain that is not simply connected is called multiply
connected.
Pinaki Pal (NIT Durgapur) MA331; Odd Semester, 2022-23 31 / 32
Curves

The boundary C of a domain is said to have positive orientation,

or to be traversed in the positive direction if a person walking on C
always has the domain to his left.
A curve z(t) = x(t) + iy (t), t ∈ [a, b] is said to be smooth or
regular or continuously differentiable on [a, b] or C 1 curve if z(t)
and z 0 (t) are continuous.
A curve C : z = z(t) is called piecewise smooth curve is there
exists a subdivision a = t0 < t1 < t2 < .... < tn = b of [a, b] such
that z(t) is a smooth curve on [tj−1 , tj ] for j = 1, 2, ..., n.
A contour is just a piecewise smooth curve.

Pinaki Pal (NIT Durgapur) MA331; Odd Semester, 2022-23 32 / 32