Chapter 1 •studies body regions (medical
schools)
The Human Organism
Surface:
Anatomy and Physiology
•studies external features, for
Anatomy: example, bone projections
•investigates body structure •the Anatomical imaging:
term means to dissect Physiology
•investigates processes and •using technologies (x-rays,
functions ultrasound, MRI)
•Human Physiology •studies Six levels from chemical to
the human organism Systemic organism:
Physiology: • studies body organ-
systems Cellular Physiology: 1.Chemical:
•studies body cells •smallest level •atoms,
Importance of Anatomy and chemical bonds, molecules
Physiology 2.Cellular:
Understand how the body: •cells: basic units of life
• responds to stimuli •compartments and organelles
•examples are mitochondria,
• environmental changes nucleus
• environmental cues
• diseases
• injury
Types of Anatomy
Systemic:
•studies body organ-systems
3.Tissues:
•group of cells with similar
structure and function plus
extracellular substances they
release
•four broad types
Epithelial
Connective Muscular 6.Organisms
Nervous
•all organ systems working
together
•includes associated
microorganisms such as intestinal
bacteria
4.Organs:
•two or more tissue types acting
together to perform
function(s)
•Examples: stomach, heart, liver,
ovary, bladder, kidney
5.Organ-System:
•group of organs contributing to
some function
•for example, digestive system,
reproductive system
MAJOR ORGANS OF THE
BODY
Characteristics of Life •generation of new individuals
Organization: •tissue repair
•functional interrelationships Homeostasis1
between parts
Homeostasis:
Metabolism:
•maintenance of constant
•sum of all chemical and physical internal environment despite
changes sustaining an organism fluctuations in the external or
internal environment
•ability to acquire and use energy
in support of these changes Variables:
Responsiveness: •measures of body properties
that may change in value
•ability to sense and respond to
environmental changes Examples of variables:
•includes both internal and body temperature
external environments
blood glucose levels
Characteristics of Life2
heart rate
Growth:
blood cell counts
•can increase in size
blood pressure
•size of cells, groups of cells,
respiratory rate
extracellular materials
Homeostasis
Development:
Normal range: normal extent of
•changes in form and size
increase or decrease around a set
•changes in cell structure and point
function from generalized to
Set point: normal, or average
specialized—differentiation
value of a variable
Reproduction:
Over time, body temperature
•formation of new cells or new
fluctuates around a set point
organisms
correction: reversal of deviation
toward set point and normal
range
Homeostasis
Homeostasis
Set points for some variables can
be temporarily adjusted The components of feedback:
depending on body activities, as
1.Receptor:
needed:
•detects changes in variable
Examples
2.Control center:
body temperature Common
cause of change body •receives receptor signal
temperature
•establishes set point • sends
-fever signal to effector
heart rate, blood pressure 3.Effector:
respiratory rate
•directly causes change in
Common cause of change body
variable
temperature
-exercise
Homeostasis
Negative feedback is the main
mechanism used homeostatic
regulation.
• A negative feedback response
involves:
detection: of deviation away from
set point and
HOMEOSTASIS
Negative Feedback
Control of Body
Temperature
Homeostasis
Positive feedback mechanisms
occur when the initial stimulus
further stimulates the response
•system response causes
progressive deviation away from
•set point, outside of normal
range
•not directly used for
homeostasis
•some positive feedback occurs
under normal conditions Example:
childbirth
•generally associated with injury,
disease
•negative feedback mechanisms
unable to maintain homeostasis
Homeostasis
Comparison of negative feedback
and positive feedback
Terminology
and the Body
Plan
Anatomical position:
•person standing
erect with face and
palms forward
•all relational
descriptions based on
the anatomical
position, regardless of
body orientation
Superior: above
Inferior: below
Anterior: front
(also: ventral)
Posterior: back
(also: dorsal)
Note: In four-legged
animals, the terms
ventral (belly) and
dorsal (back)
correspond to
anterior and
posterior in humans
Medial: close to
midline
Lateral: away from
midline
Proximal: close to
point of attachment
Distal: far from point
of attachment
Superficial: structure
close to the surface
Deep: structure
toward the interior of
the body
Body Planes 1
Sagittal plane: separates the body
into right and left parts
Median plane: a sagittal plane
along the midline that divides body
into equal left and right halves
Transverse plane: a horizontal
plane that separates the body into
superior and inferior parts.
Frontal plane: a vertical plane that
separates the body into anterior
and posterior parts.
Planes of Section Through an Organ
Body Regions
Upper limbs:
• upper arm, forearm, wrist,
hand Lower limbs:
• thigh, lower leg, ankle, foot
Central region:
• head, neck, trunk
Subdivisions of the Abdomen
Body Cavities
1
Thoracic cavity:
• space within chest wall
and diaphragm
• contains heart, lungs,
thymus gland,
esophagus, trachea
Mediastinum:
• space between lungs
• contains heart, thymus
gland, esophagus,
Abdominal cavity:
• space between
diaphragm and pelvis
• contains stomach,
intestines, liver, spleen,
pancreas, kidneys
Pelvic cavity:
• space within pelvis
• contains urinary bladder,
reproductive organs,
part of large intestine Figure 1.13
Pericardium and Pericardial Cavity
Pericardium
• visceral pericardium
covers heart
• parietal pericardium
thick, fibrous
• pericardial cavity
reduces friction
Pleura and Pleural Cavity
Pleura
• visceral pleura
covers lungs
• parietal pleura
lines inner wall
of thorax
• pleural cavity
• reduces friction
• adheres lungs to thoracic wall
Peritoneum and Peritoneal Cavity
Peritoneum
• visceral peritoneum
• covers, anchors organs
• double layers called
mesenteries
• parietal peritoneum
lines inner wall of
abdominopelvic
cavity
• peritoneal cavity
reduces friction
