[go: up one dir, main page]
Scribd
Upload
683 views30 pages

Calculus Powerpoint

The document discusses sequences and series in mathematics. It defines a sequence as a list of numbers in a given order, and notes that order is important. Sequences can converge, meaning the terms approach a single value, or diverge. A series represents the sum of the terms in a sequence, and the document explores various tests to determine if a series converges or diverges, such as the integral test, p-series test, ratio test, and alternating series test. It also introduces Taylor and Maclaurin series as representations of functions as an infinite series.

Uploaded by

barry
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
683 views30 pages

Calculus Powerpoint

The document discusses sequences and series in mathematics. It defines a sequence as a list of numbers in a given order, and notes that order is important. Sequences can converge, meaning the terms approach a single value, or diverge. A series represents the sum of the terms in a sequence, and the document explores various tests to determine if a series converges or diverges, such as the integral test, p-series test, ratio test, and alternating series test. It also introduces Taylor and Maclaurin series as representations of functions as an infinite series.

Uploaded by

barry
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 30

SEQUENCE:

Sequences are fundamental to the study of


infinite series and many applications of
mathematics.
Eg. A sequence is a list of numbers a1 , a2 ,
a3 , . . . , an , . . . in a given order. Each of a1, a2,
a3 and so on represents a number. These are the
terms of the sequence. For example, the sequence
2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, …,2n, first term a1 = 2, second
term a2 = 4, and nth term an = 2n. The integer n is
called the index of an, and indicates where an
occurs in the list. Order is important.
The sequence 2, 4, 6, 8 . . . is not the same as the
sequence 4, 2, 6, 8 . . . . We can think of the
sequence a1, a2, a3, …, an … as a function that
sends 1 to a1, 2 to a2, 3 to a3, and in general sends
the positive integer n to the nth term an. More
precisely, an infinite sequence of numbers is a
function whose domain is the set of positive
integers. The function associated with the sequence
2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12,… ,2n,... sends 1 to a1 = 2, 2 to a2
= 4, and so on. The general behavior of this
sequence is described by the formula an = 2n…
Convergence and Divergence:
Sometimes the numbers in a sequence approach
a single value as the index n increases.
This happens in the sequence
Eg.
{1,1/2,1/3,1/4,…..,1/n,…}

CONVERGENCE:
The sequence {an} converges to the number L
if for every positive number P there corresponds
an integer N such that for all n,
n>N → |an – L| < e.
if no such number L exists, we say that
{an} diverges.
If {an} converges to L, we write
Lim
n→∞ , an=L.or simply an →L, and call L the
limit of the sequence.
Eg.
Show that Lim 1/n=0
n→∞

1/∞=0
Therefore the sequence is convergent.
The sequence {an}diverges to infinity if for
every number M there is an integer N such
that for all n larger than N, an >M. If this
condition holds we write
Lim an =∞ (or) an →∞
n→∞
Similarly, if for every number m there is
an integer N such that for all n > N we
Have an <M, thn we say the sequence diverges
to negative in finity,
Lim an = - ∞ (or) an → - ∞
n→∞
2. Show that the sequence {1, -1, 1,
-1, 1, -1, …, (-1)^(n+1), …}
diverges .

Sol:
The value oscillates from -1 to 1
and does not converge to a single value.
Hence the sequence is said to be
divergent when n→∞.
Sandwich Theorem for Sequences:

Let {an}, {bn}, {cn}be sequences of real


numbers. If an<= bn <=cn holds for all n beyond
some index N, and if
Lim an = Lim cn = L,
n→∞ n→∞
Then,
lim bn = L
n→∞
Eg. Show that cosn/n=0
1/n<=cos n/n<=1/n
Sol:
By sandwich theorem,
lim an = lim bn = 0
n→∞ n→∞

Therefore lim cos n/n=0.


n→∞
(
Examples:

1.The sequence 1,2,3,4,…n,… is non


decreasing.
2.The sequence 1/2,2/3,3/4,…n/(n+1),.. Is
non decreasing
Infinite Series

1 1 1 1 1
 2n  2  4  8  16  ...
n 1
Represents the sum of the terms in a sequence.
We want to know if the series converges to
a single value i.e. there is a finite sum.

1 1  1  1  1  ...
n 1
The series diverges because sn = n. Note that the
Sequence {1} converges.
�
Partial sums of 1 1 1 1 1 1
�n(n  1)  2  6  12  20  30  ...
1 1 n 1
s1  
1� 2 2
1 1 2
s2   
1� 2 2� 3 3
1 1 1 3
s3    
1� 2 2� 3 3� 4 4
and
1 1 1 1 n
sn     ... 
1�2 2� 3 3�4 n( n  1) n  1

If the sequence of partial sums converges,


the series converges
1 2 3 4 5 n
, , , , ... ... Converges to 1 so series converges.
2 3 4 5 6 n 1
Geometric Series

1 1 1 1 1
 2n    
2 4 8 16
 ...
n 1

Each term is obtained from the preceding


number by multiplying by the same number r.
Find r (the common ratio)
1 1 1 1
    ...
5 25 125 625
2 4 8 16
    ...
3 3 3 3
Series known to converge or diverge
1. A geometric series with | r | <1 converges
2. A repeating decimal converges
3. Telescoping series converge
A necessary condition for convergence:
Limit as n goes to infinity for nth term
in sequence is 0.
nth term test for divergence:
If the limit as n goes to infinity for the nth
term is not 0, the series DIVERGES!
The Integral Test
Let {an} be a sequence of positive terms.
Suppose that an = f(n) where f is a continuous
positive, decreasing function of x for all xN.
Then the series and the corresponding integral
shown both converge of both diverge.

f(n) f(x)
 
 an  f ( x)dx
n N
N
Harmonic series and p-series

1
 np Is called a p-series
n 1

A p-series converges if p > 1 and diverges


If p < 1 or p = 1.

1 1 1 1 1 1
n  1    
2 3 4 5
 ....
n
 ....
n 1

Is called the harmonic series and it


diverges since p =1.
Limit Comparison
Comparison test test
an
lim x   c, 0c
bn  

Then the following series  an and n1bn


n 1
both converge or both diverge:

an  
lim x 
bn
0 and Amd bn Converges then  an Converges
n 1 n 1

an  
lim x 
bn

and  bn Diverges then  an Diverges
n 1 n 1
Ratio Test

Let  an be a series with positive terms and
n N
an 1
lim n  
an

Then
• The series converges if ρ < 1
• The series diverges if ρ > 1
• The test is inconclusive if ρ = 1.
Root Test

Let  an be a series with non-zero terms and
n N
lim n  n | an |  L

Then
• The series converges if L< 1
• The series diverges if L > 1 or is infinite
• The test is inconclusive if L= 1.
Alternating Series
• A series in which the terms are alternately
positive and negative is an Alternating Series.
• Examples :
• THEOREM 15—The Alternating Series Test
The series

• (-1)^(n+1)un = u1 - u2 + u3 - u4 + g

• Converges if the following conditions are


satisfied:
1. The un>s are all positive.
2. The un>s are eventually non increasing: un
>=un+1 for all n Ú N, for some integer N.
3. un 0.
• This is also called as Lebitniz Therom.
Absolutely Converging Series:

• A series  an converges absolutely if the


n N

corresponding series of absolute value converges.


• Example:
Conditionally Converging Series:
• A series that converge but doesn’t converge
absolutely is called conditionally convergent series.
• Example:

.
Moving from Series which converge at an
interval to Taylor Series
Taylor & Maclaurin Series
An Example…
Taylor Polynomials
An Example…

You might also like