Topic 4 (Part 1)
Carbohydrates:
Sugars
FC AY 2017 – 2018
Learning Objectives
Describe the physical and chemical reactions and
functional properties of simple sugars.
List the main sources of starch
Describe the different components of starch granules
Explain the factors affecting starch gelantization and
gelation.
Demonstrate the various starch reactions.
Explain the role of different types of fibres such as
cellulose and pectin
Describe the functional properties of starch.
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Learning Objectives
Explain the principles of tests for reducing sugar and
fibre.
Conduct tests to determine the presence of different
types of sugars
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References
Brown, A. (2011). Understanding food:
Principles and preparation, (4th ed.). Belmont,
CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
McWilliams, M. (2011). Foods: Experimental
perspective. (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
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We will be covering…
Introduction to carbohydrates
Sugar
Starch
Fibre and pectic substances
Analytical tests for carbohydrates in foods
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In Part 1, we will be
covering …
Introduction to carbohydrates
. . . and all about sugars.
Physical properties of sugar
Chemical properties of sugar
Functions of sugars in food
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Recap: Carbohydrates
Monosaccharide
Carbohydrates containing only one saccharide unit.
Saccharides with five carbon atoms (e.g. xylose) are
pentoses
called ___________
Saccharides with six carbon atoms (e.g. glucose,
hexoses
fructose and galactose) are called ___________
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Recap: Carbohydrates
Disaccharides
Formed when two monosaccharides join together
with the removal of a molecule of water.
Glucose + fructose = sucrose
Glucose + glucose = maltose
Glucose + galactose = lactose
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Recap: Carbohydrates
Polysaccharide
Carbohydrates formed by joining many
saccharide units with the removal of a molecule
of water at each point of linkage.
E.g. amylose = straight chain polysaccharide
consisting of more than 200 glucose units
joined together by -1,4-glycosidic linkages.
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Recap: Carbohydrates
Polysaccharides (cont.)
E.g. amylopectin = branched chain
polysaccharide consisting of glucose
units linked with a - 1,4 linkages,
with occasional -1,6-glycosidic
linkages.
Amylopectin
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Recap: Carbohydrates
Polysaccharides (cont.)
E.g. Cellulose = Polysaccharide composed of
2000 to 3000 glucose units linked together by
B-1,4-glycosidic linkages. Also known as fibre
because human do not have the enzyme to digest
it.
E.g. glycogen = similar to amylopectin but is
comparatively more highly branched and its branches
are shorter. A form of storage of carbohydrate in
animals.
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Carbohydrates:
Sources
Glucose: Grape, honey, sugar cane juice.
Fructose: Apple, grape, honey, sugar cane juice.
Sucrose: Carrot, peanut, sweet corn, maple syrup,
sugarbeet, sugar cane juice.
Lactose: Milk.
Starch (amylose and amylopectin): Potato, sweet
potato, rice.
Cellulose: Celery, carrot, cabbage.
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PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
SUGARS
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1. Sweetness
All sugars are sweet to the tongue
All sugars do not have the same sweetness.
Sweetener Relative sweetness
Fructose 1.3
_____
Sucrose 1
_____
Invert sugar 0.85 - 1.0
Glucose 0.56
Galactose 0.4 - 0.6
Maltose 0.3 - 0.5
Lactose 0.2 - 0.3
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2. Hygroscopicity
attract
The ability to _________ hold water
and ____________.
This property is useful in maintaining the
freshness
_____________ of some baked products.
This property also causes problems in food
when the relative humidity is high.
E.g. sugar-coated outer pastilles will dissolve
by absorbing water from the atmosphere and
the pastilles will appear moist (or wet).
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3. Solubility
dissolve
The ability to ___________ in water.
When sugar is placed in water:
the water molecules form hydrogen bonds with the sugar
molecules
water hydrates them and removes them from the sugar
crystals.
temperature
Solubility of sugars depend on the __________.
As the water temperature , the amount of sugar
capable of being dissolved in a given amount of
increase
water also _________.
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3. Solubility
temperature
Solubility also depends on the _______________.
Sugar Grams of sugar dissolved
in 100 ml water @ 50ºC
Fructose 86.9
Sucrose 72.2
Glucose 65.0
Maltose 58.3
Lactose 29.8
Taken from McWilliams, M. (2008), Foods: Experimental Perspectives, 6th Ed.
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3. Solubility
affect food texture
Solubility can also ___________________.
E.g. Low solubility of lactose promotes the
formation of lactose crystals in ice cream
during storage
results in a sandy textured in ice cream.
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CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF
SUGARS
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1. Hydrolysis
With disaccharides / polysaccharides:
______________
splitting of a molecule by the uptake
of a molecule of water.
E.g. Amylose ________
dextrins maltose _________
glucose
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1. Hydrolysis
hydrolyse
Sucrose will ___________ to produce
glucose
________ fructose
and _________.
inversion
This specific process is known as _________.
invert sugar
The product is known as ________________.
Invert sugar:
A sugar formed by the hydrolysis of sucrose.
It is a mixture of equal amount of fructose and glucose.
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1. Hydrolysis
Occurs in:
acidic
________ medium, e.g. lemon juice
water
the presence of _______
heat
_______
OR
enzymes
added ________ (invertase or sucrase)
to cool candy
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1. Hydrolysis
Inversion will influence the final texture of
candy
resulting in a ______
softer smoother
and ________
texture by preventing the formation of large
crystalline aggregates.
Large crystalline aggregates will result in
sandy and gritty texture.
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2. Caramelization
The process where sugar is being broken
down into a variety of compounds, including
organic acids, aldehydes, and ketones, due
to extremely intense heat.
This process is classified as
non-enzymatic browning
__________________________________:
no enzymes
________________ involved
chemical reaction
_________________ taking place
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2. Caramelization
degree of heat
Depending on the __________________
treatment, caramelization of sugar can create
desirable colour and flavour changes to the
food.
Colour can range from pale golden brown to
dark brown to black (burnt) colour.
Flavour changes
___________________ from the clean, sweet
taste of sugar to a new and distinctive taste.
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2. Caramelization
When sugar (usually sucrose) is heated:
1. sucrose invert sugar
2. Invert sugar (fructose and glucose) ring structures
open up
3. fructose & glucose polymers
series of ________
i.e. trisaccharides to oligosaccharides
(as many as 10 monosaccharides)
4. organic acids, aldehydes and ketones
responsible for the characteristic colours
and flavours of caramelized sugar.
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3. Maillard Reaction
non-enzymatic browning
Another ________________________
Occurs when a protein and a sugar are heated or
stored together for some time.
condensation
A series of reactions involving _________________
of:
reducing sugar + amine
Reducing sugar = sugar having a
free carbonyl group. (C=O) Amine (H2N-) from
E.g. glucose, fructose, galactose, amino acids or
lactose and maltose. proteins.
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3. Maillard Reaction
1. Condensation:
Reducing + Amine glycosylamine
________________
sugars sources
The reducing sugar reacts with the amine group of
AA
an ____________ or protein to form glycosylamine.
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3. Maillard Reaction
Rearrangement
2. ____________________:
Glycosylamines Colourless intermediates
amadori compounds
(_________________)
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3. Maillard Reaction
3. Polymerization:
Colourless Brown-coloured polymers
intermediates melanoidins
(__________________)
This glycosylamine undergoes more reactions to
eventually produce melanoidin pigments.
volatile products
Highly ___________________ such as aldehydes,
pyrazines, etc contribute to the aroma and flavours in
Maillard reaction.
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3. Maillard Reaction
The amount of browning varies depending on the sugars
present:
hexoses
Xylose > arabinose > __________ (galactose,
disaccharides
mannose, glucose, fructose) > ___________
(maltose, lactose, sucrose).
Lysine
_________ is the amino acid most susceptible to Maillard
reaction.
The colour of the food will change from colourless to
golden colour to reddish brown and finally to dark
brown.
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3. Maillard Reaction
Maillard reaction is faster at:
temperatures
elevated _____________
food with a high content of sugar
high
food with a _____ protein
content of ______
alkaline environment (or high pH) – ______
5-8
low water
food with ___________ content – (15%
maximum)
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3. Maillard Reaction
It can also occur at room temperature during
extended periods of storage.
E.g.
Condensed milk stored for a long time.
Browning of bread during baking.
Browning of egg white powder during the
drying process.
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4. Reduction
carbonyl group
The _____________ of sugars can be
reduced to an alcohol – _______________.
sugar alcohol
Glucose sorbitol.
Sugar alcohols occur naturally in pears and
celery.
Sugar alcohols are absorbed at a very slow
rate by the body
can be used as a sweetener in _________
diabetic
foods.
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4. Reduction
Sugar alcohols occur naturally in certain foods.
Sugar alcohols in several foods
Product Xylitol Mannitol Sorbitol
Pears -- -- 4600
Raspberries 268 -- --
Strawberries 362 -- --
Peaches -- -- 960
Celery -- 4050 --
Sugar alcohols are absorbed at a very slow rate by
the body
diabetic foods
can be used as a sweetener in ______________.
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FUNCTIONS OF SUGAR IN
FOODS
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1. Sweetness
Sugars contribute sweetness to food
products.
E.g. candies.
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2. Colour
Sugars contribute colour ranging from light
yellow to golden to light brown to dark from
caramelization and Maillard reaction.
E.g. bakery products.
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3. Flavours
Caramel
____________ flavour which develops when
sugars are being heated at high heat.
E.g. flavour in toffee, brittle peanut.
Offset
____________ other flavours.
E.g. acidic in tomato sauces, bitterness in
chocolate.
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4. Texture
Increase viscocity
________________________:
As sugar concentration increases, solution
becomes more viscous (thick).
E.g. sugar syrup.
Sugar is often added to soft drinks to increase
its viscosity or to provide body to the drink.
Viscosity
= the ability of a fluid to develop and maintain shearing stress
and offer resistance to flow
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4. Texture
Increase tenderness
_____________________ in baked products:
Tenderness increases as more sugar is added.
binds with water
Sugar _________________ thus, limiting the
amount of water available to react with the flour
to form gluten complexes.
This resulted in less gluten being formed and
therefore the baked product is more tender.
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4. Texture
increase the temperature
Sugar also __________________ where gluten
complexes coagulate (or set).
So, there is more time for the cell walls in the
dough to stretch before the final volume of the
baked product is defined.
retains moisture
Sugar _______________ in bakery products
due to its hygroscopicity.
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5. Preservation
At high concentration, sugars prevent growth of
micro-organisms because they
reduce the water activity
______________________ of food to a level that
cannot support bacterial growth.
E.g. jams and jellies
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6. Base for chocolate
coating
For chocolate with fillings, such as chocolate covered
cherries, a cream paste is made from sucrose with
invertase
the inclusion of _______________.
Melted chocolate is then coated over the paste.
Upon storage, the invertase will convert sucrose to
glucose
____________ fructose
and ____________ (or inverted
sugar) in a fluid form contained within the chocolate
shell.
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7. Substrate for
fermentation
In bread making, sugar is used by yeast to
produce CO2 and alcohol which is responsible for
the desired texture and flavour in bread.
Yeast
Sugar
In wine making, glucose in grapes is converted
by yeast to ethanol, CO2 and other flavour
compounds.
Yeast
Glucose
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7. Substrate for
fermentation
In yoghurt production, lactose in milk is
lactic acid bacteria to produce lactic
fermented by ____________
acid which contributes to the flavour in yoghurt.
Lactose lactic acid (provides flavour)
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Summary
From Part 1 of Carbohydrates topic, we
have learnt about sugars and its . . .
Physical properties
Chemical properties
Functions in foods
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