Chapter One:
Introduction to
Human Anatomy
Lecture Outline
Module One
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1.1: Origins of Medical Science
• Early healers depended on
superstition and magic
• Followed by observations of
injuries, wound healing and
dead bodies
• This evolved into
experimentation and
creation of new terminology
for anatomy & physiology
• Finally, study of corpses
and cadaver dissection
brought new knowledge of
human body
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1.2: Anatomy & Physiology
• Anatomy: The study of the structure/morphology of the
human body and its parts; derived from Greek for “a
cutting up”
• Physiology: The study of the functions of the human
body and its parts; derived from Greek for “relationship
to nature”
• The structure of organs and parts of the human body
determines the function.
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1.3: Levels of Organization
All materials, living or non-living, are composed of chemicals, which consist
of atoms.
• Subatomic Particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons that make up cells
• Atom: tiny particles that make up chemicals (hydrogen, carbon)
• Molecule: particles consisting of atoms (water, glucose)
• Macromolecule: large particles consisting of molecules (DNA, protein)
• Organelle: functional part of a cell (mitochondrion, lysosome)
• Cell: basic unit of structure and functions (muscle, nerve, or blood cell)
• Tissue: layer or mass of cells with specific function (adipose tissue)
• Organ: group of different tissues with a function (heart, kidney, stomach)
• Organ System: group of organs with common function (digestive system)
• Organism: composed of organ systems interacting (human)
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Levels of Organization
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Clinical Application 1.1
Noninvasive procedures that provide images of
internal structures:
• Ultrasound (US): High-frequency sound waves
that provide images of soft internal structures;
used to obtain sonogram of fetus in the uterus
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): Magnetic
field changes alignment and spin of certain types
of atoms; provides high-resolution images of
internal structures, such as the brain
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1.4: Characteristics of Life
The events inside the body which obtain, release, and
utilize energy are the main part of metabolism (all of the
chemical reactions in an organism that support life).
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1.5: Maintenance of Life
Life requires / depends on 5 environmental factors:
• Water:
- most abundant substance in body
- environment for metabolic processes
- required for transport of substances
- regulation of body temperature
• Food:
- provides necessary nutrients
- supplies energy
- supplies raw materials for building living tissue
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Requirements of Organisms
• Oxygen (gas):
- one-fifth of air
- used to release energy from nutrients
• Heat:
- helps maintain body temperature
- partly controls rate of metabolic reactions
• Pressure:
- application of force on an object
- atmospheric pressure – important for breathing
- hydrostatic pressure – keeps blood flowing
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Homeostasis
Homeostasis: Maintenance of a stable internal environment
Homeostatic Mechanisms: Self-regulating systems that monitor
aspects of the internal environment and correct them as needed.
There are 3 parts of a homeostatic mechanism:
• Receptor: detects and provides information about the stimuli
• Control Center: decision-maker that maintains the set point
• Effector: muscle or gland that responds to the control center,
and causes the necessary change in the internal
environment
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Homeostatic Mechanisms
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Homeostatic
Mechanisms
Example of a homeostatic
mechanism for the regulation
of body temperature
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Homeostatic Mechanisms
Negative feedback:
• Most common type of homeostatic mechanism
• Effectors return conditions toward normal range, and the
deviation from set point lessens
• Called “negative” because the response to the change
moves the variable in the opposite direction of the
deviation from the set point
• Prevents sudden, severe changes in the body
• Examples: negative feedback controls body temperature,
blood pressure & glucose level in the blood
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Homeostatic Mechanisms
Positive feedback:
• Uncommon in the body
• The change/deviation is intensified, instead of reversed
• Activity of effector is increased initially, instead of
decreasing
• Short-lived
• Produce unstable conditions, that seem like they will not
lead to homeostasis, but they will.
• Examples: blood clotting and the uterine contractions of
childbirth
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1.6: Organization of the Human Body
Human body consists of 2 main portions:
Axial portion: head, neck, and trunk
Appendicular portion: upper and lower limbs
Major cavities of the axial portion of the body:
• Cranial cavity: houses brain
• Vertebral canal (spinal cavity): contains spinal cord
• Thoracic cavity: houses lungs and thoracic viscera
• Abdominopelvic cavity: contains abdominal and pelvic
viscera
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Major Body Cavities
• Diaphragm: muscle that separates the thoracic and abdominopelvic
cavities
• Mediastinum: region between lungs in thoracic cavity, which contains
heart, esophagus, trachea, thymus gland
• Abdominopelvic cavity contains 2 portions:
a. Abdominal cavity: extends from diaphragm to top of
pelvis, and contains stomach, liver, spleen, kidneys small
intestine, most of large intestine
b. Pelvic cavity: enclosed by pelvic bones, and contains end
of large intestine, urinary bladder, internal reproductive
organs
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Major Body Cavities
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Small Cavities of the Head
Small cavities of the
head:
• Oral cavity
• Nasal cavity
• Orbital cavities
• Middle ear cavities
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Thoracic and Abdominopelvic
Membranes
The thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities are lined by double-
layered serous membranes, which secrete serous fluid (slippery
fluid that prevents friction between layers).
Serous membranes consist of 2 layers:
• Visceral layer: inner layer, which covers an organ
• Parietal layer: outer layer, which lines wall of cavity
Examples of serous membranes:
• Visceral and parietal pleura (around lungs in thorax)
• Visceral and parietal pericardium (around heart in thorax)
• Visceral and parietal peritoneum (around abdominopelvic
organs) 19
Serous Membranes
Serous membranes of the Serous membranes of the
thoracic cavity abdominal cavity
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Organ Systems
Integumentary system:
Protection, body
temperature regulation,
sensory reception,
production of Vitamin D
Skeletal system:
Framework, protection,
attachment sites, storage
of inorganic salts,
production of blood cells,
support and movement
Muscular system:
Movement, main source of
body heat, maintenance
of posture.
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Organ Systems
Nervous and
Endocrine systems:
Integration and
coordination of organ
function through
nerve impulses or
hormones
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Organ Systems
Cardiovascular
system:
Transportation of
gases, nutrients,
blood cells and
wastes
Lymphatic system:
Transportation of
fluids, lymphocyte
production, body
defense
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Organ Systems
Digestive system:
Receives food,
breaks down food,
excretes waste
Respiratory system:
Exchange of gases
Urinary system:
Removes blood
wastes, regulates
electrolyte & water
balance, blood
pressure 24
Organ Systems
Reproductive System:
Male and female
systems produce and
transport sex cells.
Female also
provides fetal
development and
childbirth.
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Organ Systems
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1.7: Lifespan Changes
• Aging occurs from the microscopic to the whole-body level. These are
some of the changes that occur with aging:
• Hair loses pigment, becomes gray or white
• Skin wrinkles due to decrease in subcutaneous fat
• Skin stiffens due to decrease in collagen and elastin
• Percentage of fats in the tissues increases
• Elevated blood pressure may become hypertension
• Elevated blood glucose may become type 2 diabetes mellitus
• Tissues atrophy and organs shrink
• Cells reach end of ability to undergo cell division, as they lose tips of
chromosomes
• Metabolic rate decreases
• Decreased production of enzymes and other proteins
• Some will develop dementia / Alzheimer disease
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1.8: Anatomical Terminology
Anatomical Position:
Standing erect, facing
forward, upper limbs at
the sides, palms
facing forward
Anatomical terms of
relative position are
based on a person
standing in anatomical
position.
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Terms of Relative Position
• Superior (above) / Inferior (below)
• Anterior or ventral (toward the front) / Posterior or dorsal
(toward the back)
• Medial (toward the midline) / Lateral (away from midline)
• Bilateral (paired structures; on both sides)
• Ipsilateral (same side) / Contralateral (opposite sides)
• Proximal (close to point of attachment to trunk) / Distal
(farther from point of attachment to trunk)
• Superficial (close to body surface) / Deep (more
internal)
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Terms of Relative Position
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Body Sections or Planes
• Sagittal section: longitudinal cut that divides body into
left and right portions
• Mid-sagittal/Median section: divides body into equal
left and right portions
• Parasagittal section: sagittal section lateral to midline;
divides body into unequal left and right portions
• Transverse or Horizontal section: divides body into
superior and inferior portions
• Coronal or Frontal section: longitudinal cut that divides
body into anterior and posterior portions
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Body Sections
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Body Sections: The Brain
Sagittal Section Transverse Section Frontal section
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Body Sections in Cylindrical Organs
Cross section Oblique section Longitudinal section
These sections are found in organs such as blood vessels, the
ureter, the trachea, or the intestines. 34
Body Regions and Quadrants
Abdominal Regions Abdominal Quadrants 35
Body Regions
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Anterior regions Posterior regions
