Chapter 1
Introduction to
Human Anatomy and Physiology
JOHER B. MENDEZ, JR., R.N., M.D.
• Anatomy: Ano?
■ deals with the structure (morphology) of the
body and its parts, in other words, what are
things called?
- study of structure
- means to dissect
• Physiology: Paano?
• studies the functions of these parts or asks the
question, “how do they work
-study of function
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Anatomy and Physiology
The two disciplines are closely interrelated because the
functional role of a part depends on how it is constructed.
• Anatomy and Physiology work together.
What is the Importance of Anatomy and
Physiology?
• Basis for understanding diseases
• Allows an understanding of how the body works
and responds to stimuli
FOCUS : ANATOMY
6
The human body is the sum of its parts and these parts can be
studied at a variety of levels of organization.
• Atoms are the simplest level.
• Two or more atoms comprise a molecule.
• Macromolecules are large, biologically important
molecules inside cells.
• Organelles are aggregates of macromolecules used to
carry out a specific function in the cell.
• Cells are the basic living unit.
• Tissues are groups of cells functioning together.
• Groups of tissues form organs.
• Groups of organs function together as organ
systems.
• Organ systems functioning together make up an
organism.
Structural Levels of Body
1.) Chemical
smallest level
- Ex. atoms
2. ) Cell:
- basic unit of life
- Ex. Includes organelles (mitochondria, nucleus,
ribosomes, etc.)
3. ) Tissue:
- group of cells with similar structure and
function plus extracellular substance
- Ex. Epithelial, connective, muscular, nervous
4. ) Organ:
- 2 or more tissue types
- Ex. Skin, heart, stomach, etc.
5. ) Organ system:
group of organs
6.) Organism:
all structural levels working together
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■ Levels of Organization:
12
METHODS OF STUDY
14
Body Positions
• Anatomical
position:
person
standing erect
with face and
palms forward
Body Positions
• Supine:
person lying face up
• Prone:
person lying face down
17
Directional Terms
• Superior:
above
(The mouth is superior to the chin)
• Inferior:
below
(The nose is inferior to the forehead)
Directional Terms
• Anterior:
front
(The teeth are anterior to the throat)
(The navel is ventral to the spine)
• Posterior:
back
(The brain is posterior to the eyes)
(The spine is dorsal to the breastbone)
VENTRAL vs DORSAL
ANTERIOR vs POSTERIOR
IPSILATERAL vs
CONTRALATERAL
• Proximal:
close to point of attachment
(The elbow is proximal to the wrist)
• Distal:
far from point of attachment
(The knee is distal to the hip)
Figure 1.7a
Figure 1.8
• Superficial:
close to surface
(The skin is superficial to muscle)
• Deep:
toward interior of body
(The lungs are deep to the skin)
■ Body Sections/Planes:
1. A sagittal section divides the body into right
and left portions.
• Midsagittal:
• runs down the middle and divides body into equal
left and right halves
2. A transverse section divides the body into superior
and inferior portions. It is often called a “cross section”.
3. A coronal section divides the body into anterior
and posterior sections.
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Body Regions
• Upper limbs:
upper arm, forearm, wrist, hand
• Lower limbs:
thigh, lower leg, ankle, foot
• Central:
head, neck, trunk
• Trunk:
thoracic (chest), abdomen, pelvis
Figure 1.8a
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■ Body Regions
1. The abdominal area can be divided into nine regions, 4
quadrants.
2. Terms used to refer to various body regions are depicted in
Fig. 1.13.
■ Organization of the Human Body
■ Major features of the human body include
its cavities, membranes, and organ
systems.
■ cavity : any space or compartment
■ membranes : layer / sheet of cells; covering
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■ Body Cavities:
■ The body can be divided into an appendicular portion (upper and
lower limbs) and an axial portion (head, neck, and trunk), which
includes a dorsal and a ventral cavity. Organs within these
cavities are called viscera.
a. The dorsal cavity can be divided into the cranial
cavity and vertebral canal.
b. The ventral cavity is made up of a thoracic cavity
and an abdominopelvic cavity, separated by the
diaphragm.
i. The mediastinum divides the thorax into
right and left halves.
ii. The abdominopelvic cavity can be divided
into the abdominal cavity and the pelvic
cavity.
c. Smaller cavities within the head include the oral
cavity, nasal cavity, orbital cavities, and middle ear
cavities.
• Pericardial cavity:
around heart
• Pleural cavity:
around lungs
• Peritoneal cavity:
around abdominopelvic cavity
Figure 1.13
Membranes
• Mesentery:
double-layered membrane that covers organs
and anchors them to body wall
• Serous membrane:
cover organs and line cavity walls
Types of Serous Membranes
• Visceral membrane:
covers organs
• Parietal membrane:
lines cavity walls
44
READING ASSIGNEMENT
■ Homeostasis
■ The Organ Systems
END
Homeostasis
• What is it?
- maintenance of a constant internal env’t
- Ex. Body temp., BP, HR, BR
• Variable:
- conditions that change
- Ex. Env’t temp.
• Set point:
- ideal, normal value
- Ex. 120/80 for BP or 98.6o for body temp.
Homeostasis
■ Maintenance of a stable internal environment is called
homeostasis.
■ Homeostasis is regulated through control systems which
have receptors, a set point and effectors in common.
■ Examples include:
a. Homeostatic mechanisms regulate body temperature in
a manner similar to the functioning of a home heating
thermostat.
b. Another homeostatic mechanism employs pressure-
sensitive receptors to regulate blood pressure.
Homeostasis:
■ Many of the body's homeostatic controls are
negative feedback mechanisms.
■ Each individual uses homeostatic mechanisms
to keep body levels within a normal range;
normal ranges can vary from one individual to
the next.
Negative Feedback
• What is it?
- mechanism that regulates homeostasis
- negative meaning a deviation from set point
- Ex. Blood pressure
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1 Receptors monitor the
value of a variable. In this
case, receptors in the wall
of a blood vessel monitor 1
blood pressure. Receptors monitor
2 blood pressure.
2 Information about the value
of the variable is sent to a
control center. In this case,
nerves send information to
the part of the brain Nerves
responsible for regulating 5
blood pressure. 3 Effector (heart)
Control center 4 responds to changes
3 The control center (brain) in blood pressure.
compares the value of the
variable against the set
point.
4 If a response is necessary 5 An effector produces a
to maintain homeostasis, response that maintains
the control center causes homeostasis. In this case,
an effector to respond. In changing heart rate
this case, nerves send changes blood pressure.
information to the heart.
Components of Negative Feedback
• Control center:
- brain
- establishes set point
• Receptor:
detects changes (variable)
• Effector:
responds to changes
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Control centers in the brain decrease The effectors respond:
stimulation of heart and blood vessels 4 Heart rate decreases;
3
when receptors detect increased blood blood vessels dilate.
pressure.
Blood pressure increases: Blood pressure decreases:
2 5
Homeostasis Disturbed Homeostasis Restored
Blood pressure
Blood pressure
(normal range)
(normal range)
1
Start Here 6
Blood pressure decreases:
Blood pressure increases:
Homeostasis Disturbed
Homeostasis Restored
Control centers in the brain increase The effectors respond:
stimulation of heart and blood vessels Heart rate increases;
when receptors detect decreased blood vessels constrict.
blood pressure.
Positive Feedback
• What is it?
- deviation from set point becomes greater
- makes a bad situation worse
- rarely found in healthy people
Figure 1.7
Characteristics of Life
• Metabolism:
- ability to use energy
- uses digestive and respiratory systems
• Responsiveness:
ability to sense changes in env’t and make
adjustments
• Growth:
an increase in size
• Development:
changes in cell structure and function from
generalized to specialized
• Reproduction:
formation of new cells or new organisms
THE ORGAN
SYSTEMS
■ Organ Systems:
■ Body Covering
a. The integumentary system, including
skin, hair, nails, and various glands, covers
the body, senses changes outside the
body, and helps regulate body temperature.
■ Support and Movement
a. The skeletal system, made up of bones and
ligaments. It supports, protects, provides
frameworks, stores inorganic salts, and houses
blood-forming tissues.
b. The muscular system consists of the muscles
that provide body movement, posture, and body
heat.
■ Integration and Coordination
a. The nervous system consists of the brain,
spinal cord, nerves, and sense organs. It
integrates information incoming information
from receptors and sends impulses to muscles
and glands.
b. The endocrine system, including all of the
glands that secrete hormones, helps to integrate
metabolic functions
■ Transport
a. The cardiovascular system, made up of
the heart and blood vessels, distributes oxygen
and nutrients throughout the body while
removing wastes from the cells.
b. The lymphatic system, consisting of
lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, thymus, and
spleen, drains excess tissue fluid and includes cells
of immunity.
■ Absorption and Excretion
a. The digestive system is made up of the mouth,
esophagus, stomach, intestines and accessory
organs. It receives, breaks down, and absorbs
nutrients.
■ b. The respiratory system exchanges gases
between the blood and air and is made up of the
lungs and passageways.
c. The urinary system, consisting of the kidneys,
ureters, bladder, and urethra, removes wastes
from the blood and helps to maintain water
and electrolyte balance.
■ Reproduction
a. The reproductive system produces new
organisms.
i. The male reproductive system consists
of the testes, accessory organs, and
vessels that conduct sperm to the penis.
ii. The female reproductive system consists
of ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina,
and external genitalia. The female
reproductive system also houses the
developing offspring.
