Applied Sciences

8 pages, 3240 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Interface Growth and Void Formation in Sn/Cu and Sn0.7Cu/Cu Systems

by Jieshi Chen, Yongzhi Zhang, Zhishui Yu, Peilei Zhang, Wanqin Zhao, Jin Yang and Di Wu

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(12), 2703; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8122703 - 19 Dec 2018

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4223

In this work, the effects of electroplated Cu (EP Cu) and Cu addition (0.7%) in Sn solder on the intermetallic compounds (IMCs) growth and void formation were clarified by comparison with solder joints comprising of high purity Cu (HP Cu) substrate and pure [...] Read more.

In this work, the effects of electroplated Cu (EP Cu) and Cu addition (0.7%) in Sn solder on the intermetallic compounds (IMCs) growth and void formation were clarified by comparison with solder joints comprising of high purity Cu (HP Cu) substrate and pure Sn solder. After aging processes, a new IMC, Cu₃Sn, was formed at the interface, in addition to Cu₆Sn₅ formed in the as-soldered joints. The EP Cu and Cu addition (0.7%) both had limited effects on the total IMCs thickness. However, the effects varied on the growth behaviors of different IMCs. Comparing to the void-free interface between Sn and HP Cu, a large number of voids were observed at the Cu₃Sn/Cu interface in Sn/EP Cu joints. The formation of these voids may be induced by the impurities and fine grain, which were introduced during the electroplating process. The addition of Cu suppressed the inter-diffusion of Cu and Sn at the interface. Consequently, the growth of the Cu₃Sn layer and formation of voids were suppressed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the NMJ2018)

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Interfacial microstructure of Sn/HP Cu joints after aging at 150 °C for (a) 0 h, (b) 240 h, and (c) 480 h. Full article ">Figure 2
Interfacial microstructure of Sn/EP Cu joints after aging at 150 °C for (a) 0 h, (b) 240 h, and (c) 480 h. Full article ">Figure 3
Interfacial microstructure of Sn0.7Cu/EP Cu joints after aging at 150 °C for (a) 0 h, (b) 240 h, and (c) 480 h. Full article ">Figure 4
Interfacial microstructure of Sn/EP Cu joints with different aging conditions, (a) 150 °C for 120 h, (b) 180 °C for 72 h. Full article ">Figure 5
Relationship between aging time and average thickness of total IMCs (a), Cu6Sn5 (b), and Cu3Sn (c) layer for the three kinds of solder joints after aging at 150 °C and 180 °C (d), respectively. Full article ">Figure 6
The components of EP Cu substrates by XPS spectra. Full article ">Figure 7
Schematic drawings showing the general process for interfacial behavior in Sn/HP Cu (a), Sn/EP Cu (b), and Sn0.7Cu/EP Cu (c) systems. Full article ">

15 pages, 1930 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Resistance of L. monocytogenes and S. Typhimurium towards Cold Atmospheric Plasma as Function of Biofilm Age

by Marlies Govaert, Cindy Smet, Maria Baka, Branimir Ećimović, James L. Walsh and Jan Van Impe

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(12), 2702; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8122702 - 19 Dec 2018

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 4206

Abstract

The biofilm mode of growth protects bacterial cells against currently applied disinfection methods for abiotic (food) contact surfaces. Therefore, innovative methods, such as Cold Atmospheric Plasma (CAP), should be investigated for biofilm inactivation. However, more knowledge is required concerning the influence of the [...] Read more.

The biofilm mode of growth protects bacterial cells against currently applied disinfection methods for abiotic (food) contact surfaces. Therefore, innovative methods, such as Cold Atmospheric Plasma (CAP), should be investigated for biofilm inactivation. However, more knowledge is required concerning the influence of the biofilm age on the inactivation efficacy in order to comment on a possible application of CAP in the (food) processing industry. L. monocytogenes and S. Typhimurium biofilms with five different ages (i.e., 1, 2, 3, 7, and 10 days) were developed. For the untreated biofilms, the total biofilm mass and the cell density were determined. To investigate the biofilm resistance towards CAP treatment, biofilms with different ages were treated for 10 min and the remaining cell density was determined. Finally, for the one-day old reference biofilms and the most resistant biofilm age, complete inactivation curves were developed to examine the influence of the biofilm age on the inactivation kinetics. For L. monocytogenes, an increased biofilm age resulted in (i) an increased biomass, (ii) a decreased cell density prior to CAP treatment, and (iii) an increased resistance towards CAP treatment. For S. Typhimurium, similar results were obtained, except for the biomass, which was here independent of the biofilm age. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cold Plasma Treatment for Food Safety and Quality)

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Dielectric Barrier Discharge (DBD) electrode: graphical illustration (left); set-up used in this study (middle); and close-up of the discharge (right). Full article ">Figure 2
Total biofilm mass, expressed as optical density (-), for the untreated (a) L. monocytogenes and (b) S. Typhimurium biofilms following 1, 2, 3, 7, and 10 day(s) of incubation. For each species, bars bearing different lowercase letters are significantly different (p ≤ 0.05). Full article ">Figure 3
Cell density (log(CFU/cm2)) determined on general and selective medium for the untreated (a) L. monocytogenes and (b) S. Typhimurium biofilms following 1, 2, 3, 7, and 10 day(s) of incubation. Bars bearing different letters (no capital or small letters in common for the general and the selective medium, respectively) are significantly different (p ≤ 0.05). Full article ">Figure 4
Log-reductions (log(CFU/cm2)) obtained on general and selective medium for (a) L. monocytogenes and (b) S. Typhimurium biofilms treated for 10 min with Cold Atmospheric Plasma (CAP) at optimal inactivation conditions (i.e., DBD, 0.0 (v/v) % oxygen, 21.88 V input voltage). Bars bearing different letters (no capital or small letters in common for the general and the selective medium, respectively) are significantly different (p ≤ 0.05). Full article ">Figure 5
Cell density (log(CFU/cm2)) as function of the treatment time following CAP treatment of the one and seven day(s) old biofilms at optimal CAP conditions for biofilm inactivation. Experimental data (symbols) and global fit (line) of the Geeraerd et al. [<a href="#B27-applsci-08-02702" class="html-bibr">27</a>] model: total viable population on general medium (o, solid line) and uninjured viable population on selective medium (x, dashed line) (left). Percentage (%) of sub-lethally injured cells as function of the treatment time for both investigated biofilm ages (i.e., one and seven day(s)) (right). (a) Results obtained following CAP treatment of the L. monocytogenes biofilms; (b) Results obtained following CAP treatment of the S. Typhimurium biofilms. Full article ">

18 pages, 3331 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamic Response Analysis of Rutting Resistance Performance of High Modulus Asphalt Concrete Pavement

by Chundi Si, Hang Cao, Enli Chen, Zhanping You, Ruilan Tian, Ran Zhang and Junfeng Gao

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(12), 2701; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8122701 - 19 Dec 2018

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 4270

Abstract

In order to systematically study the rutting resistance performance of High-Modulus Asphalt Concrete (HMAC) pavements, a finite element method model of HMAC pavement was established using ABAQUS software. Based on the viscoelasticity theory of asphalt, the stress and deformation distribution characteristics of HMAC [...] Read more.

In order to systematically study the rutting resistance performance of High-Modulus Asphalt Concrete (HMAC) pavements, a finite element method model of HMAC pavement was established using ABAQUS software. Based on the viscoelasticity theory of asphalt, the stress and deformation distribution characteristics of HMAC pavement were studied and compared to conventional asphalt pavement under moving loads. Then, the pavement temperature field model was established to study the temperature variation and the thermal stress in HMAC pavement. Finally, under the condition of continuous temperature variation, the creep behavior and permanent deformation of HMAC pavement were investigated. The results showed that under the action of moving loads, the strain and displacement generated in HMAC pavement were lower than those in conventional asphalt pavement. The upper surface layer was most obviously affected by outside air temperature, resulting in maximum thermal stress. Lastly, under the condition of continuous temperature change, HMAC pavement could greatly reduce the deformation of asphalt material in each surface layer compared to conventional asphalt pavement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Achievements and Prospects of Functional Pavement: Materials and Structures)

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12 pages, 1858 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review of the Applications of OCT for Analysing Pharmaceutical Film Coatings

by Hungyen Lin, Zijian Zhang, Daniel Markl, J. Axel Zeitler and Yaochun Shen

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(12), 2700; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8122700 - 19 Dec 2018

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 6827

Abstract

Optical coherence tomography (OCT) has recently attracted a lot of interest in the pharmaceutical manufacturing industry as a fast, contactless and non-destructive modality for quantifying thin film coatings on pharmaceutical dosage forms, which cannot be resolved easily with other techniques. In this topical [...] Read more.

Optical coherence tomography (OCT) has recently attracted a lot of interest in the pharmaceutical manufacturing industry as a fast, contactless and non-destructive modality for quantifying thin film coatings on pharmaceutical dosage forms, which cannot be resolved easily with other techniques. In this topical review, we present an overview of the research that has been performed to date, highlighting key differences between systems and outlining major challenges ahead. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Coherence Tomography and its Applications)

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Schematic diagram of a time-domain optical coherence tomography (TD-OCT) system. L—low-coherence light source; Ref—reference mirror; BS—beam-splitter. Full article ">Figure 2
Schematic diagram of a spectral-domain optical coherence tomography SD-OCT system. L—low-coherence light source; Ref—reference mirror; BS—beam-splitter. Full article ">Figure 3
A 100 × 100 B-scan of a biconvex-shaped pharmaceutical tablet with the tablet central region annotated by the dashed line (left) and the respective A-scan with the air-coating and coating–core interfaces annotated by the respective arrows (right). Adapted from [<a href="#B23-applsci-08-02700" class="html-bibr">23</a>]. Full article ">Figure 4
B-scan and en face images captured with full-field optical coherence tomography (FF-OCT) for characterising the micro-structure of a double-layer coated pellet. The FF-OCT B-scan in (a) and the en face results in (b) are validated by XμCT in (b,d) on the same pellet sample. Two dashed red lines in (a) indicate the upper and lower interfaces of the inner coating layer. Adapted from [<a href="#B35-applsci-08-02700" class="html-bibr">35</a>]. Full article ">Figure 5
B-scans captured with SD-OCT at an in-line setting for a lab-scale tablet coating process showing the measured tablets with highlighted coating interfaces using segmentation algorithm as part of automated thickness quantification. The title of each OCT image indicates the mean calculated from the detected coating layer interfaces. The <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi>x</mi> </semantics></math>-axis represents the width of the tablet measured and depends on the tablet movement speed. Adapted from [<a href="#B24-applsci-08-02700" class="html-bibr">24</a>]. Full article ">

13 pages, 1213 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analytical Method for Measurement of Tobacco-Specific Nitrosamines in E-Cigarette Liquid and Aerosol

by Yoon-Seo Lee, Ki-Hyun Kim, Sang Soo Lee, Richard J. C. Brown and Sang-Hee Jo

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(12), 2699; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8122699 - 19 Dec 2018

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4778

Abstract

An experimental method was developed and validated for the collection and analysis of tobacco-specific nitrosamines (TSNAs) that are present in electronic cigarette (EC) liquid or are released from aerosol samples using a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) system. As part of this study, [...] Read more.

An experimental method was developed and validated for the collection and analysis of tobacco-specific nitrosamines (TSNAs) that are present in electronic cigarette (EC) liquid or are released from aerosol samples using a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) system. As part of this study, the relative recovery of four target TSNAs was assessed by spiking standards in a mixture of propylene glycol and vegetable glycerin. Recovery was assessed against two major variables: (1) the chemical media (solution) selected for sample dilution (acetonitrile [ACN] vs. ammonium acetate [AA]) and (2) the type of sampling filter used (Cambridge filter pad [CFP] vs. quartz wool [QW] tube). The average recovery of TSNAs in terms of variable 1 was 134 ± 22.1% for ACN and 92.6 ± 8.27% for AA. The average recovery in terms of variable 2 was 83.4 ± 7.33% for QW and 58.5 ± 12.9% for CFP. Based on these conditions, the detection limits of N′-nitrosonornicotine (NNN), 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK), N′-nitrosoanatabine (NAT), and N′-nitrosoanabasine (NAB) were calculated as 4.40, 4.47, 3.71, and 3.28 ng mL⁻¹, respectively. The concentration of TSNAs in liquid and aerosol samples of six commercial EC solutions was measured as below the detection limit. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Chemical and Molecular Sciences)

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19 pages, 9360 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Full-Process Numerical Analyzing Method of Low-Velocity Impact Damage and Residual Strength for Stitched Composites

by Hongjian Zhang, Mingming Wang, Weidong Wen, Ying Xu, Haitao Cui and Jinbo Chen

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(12), 2698; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8122698 - 19 Dec 2018

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3327

Abstract

The failure and residual strength after low-velocity impact of stitched composites are very important in their service and maintenance phases. In order to capture the failure and residual strength more accurately, a full-process numerical analyzing method was developed in this paper. The full-process [...] Read more.

The failure and residual strength after low-velocity impact of stitched composites are very important in their service and maintenance phases. In order to capture the failure and residual strength more accurately, a full-process numerical analyzing method was developed in this paper. The full-process numerical analyzing method includes two parts: (1) Part 1 is the progressive low-velocity impact damage prediction method for stitched composites; (2) Part 2 is the progressive residual strength prediction method by introducing all types of damage that are caused by the low-velocity impact as the analysis presuppositions. Subsequently, the failure and residual strength of G0827/QY9512 stitched composites were simulated by the full-process numerical analyzing method. When compared with experiments, it is found that: (1) the maximum error of low-velocity impact damage areas was 17.8%, and their damage modes were similar; (2) the maximum error of residual strength was 8.9%. At last, the influence rules of stitched density and stitching thread thickness were analyzed. The simulation results showed that, if there is no suture breakage failure, stitched density affects the mechanical properties of the stitched composites, while stitching thread thickness has little effect on it; otherwise, both factors have a significant effect on the mechanical properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Damage Inspection of Composite Structures)

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11 pages, 885 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Piano Key Vibration Level on Players’ Perception and Performance in Piano Playing

by Matthias Flückiger, Tobias Grosshauser and Gerhard Tröster

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(12), 2697; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8122697 - 19 Dec 2018

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4403

Abstract

In this study, the influence of piano key vibration levels on players’ personal judgment of the instrument quality and on the dynamics and timing of the players’ performance of a music piece excerpt is examined. In an experiment four vibration levels were presented [...] Read more.

In this study, the influence of piano key vibration levels on players’ personal judgment of the instrument quality and on the dynamics and timing of the players’ performance of a music piece excerpt is examined. In an experiment four vibration levels were presented to eleven pianists playing on a digital grand piano with grand piano-like key action. By evaluating the players’ judgment of the instrument quality, strong integration effects of auditory and tactile information were observed. Differences in the sound of the instrument were perceived by the players, when the vibration level in the keys was changed and the results indicate a sound-dependent optimum of the vibration levels. By analyzing the influence of the vibration levels on the timing and dynamics accuracy of the pianists’ musical performances, we could not observe systematic differences that depend on the vibration level. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modelling, Simulation and Data Analysis in Acoustical Problems)

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14 pages, 6743 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impregnation of Wood with Microencapsulated Bio-Based Phase Change Materials for High Thermal Mass Engineered Wood Flooring

by Damien Mathis, Pierre Blanchet, Véronic Landry and Philippe Lagière

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(12), 2696; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8122696 - 19 Dec 2018

Cited by 42 | Viewed by 6543

Abstract

Wood is a porous material that can be impregnated and have enhanced properties. Two species of hardwood, red oak (Quercus rubra L.) and sugar maple (Acer saccharum Marsh.), were impregnated in a reactor with a microencapsulated phase change material. The objective [...] Read more.

Wood is a porous material that can be impregnated and have enhanced properties. Two species of hardwood, red oak (Quercus rubra L.) and sugar maple (Acer saccharum Marsh.), were impregnated in a reactor with a microencapsulated phase change material. The objective was to enhance the thermal mass of wood boards used as surface layers for engineered wood flooring manufacturing. Preliminary experiments were conducted on small samples in order to define suitable impregnation parameters, based on the Bethell cycle. Thin wood boards were impregnated with a microencapsulated phase change material dispersed into distilled water. Several cycles of pressure were applied. Heating storage of the impregnated wood boards was determined using a dynamic heat flow meter apparatus method. A latent heat storage of 7.6 J/g over 3 °C was measured for impregnated red oak samples. This corresponds to a heat storage enhancement of 77.0%. Sugar maple was found to be harder to impregnate and thus his thermal enhancement was lower. Impregnated samples were observed by reflective optical microscopy. Microcapsules were found mainly in the large vessels of red oak, forming aggregates. Pull-off tests were conducted on varnished samples to assess the influence of an impregnation on varnish adhesion and no significant influence was revealed. Engineered wood flooring manufactured with impregnated boards such as characterized in this study could store solar energy and thus improve buildings energy efficiency. Although wood is a material with a low-conductivity, the thermal exchange between the PCM and the building air could be good enough as the microcapsules are positioned in the surface layer. Furthermore, flooring is an area with frequent sunrays exposure. Such high thermal mass EWF could lead to energy savings and to an enhancement of occupant’s thermal comfort. This study aimed to characterize the potential of impregnation with MPCM of two wood species in order to make high thermal mass EWF. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Applications of Phase Change Materials)

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19 pages, 6974 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Comparative Analysis of Current Control Techniques to Support Virtual Inertia Applications

by Ujjwol Tamrakar, Dipesh Shrestha, Naresh Malla, Zhen Ni, Timothy M. Hansen, Indraman Tamrakar and Reinaldo Tonkoski

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(12), 2695; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8122695 - 19 Dec 2018

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 3758

Abstract

The rapid transition towards an inverter-dominated power system has reduced the inertial response capability of modern power systems. As a solution, inverters are equipped with control strategies, which can emulate inertia by exchanging power with the grid based on frequency changes. This paper [...] Read more.

The rapid transition towards an inverter-dominated power system has reduced the inertial response capability of modern power systems. As a solution, inverters are equipped with control strategies, which can emulate inertia by exchanging power with the grid based on frequency changes. This paper discusses the various current control techniques for application in these systems, known as virtual inertia systems. Some classic control techniques like the proportional-integral, the proportional-resonant, and the hysteresis control are presented first, followed by the design and discussion of two more advanced control techniques based on model prediction and machine learning, respectively. MATLAB/Simulink-based simulations are performed, and results are presented to compare these control techniques in terms of harmonic performance, switching frequency, and transient response. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Energy Science and Technology)

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15 pages, 5107 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Management of Waste Streams from Dairy Manufacturing Operations Using Membrane Filtration and Dissolved Air Flotation

by Subbiah Nagappan, David M. Phinney and Dennis R. Heldman

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(12), 2694; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8122694 - 19 Dec 2018

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4379

Abstract

Membrane filtration can provide a significant role in the management of waste streams from food manufacturing operations. The objective of this research was to evaluate the reductions in the organic content of waste streams accomplished when using membrane filtration. Reductions in Chemical Oxygen [...] Read more.

Membrane filtration can provide a significant role in the management of waste streams from food manufacturing operations. The objective of this research was to evaluate the reductions in the organic content of waste streams accomplished when using membrane filtration. Reductions in Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) by membrane filtration were compared to a Dissolved Air Floatation (DAF) system. Membranes with six different pore sizes (200, 20, 8, 4, 0.083, and 0.058 kDa) were evaluated. In addition, the various membrane treatments were applied after the DAF as an additional level of comparison. The DAF treatment provided 75.15 ± 3.95% reduction in COD, and the reduction in COD improved from 85% to 99% as the membrane pore size decreased. When all membranes were used after a DAF pre-treatment, a reduction in COD to less than 1200 ppm in the permeate stream was achieved. These reductions were independent of the COD in the feed stream. The membrane fouling rates were evaluated for the membranes with the four largest pore-sizes membranes. The membranes with 20 kDa pore-size had the lowest fouling rates during extended fouling-rate studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Membrane Separation Techniques – Optimization and Application)

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19 pages, 5503 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Estimating Underwater Light Regime under Spatially Heterogeneous Sea Ice in the Arctic

by Philippe Massicotte, Guislain Bécu, Simon Lambert-Girard, Edouard Leymarie and Marcel Babin

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(12), 2693; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8122693 - 19 Dec 2018

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4053

Abstract

The vertical diffuse attenuation coefficient for downward plane irradiance (

K_{d}

) is an apparent optical property commonly used in primary production models to propagate incident solar radiation in the water column. In open water, estimating

K_{d}

is relatively straightforward when [...] Read more.

The vertical diffuse attenuation coefficient for downward plane irradiance (

K_{d}

) is an apparent optical property commonly used in primary production models to propagate incident solar radiation in the water column. In open water, estimating

K_{d}

is relatively straightforward when a vertical profile of measurements of downward irradiance,

E_{d}

, is available. In the Arctic, the ice pack is characterized by a complex mosaic composed of sea ice with snow, ridges, melt ponds, and leads. Due to the resulting spatially heterogeneous light field in the top meters of the water column, it is difficult to measure at single-point locations meaningful

K_{d}

values that allow predicting average irradiance at any depth. The main objective of this work is to propose a new method to estimate average irradiance over large spatially heterogeneous area as it would be seen by drifting phytoplankton. Using both in situ data and 3D Monte Carlo numerical simulations of radiative transfer, we show that (1) the large-area average vertical profile of downward irradiance,

\bar{E_{d}} (z)

, under heterogeneous sea ice cover can be represented by a single-term exponential function and (2) the vertical attenuation coefficient for upward radiance (

K_{L u}

), which is up to two times less influenced by a heterogeneous incident light field than

K_{d}

in the vicinity of a melt pond, can be used as a proxy to estimate

\bar{E_{d}} (z)

in the water column. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Outstanding Topics in Ocean Optics)

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19 pages, 12666 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Advantages and Limitations to the Use of Optical Measurements to Study Sediment Properties

by Emmanuel Boss, Christopher R. Sherwood, Paul Hill and Tim Milligan

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(12), 2692; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8122692 - 19 Dec 2018

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 7516

Abstract

Measurements of optical properties have been used for decades to study particle distributions in the ocean. They are useful for estimating suspended mass concentration as well as particle-related properties such as size, composition, packing (particle porosity or density), and settling velocity. Measurements of [...] Read more.

Measurements of optical properties have been used for decades to study particle distributions in the ocean. They are useful for estimating suspended mass concentration as well as particle-related properties such as size, composition, packing (particle porosity or density), and settling velocity. Measurements of optical properties are, however, biased, as certain particles, because of their size, composition, shape, or packing, contribute to a specific property more than others. Here, we study this issue both theoretically and practically, and we examine different optical properties collected simultaneously in a bottom boundary layer to highlight the utility of such measurements. We show that the biases we are likely to encounter using different optical properties can aid our studies of suspended sediment. In particular, we investigate inferences of settling velocity from vertical profiles of optical measurements, finding that the effects of aggregation dynamics can seldom be ignored. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Outstanding Topics in Ocean Optics)

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Top panels: volume-specific beam attenuation (αv for solid particles (left) and aggregates (right) as function of (2πD)/λwater (n − 1) where D is diameter, λwater the wavelength in water and n the index of refraction (which increases between organic and inorganic particles). For aggregates, naggregate = 1 + F(n − 1), where F is the solid fraction and n the index of refraction of the particles that comprise the aggregate. In all cases, the volume used to compute αv is that of the solid fraction. Bottom panels: same as on top but plotted as function of particle diameter. In all the computations λair = 660 nm and n’ = 0.0001, where n’ is the imaginary part of the index of refraction, representing absorption. For aggregates we use n = 1.15 (solid) and n = 1.05 (dashed) typical of inorganic and organic materials, respectively. Full article ">Figure 2
Time series of conditions at the 12-m Martha’s Vineyard Coastal Observatory (MVCO) site during the Optics and Acoustics and Stress In Situ (OASIS) deployment in 2011: beam attenuation at 650 nm measured at 1 m above the bottom (gray), tidal current shear velocity sign(u)u∗c (blue), and combined wave-current shear velocity u∗cw (purple). Notice labels describing specific periods. Full article ">Figure 3
Profiles of optical parameters at the MVCO site on day 261.1 when waves from Hurricane Maria were coming to shore (see <a href="#applsci-08-02692-f002" class="html-fig">Figure 2</a>). (a) Beam attenuation (cp(650), black), particulate backscattering (bbp(650), red), and LISST attenuation (gray). (b) Deviation from the Rouse-profile fits for the same parameters (i.e., observed minus fit). (c) Power-law exponent of cp(650) (black) and bbp(650) (red). (d) Sauter diameter (red) and inverse particle density (black). (e) Ratio of chlorophyll divided by cp(650) (black) and backscattering ratio (red). (f) Spectra of LISST volume concentration as a function of size at nine elevations. In panels (a, c, d, and e), standard deviation about the mean values for three consecutive profiles (60 min) are shown with crosses. Dashed lines in panel (a) are log-log (Rouse) fits to the data. In panel (f), the elevations for each spectrum are indicated by black lines, and the gray vertical scale indicates 10 μL/L. Numbers in the box denote settling velocities based on Rouse fits to backscattering, AC-9 particulate attenuation at 660 nm, and LISST attenuation at 670 nm. Full article ">Figure 4
Profiles of optical parameters at MVCO on day 268.62 during spring tides and moderate waves. Panels are as described in <a href="#applsci-08-02692-f003" class="html-fig">Figure 3</a>. Full article ">Figure 5
Profiles of optical parameters at MVCO on day 275.20 during the passage of Hurricane Ophelia. Panels are as described in <a href="#applsci-08-02692-f003" class="html-fig">Figure 3</a>. Full article ">Figure 6
Profiles of optical parameters at MVCO on day 281.93 during calm conditions. Panels are as described in <a href="#applsci-08-02692-f003" class="html-fig">Figure 3</a>. Full article ">

19 pages, 2185 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Remote Sensing of Coral Reefs: Uncertainty in the Detection of Benthic Cover, Depth, and Water Constituents Imposed by Sensor Noise

by Steven G. Ackleson, Wesley J. Moses and Marcos J. Montes

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(12), 2691; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8122691 - 19 Dec 2018

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3099

Abstract

Coral reefs are biologically diverse and economically important ecosystems that are on the decline worldwide in response to direct human impacts and climate change. Ocean color remote sensing has proven to be an important tool in coral reef research and monitoring. Remote sensing [...] Read more.

Coral reefs are biologically diverse and economically important ecosystems that are on the decline worldwide in response to direct human impacts and climate change. Ocean color remote sensing has proven to be an important tool in coral reef research and monitoring. Remote sensing data quality is driven by factors related to sensor design and environmental variability. This work explored the impact of sensor noise, defined as the signal to noise ratio (SNR), on the detection uncertainty of key coral reef ecological properties (bottom depth, benthic cover, and water quality) in the absence of environmental uncertainties. A radiative transfer model for a shallow reef environment was developed and Monte Carlo methods were employed to identify the range in environmental conditions that are spectrally indistinguishable from true conditions as a function of SNR. The spectrally averaged difference between remotely sensed radiance relative to sensor noise, ε, was used to quantify uncertainty in bottom depth, the fraction of benthic cover by coral, algae, and uncolonized sand, and the concentration of water constituents defined as chlorophyll, dissolved organic matter, and suspended calcite particles. Parameter uncertainty was found to increase with sensor noise (decreasing SNR) but the impact was non-linear. The rate of change in uncertainty per incremental change in SNR was greatest for SNR < 500 and increasing SNR further to 1000 resulted in only modest improvements. Parameter uncertainty was complicated by the bottom depth and benthic cover. Benthic cover uncertainty increased with bottom depth, but water constituent uncertainty changed inversely with bottom depth. Furthermore, water constituent uncertainty was impacted by the type of constituent material in relation to the type of benthic cover. Uncertainty associated with chlorophyll concentration and dissolved organic matter increased when the benthic cover was coral and/or benthic algae while uncertainty in the concentration of suspended calcite increased when the benthic cover was uncolonized sand. While the definition of an optimal SNR is subject to user needs, we propose that SNR of approximately 500 (relative to 5% Earth surface reflectance and a clear maritime atmosphere) is a reasonable engineering goal for a future satellite sensor to support research and management activities directed at coral reef ecology and, more generally, shallow aquatic ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Outstanding Topics in Ocean Optics)

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Computation flow chart. SNR, signal to noise ratio. Full article ">Figure 2
Benthic reflectance spectra used in model computations. Full article ">Figure 3
Average spectral difference parameter, ε, as a function of depth, where L′sat representing shallow reef conditions is compared with optically deep water. The water column is relatively clear (C′chl = 0.1 mg m−3, a′g,450= 0.2 m−1, and C′cal = 0.3 g m−3) and the threshold of spectral separation is ε = 1.0 (gray line). Impacts of cover type (A) are shown for B′c (solid), B′a (dot-dash), and B′s (dash) and the response to SNR (B) is shown for B'c, where SNR = 100 (dot-dash), 500 (solid), and 1000 (dash). Full article ">Figure 4
Uncertainty in water depth (ΔD), expressed as the difference between the upper and lower bounds of the test conditions relative to the reference condition, plotted against optical depth (Do) for variable water constituent concentration (S1, upper figure) and constant constituent concentration (S2, lower figure). Full article ">Figure 5
Uncertainty in the detection of endmember benthic cover relative to the reference condition, indicated as zero on the ordinate in each graph. S1 (top row of graphs) represent variable water constituent concentration and depth across the allowable ranges. S2 (middle row of graphs) represent variable depth while setting water constituent concentration constant and equal to the reference condition. S3 (bottom row of graphs) represent depth and water constituent concentration constant and equal to the reference condition. Full article ">Figure 6
Detection uncertainty in the fractional cover of Porites (<math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msubsup> <mi>B</mi> <mrow> <mi>c</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> <mo>′</mo> </msubsup> </mrow> </semantics></math>) and benthic algae (<math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msubsup> <mi>B</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msubsup> </mrow> </semantics></math>) relative to the reference condition (scenario S4, <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msubsup> <mi>B</mi> <mi>c</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msubsup> </mrow> </semantics></math> = 1). The uncertainty in the fractional cover is expressed as the difference between the upper bound of the test condition and the reference condition (solid gray line). Note that uncertainty in this scenario can only be positive (overestimated), since in this scenario <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msubsup> <mi>B</mi> <mrow> <mi>c</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> <mo>′</mo> </msubsup> </mrow> </semantics></math> and <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msubsup> <mi>B</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msubsup> </mrow> </semantics></math> are zero. Full article ">Figure 7
Water constituent uncertainty (y-axis) for variable depth and benthic cover (S1) and water depth and benthic cover equal to the reference condition (S5a and S5b). Scenario S5a represents benthic cover of 100% coral and S5b represents 100% uncolonized sand. The ordinate scale represents the difference between the upper and lower boundaries of parameter uncertainty, within the ranges specified, and the reference condition, indicated as 0 in all graphs. Full article ">

32 pages, 1189 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Measurements of the Volume Scattering Function and the Degree of Linear Polarization of Light Scattered by Contrasting Natural Assemblages of Marine Particles

by Daniel Koestner, Dariusz Stramski and Rick A. Reynolds

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(12), 2690; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8122690 - 19 Dec 2018

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 5407

Abstract

The light scattering properties of seawater play important roles in radiative transfer in the ocean and optically-based methods for characterizing marine suspended particles from in situ and remote sensing measurements. The recently commercialized LISST-VSF instrument is capable of providing in situ or laboratory [...] Read more.

The light scattering properties of seawater play important roles in radiative transfer in the ocean and optically-based methods for characterizing marine suspended particles from in situ and remote sensing measurements. The recently commercialized LISST-VSF instrument is capable of providing in situ or laboratory measurements of the volume scattering function,

β_{p} (ψ)

, and the degree of linear polarization,

{DoLP}_{p} (ψ)

, associated with particle scattering. These optical quantities of natural particle assemblages have not been measured routinely in past studies. To fully realize the potential of LISST-VSF measurements, we evaluated instrument performance, and developed calibration correction functions from laboratory measurements and Mie scattering calculations for standard polystyrene beads suspended in water. The correction functions were validated with independent measurements. The improved LISST-VSF protocol was applied to measurements of

β_{p} (ψ)

and

{DoLP}_{p} (ψ)

taken on 17 natural seawater samples from coastal and offshore marine environments characterized by contrasting assemblages of suspended particles. Both

β_{p} (ψ)

and

{DoLP}_{p} (ψ)

exhibited significant variations related to a broad range of composition and size distribution of particulate assemblages. For example, negative relational trends were observed between the particulate backscattering ratio derived from

β_{p} (ψ)

and increasing proportions of organic particles or phytoplankton in the particulate assemblage. Our results also suggest a potential trend between the maximum values of

{DoLP}_{p} (ψ)

and particle size metrics, such that a decrease in the maximum

{DoLP}_{p} (ψ)

tends to be associated with particulate assemblages exhibiting a higher proportion of large-sized particles. Such results have the potential to advance optically-based applications that rely on an understanding of relationships between light scattering and particle properties of natural particulate assemblages. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Outstanding Topics in Ocean Optics)

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20 pages, 630 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing the Impact of a Two-Layered Spherical Geometry of Phytoplankton Cells on the Bulk Backscattering Ratio of Marine Particulate Matter

by Lucile Duforêt-Gaurier, David Dessailly, William Moutier and Hubert Loisel

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(12), 2689; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8122689 - 19 Dec 2018

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3696

Abstract

The bulk backscattering ratio (

\tilde{b_{b p}}

) is commonly used as a descriptor of the bulk real refractive index of the particulate assemblage in natural waters. Based on numerical simulations, we analyze the impact of modeled structural heterogeneity of phytoplankton [...] Read more.

The bulk backscattering ratio (

\tilde{b_{b p}}

) is commonly used as a descriptor of the bulk real refractive index of the particulate assemblage in natural waters. Based on numerical simulations, we analyze the impact of modeled structural heterogeneity of phytoplankton cells on

\tilde{b_{b p}}

.

\tilde{b_{b p}}

is modeled considering viruses, heterotrophic bacteria, phytoplankton, organic detritus, and minerals. Three case studies are defined according to the relative abundance of the components. Two case studies represent typical situations in open ocean, oligotrophic waters, and phytoplankton bloom. The third case study is typical of coastal waters with the presence of minerals. Phytoplankton cells are modeled by a two-layered spherical geometry representing a chloroplast surrounding the cytoplasm. The

\tilde{b_{b p}}

values are higher when structural heterogeneity is considered because the contribution of coated spheres to light backscattering is higher than homogeneous spheres. The impact of heterogeneity is; however, strongly conditioned by the hyperbolic slope

ξ

of the particle size distribution. Even if the relative abundance of phytoplankton is small (<1%),

\tilde{b_{b p}}

increases by about 58% (for

ξ = 4

and for oligotrophic waters), when the heterogeneity is taken into account, in comparison with a particulate population composed only of homogeneous spheres. As expected, heterogeneity has a much smaller impact (about 12% for

ξ = 4

) on

\tilde{b_{b p}}

in the presence of suspended minerals, whose increased light scattering overwhelms that of phytoplankton. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Outstanding Topics in Ocean Optics)

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20 pages, 4615 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Influence of Three-Dimensional Coral Structures on Hyperspectral Benthic Reflectance and Water-Leaving Reflectance

by John D. Hedley, Maryam Mirhakak, Adam Wentworth and Heidi M. Dierssen

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(12), 2688; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8122688 - 19 Dec 2018

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3203

Abstract

Shading and inter-reflections created by the three-dimensional coral canopy structure play an important role on benthic reflectance and its propagation above the water. Here, a plane parallel model was coupled with a three-dimensional radiative transfer canopy model, incorporating measured coral shapes and hyperspectral [...] Read more.

Shading and inter-reflections created by the three-dimensional coral canopy structure play an important role on benthic reflectance and its propagation above the water. Here, a plane parallel model was coupled with a three-dimensional radiative transfer canopy model, incorporating measured coral shapes and hyperspectral benthic reflectances, to investigate this question under different illumination and water column conditions. Results indicated that a Lambertian treatment of the bottom reflectance can be a reasonable assumption if a variable shading factor is included. Without flexibility in the shading treatment, nadir view bottom reflectances can vary by as much as ±20% (or ±9% in above-water remote sensing reflectance) under solar zenith angles (SZAs) up to 50°. Spectrally-independent shading factors are developed for benthic coral reflectance measurements based on the rugosity of the coral. In remote sensing applications, where the rugosity is unknown, a shading factor could be incorporated as an endmember for retrieval in the inversion scheme. In dense coral canopies in clear shallow waters, the benthos cannot always be treated as Lambertian, and for large solar-view angles the bi-directional reflectance distribution functions (BRDF) hotspot propagated to above water reflectances can create up to a 50% or more difference in water-leaving reflectances, and discrepancies of 20% even for nadir-view geometries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Outstanding Topics in Ocean Optics)

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37 pages, 14721 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Remote Sensing of CDOM, CDOM Spectral Slope, and Dissolved Organic Carbon in the Global Ocean

by Dirk Aurin, Antonio Mannino and David J. Lary

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(12), 2687; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8122687 - 19 Dec 2018

Cited by 45 | Viewed by 7511

Abstract

A Global Ocean Carbon Algorithm Database (GOCAD) has been developed from over 500 oceanographic field campaigns conducted worldwide over the past 30 years including in situ reflectances and coincident satellite imagery, multi- and hyperspectral Chromophoric Dissolved Organic Matter (CDOM) absorption coefficients from 245–715 [...] Read more.

A Global Ocean Carbon Algorithm Database (GOCAD) has been developed from over 500 oceanographic field campaigns conducted worldwide over the past 30 years including in situ reflectances and coincident satellite imagery, multi- and hyperspectral Chromophoric Dissolved Organic Matter (CDOM) absorption coefficients from 245–715 nm, CDOM spectral slopes in eight visible and ultraviolet wavebands, dissolved and particulate organic carbon (DOC and POC, respectively), and inherent optical, physical, and biogeochemical properties. From field optical and radiometric data and satellite measurements, several semi-analytical, empirical, and machine learning algorithms for retrieving global DOC, CDOM, and CDOM slope were developed, optimized for global retrieval, and validated. Global climatologies of satellite-retrieved CDOM absorption coefficient and spectral slope based on the most robust of these algorithms lag seasonal patterns of phytoplankton biomass belying Case 1 assumptions, and track terrestrial runoff on ocean basin scales. Variability in satellite retrievals of CDOM absorption and spectral slope anomalies are tightly coupled to changes in atmospheric and oceanographic conditions associated with El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), strongly covary with the multivariate ENSO index in a large region of the tropical Pacific, and provide insights into the potential evolution and feedbacks related to sea surface dissolved carbon in a warming climate. Further validation of the DOC algorithm developed here is warranted to better characterize its limitations, particularly in mid-ocean gyres and the southern oceans. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Outstanding Topics in Ocean Optics)

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14 pages, 1369 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

A Brief Review of Mueller Matrix Calculations Associated with Oceanic Particles

by Bingqiang Sun, George W. Kattawar, Ping Yang and Xiaodong Zhang

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(12), 2686; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8122686 - 19 Dec 2018

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4955

Abstract

The complete Stokes vector contains much more information than the radiance of light for the remote sensing of the ocean. Unlike the conventional radiance-only radiative transfer simulations, a full Mueller matrix-Stokes vector treatment provides a rigorous and correct approach for solving the transfer [...] Read more.

The complete Stokes vector contains much more information than the radiance of light for the remote sensing of the ocean. Unlike the conventional radiance-only radiative transfer simulations, a full Mueller matrix-Stokes vector treatment provides a rigorous and correct approach for solving the transfer of radiation in a scattering medium, such as the atmosphere-ocean system. In fact, radiative transfer simulation without considering the polarization state always gives incorrect results and the extent of the errors induced depends on a particular application being considered. However, the rigorous approach that fully takes the polarization state into account requires the knowledge of the complete single-scattering properties of oceanic particles with various sizes, morphologies, and refractive indices. For most oceanic particles, the comparisons between simulations and observations have demonstrated that the “equivalent-spherical” approximation is inadequate. We will therefore briefly summarize the advantages and disadvantages of a number of light scattering methods for non-spherical particles. Furthermore, examples for canonical cases with specifically oriented particles and randomly oriented particles will be illustrated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Outstanding Topics in Ocean Optics)

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Figure 1
Parameters used for light scattering by a dielectric particle. The field point <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mover accent="true"> <mi>r</mi> <mo>→</mo> </mover> </semantics> </math> is outside the scattering particle with wavenumber k, permittivity <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mi>ε</mi> </semantics> </math>, and permeability <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>μ</mi> <mn>0</mn> </msub> </mrow> </semantics> </math> and the point <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <mover accent="true"> <mi>r</mi> <mo>→</mo> </mover> <mo>'</mo> </mrow> </semantics> </math> is inside the particle with wave number k1, permittivity <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>ε</mi> <mn>1</mn> </msub> </mrow> </semantics> </math>, and permeability <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>μ</mi> <mn>0</mn> </msub> </mrow> </semantics> </math>. Full article ">Figure 2
Discretization of a particle volume in the discrete-dipole approximation (DDA) method. Full article ">Figure 3
Comparisons of Mueller matrix elements of a hexahedron particle calculated by the invariant-imbedding T-matrix method (IITM) and the ADDA. The volume equivalent sphere radius is 1µm and the incident wavelength is 0.658 µm. The relative refractive index is 1.12 + i0.0005. Full article ">Figure 4
Comparisons of Mueller matrix elements of a hexahedron particle calculated by the IITM and the physical-geometric optics method (PGOM). The volume equivalent sphere radius is 8 µm and the incident wavelength is 0.658 µm. The relative refractive index is 1.12 + i0.0005. Full article ">

25 pages, 44126 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing Fluorescent Organic Matter in Natural Waters: Towards In Situ Excitation–Emission Matrix Spectroscopy

by Oliver Zielinski, Nick Rüssmeier, Oliver D. Ferdinand, Mario L. Miranda and Jochen Wollschläger

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(12), 2685; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8122685 - 19 Dec 2018

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 6740

Abstract

Natural organic matter (NOM) is a key parameter in aquatic biogeochemical processes. Part of the NOM pool exhibits optical properties, namely absorption and fluorescence. The latter is frequently utilized in laboratory measurements of its dissolved fraction (fluorescent dissolved organic matter, FDOM) through excitation–emission [...] Read more.

Natural organic matter (NOM) is a key parameter in aquatic biogeochemical processes. Part of the NOM pool exhibits optical properties, namely absorption and fluorescence. The latter is frequently utilized in laboratory measurements of its dissolved fraction (fluorescent dissolved organic matter, FDOM) through excitation–emission matrix spectroscopy (EEMS). We present the design and field application of a novel EEMS sensor system applicable in situ, the ‘Kallemeter’. Observations are based on a field campaign, starting in Norwegian coastal waters entering the Trondheimsfjord. Comparison against the bulk fluorescence of two commercial FDOM sensors exhibited a good correspondence of the different methods and the ability to resolve gradients and dynamics along the transect. Complementary laboratory EEM spectra measurements of surface water samples and their subsequent PARAFAC analysis revealed three dominant components while the ‘Kallemeter’ EEMS sensor system was able to produce reasonable EEM spectra in high DOM concentrated water bodies, yet high noise levels must be addressed in order to provide comparable PARAFAC components. Achievements and limitations of this proof-of-concept are discussed providing guidance towards full in situ EEMS measurements to resolve rapid changes and processes in natural waters based on the assessment of spectral properties. Their combination with multiwavelength FDOM sensors onboard autonomous platforms will enhance our capacities in observing biogeochemical processes in the marine environment in spatiotemporal and spectral dimensions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Outstanding Topics in Ocean Optics)

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30 pages, 3846 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Ocean Color Analytical Model Explicitly Dependent on the Volume Scattering Function

by Michael Twardowski and Alberto Tonizzo

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(12), 2684; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8122684 - 19 Dec 2018

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 5014 | Correction

Abstract

An analytical radiative transfer (RT) model for remote sensing reflectance that includes the bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF) is described. The model, called ZTT (Zaneveld-Twardowski-Tonizzo), is based on the restatement of the RT equation by Zaneveld (1995) in terms of light field shape [...] Read more.

An analytical radiative transfer (RT) model for remote sensing reflectance that includes the bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF) is described. The model, called ZTT (Zaneveld-Twardowski-Tonizzo), is based on the restatement of the RT equation by Zaneveld (1995) in terms of light field shape factors. Besides remote sensing geometry considerations (solar zenith angle, viewing angle, and relative azimuth), the inputs are Inherent Optical Properties (IOPs) absorption a and backscattering b_b coefficients, the shape of the particulate volume scattering function (VSF) in the backward direction, and the particulate backscattering ratio. Model performance (absolute error) is equivalent to full RT simulations for available high quality validation data sets, indicating almost all residual errors are inherent to the data sets themselves, i.e., from the measurements of IOPs and radiometry used as model input and in match up assessments, respectively. Best performance was observed when a constant backward phase function shape based on the findings of Sullivan and Twardowski (2009) was assumed in the model. Critically, using a constant phase function in the backward direction eliminates a key unknown, providing a path toward inversion to solve for a and b_b. Performance degraded when using other phase function shapes. With available data sets, the model shows stronger performance than current state-of-the-art look-up table (LUT) based BRDF models used to normalize reflectance data, formulated on simpler first order RT approximations between r_rs and b_b/a or b_b/(a + b_b) (Morel et al., 2002; Lee et al., 2011). Stronger performance of ZTT relative to LUT-based models is attributed to using a more representative phase function shape, as well as the additional degrees of freedom achieved with several physically meaningful terms in the model. Since the model is fully described with analytical expressions, errors for terms can be individually assessed, and refinements can be readily made without carrying out the gamut of full RT computations required for LUT-based models. The ZTT model is invertible to solve for a and b_b from remote sensing reflectance, and inversion approaches are being pursued in ongoing work. The focus here is with development and testing of the in-water forward model, but current ocean color remote sensing approaches to cope with an air-sea interface and atmospheric effects would appear to be transferable. In summary, this new analytical model shows good potential for future ocean color inversion with low bias, well-constrained uncertainties (including the VSF), and explicit terms that can be readily tuned. Emphasis is put on application to the future NASA Plankton, Aerosol, Cloud, and ocean Ecosystem (PACE) mission. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Outstanding Topics in Ocean Optics)

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Figure 1
Refracted, in-water scattering angles made between the solar zenith and viewing angle, simulated for the upcoming NASA PACE satellite imager through a complete polar orbit (solid blue). Scattering angle distributions for SeaWiFS were similar. Data courtesy Bryan Franz (NASA GSFC). Angular weighting functions of commercial backscattering sensors WET Labs ECO-BB, ECO-NTU, and MCOMS and IMO-SC6 (see text) are overlaid after scaling by 5 × 106. Full article ">Figure 2
Spectral dependency of the fL shape function at different θs’. Thin lines are solved fL functions for each θs′ for the synthetic data set and stars are from the model approximation with constant shape described by <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>f</mi> <mrow> <mi>L</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>a</mi> <mi>v</mi> <mi>e</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mi>λ</mi> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </semantics> </math> in Equation (30). Full article ">Figure 3
rrs derived from the ZTT model with the synthetic data set compared to rrs simulated using Hydrolight (HL): (A) fL optimized spectrally (i.e., Equation (31) for the synthetic data set with Fournier-Forand phase functions individually determined for each [Chl]; (B) fL optimized spectrally for the synthetic data set with constant Pbb,ST(ψ) (see text); and (C) fL set to 1.05 with constant Pbb,ST(ψ). Colors represent wavelengths, from 400 to 700 nm with gray used for 350 < λ < 400 nm and 700 < λ < 800 nm. Full article ">Figure 4
rrs computed from (A) ZTT, (B) ZTT with <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mover accent="true"> <mi>b</mi> <mo>˜</mo> </mover> <mrow> <mi>b</mi> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </semantics> </math> fixed at 0.006, (C) M02, and (D) L11 models, compared to measured rrs in the high quality validation data set from Tonizzo et al. [<a href="#B29-applsci-08-02684" class="html-bibr">29</a>]. Note L11 does not account for Raman scattering. Chlorophyll input for M02 was derived from spectral absorption using the Nardelli and Twardowski [<a href="#B78-applsci-08-02684" class="html-bibr">78</a>] line height algorithm. MAPE %δabs was 16%, 17%, 21%, and 21%, in A through D, respectively. Full article ">Figure 5
Phase functions in the backward direction used to assess the ZTT model. “ST2009” is Pbb,ST(ψ) from [<a href="#B26-applsci-08-02684" class="html-bibr">26</a>] with the assumption Pbb,ST(ψ > 170°) = Pbb,ST(170°); “Morel” is from Morel et al. [<a href="#B7-applsci-08-02684" class="html-bibr">7</a>] with endmember populations dominated by small and large particles also shown; “Measured” were directly measured; and “FF” are Fournier-Forand phase functions Pbb,FF(ψ,<math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mover accent="true"> <mi>b</mi> <mo>˜</mo> </mover> <mrow> <mi>b</mi> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </semantics> </math>) derived from measured <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mover accent="true"> <mi>b</mi> <mo>˜</mo> </mover> <mrow> <mi>b</mi> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </semantics> </math> following [<a href="#B67-applsci-08-02684" class="html-bibr">67</a>]. Full article ">Figure 6
As in <a href="#applsci-08-02684-f004" class="html-fig">Figure 4</a>, but for the NASA NOMAD data set containing a, bb, rrs, and [Chl]. MAPE %δabs were 20%, 23%, 25%, and 26% in (A–D), respectively. Full article ">Figure 7
Comparing measured bb/a to results of inverting ZTT using least-squares minimization individually at each wavelength. Water Raman effects were removed before applying the ZTT model. Full article ">

17 pages, 3541 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Measuring and Modeling the Polarized Upwelling Radiance Distribution in Clear and Coastal Waters

by Arthur C. R. Gleason, Kenneth J. Voss, Howard R. Gordon, Michael S. Twardowski and Jean-François Berthon

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(12), 2683; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8122683 - 19 Dec 2018

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3071

Abstract

The upwelling spectral radiance distribution is polarized, and this polarization varies with the optical properties of the water body. Knowledge of the polarized, upwelling, bidirectional radiance distribution function (BRDF) is important for generating consistent, long-term data records for ocean color because the satellite [...] Read more.

The upwelling spectral radiance distribution is polarized, and this polarization varies with the optical properties of the water body. Knowledge of the polarized, upwelling, bidirectional radiance distribution function (BRDF) is important for generating consistent, long-term data records for ocean color because the satellite sensors from which the data are derived are sensitive to polarization. In addition, various studies have indicated that measurement of the polarization of the radiance leaving the ocean can used to determine particle characteristics (Tonizzo et al., 2007; Ibrahim et al., 2016; Chami et al., 2001). Models for the unpolarized BRDF (Morel et al., 2002; Lee et al., 2011) have been validated (Voss et al., 2007; Gleason et al., 2012), but variations in the polarization of the upwelling radiance due to the sun angle, viewing geometry, dissolved material, and suspended particles have not been systematically documented. In this work, we simulated the upwelling radiance distribution using a Monte Carlo-based radiative transfer code and measured it using a set of fish-eye cameras with linear polarizing filters. The results of model-data comparisons from three field experiments in clear and turbid coastal conditions showed that the degree of linear polarization (DOLP) of the upwelling light field could be determined by the model with an absolute error of ±0.05 (or 5% when the DOLP was expressed in %). This agreement was achieved even with a fixed scattering Mueller matrix, but did require in situ measurements of the other inherent optical properties, e.g., scattering coefficient, absorption coefficient, etc. This underscores the difficulty that is likely to be encountered using the particle scattering Mueller matrix (as indicated through the remote measurement of the polarized radiance) to provide a signature relating to the properties of marine particles beyond the attenuation/absorption coefficient. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Outstanding Topics in Ocean Optics)

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52 pages, 2733 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Progress in Forward-Inverse Modeling Based on Radiative Transfer Tools for Coupled Atmosphere-Snow/Ice-Ocean Systems: A Review and Description of the AccuRT Model

by Knut Stamnes, Børge Hamre, Snorre Stamnes, Nan Chen, Yongzhen Fan, Wei Li, Zhenyi Lin and Jakob Stamnes

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(12), 2682; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8122682 - 19 Dec 2018

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 4608

Abstract

A tutorial review is provided of forward and inverse radiative transfer in coupled atmosphere-snow/ice-water systems. The coupled system is assumed to consist of two adjacent horizontal slabs separated by an interface across which the refractive index changes abruptly from its value in air [...] Read more.

A tutorial review is provided of forward and inverse radiative transfer in coupled atmosphere-snow/ice-water systems. The coupled system is assumed to consist of two adjacent horizontal slabs separated by an interface across which the refractive index changes abruptly from its value in air to that in ice/water. A comprehensive review is provided of the inherent optical properties of air and water (including snow and ice). The radiative transfer equation for unpolarized as well as polarized radiation is described and solutions are outlined. Several examples of how to formulate and solve inverse problems encountered in environmental optics involving coupled atmosphere-water systems are discussed in some detail to illustrate how the solutions to the radiative transfer equation can be used as a forward model to solve practical inverse problems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Outstanding Topics in Ocean Optics)

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34 pages, 1633 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Fundamental Contribution of Phytoplankton Spectral Scattering to Ocean Colour: Implications for Satellite Detection of Phytoplankton Community Structure

by Lisl Robertson Lain and Stewart Bernard

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(12), 2681; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8122681 - 19 Dec 2018

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4598

Abstract

There is increasing interdisciplinary interest in phytoplankton community dynamics as the growing environmental problems of water quality (particularly eutrophication) and climate change demand attention. This has led to a pressing need for improved biophysical and causal understanding of Phytoplankton Functional Type (PFT) optical [...] Read more.

There is increasing interdisciplinary interest in phytoplankton community dynamics as the growing environmental problems of water quality (particularly eutrophication) and climate change demand attention. This has led to a pressing need for improved biophysical and causal understanding of Phytoplankton Functional Type (PFT) optical signals, in order for satellite radiometry to be used to detect ecologically relevant phytoplankton assemblage changes. Biophysically and biogeochemically consistent phytoplankton Inherent Optical Property (IOP) models play an important role in achieving this understanding, as the optical effects of phytoplankton assemblage changes can be examined systematically in relation to the bulk optical water-leaving signal. The Equivalent Algal Populations (EAP) model is used here to investigate the source and magnitude of size- and pigment- driven PFT signals in the water-leaving reflectance, as well as the potential to detect these using satellite radiometry. This model places emphasis on the determination of biophysically consistent phytoplankton IOPs, with both absorption and scattering determined by mathematically cogent relationships to the particle complex refractive indices. All IOPs are integrated over an entire size distribution. A distinctive attribute is the model’s comprehensive handling of the spectral and angular character of phytoplankton scattering. Selected case studies and sensitivity analyses reveal that phytoplankton spectral scattering is most useful and the least ambiguous driver of the PFT signal. Key findings are that there is the most sensitivity in phytoplankton backscatter (

b_{b ϕ}

) in the 1–6

μ

m size range; the backscattering-driven signal in the 520 to 570 nm region is the critical PFT identifier at marginal biomass, and that, while PFT information does appear at blue wavelengths, absorption-driven signals are compromised by ambiguity due to biomass and non-algal absorption. Low signal in the red, due primarily to absorption by water, inhibits PFT detection here. The study highlights the need to quantitatively understand the constraints imposed by phytoplankton biomass and the IOP budget on the assemblage-related signal. A proportional phytoplankton contribution of approximately 40% to the total

b_{b}

appears to a reasonable minimum threshold in terms of yielding a detectable optical change in

R_{r s}

. We hope these findings will provide considerable insight into the next generation of PFT algorithms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Outstanding Topics in Ocean Optics)

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23 pages, 4427 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling Sea Bottom Hyperspectral Reflectance

by Georges Fournier, Jean-Pierre Ardouin and Martin Levesque

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(12), 2680; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8122680 - 19 Dec 2018

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3292

Abstract

Over the near-ultraviolet (UV) and visible spectrum the reflectance from mineral compounds and vegetation is predominantly due to absorption and scattering in the bulk material. Except for a factor of scale, the radiative transfer mechanism is similar to that seen in murky optically [...] Read more.

Over the near-ultraviolet (UV) and visible spectrum the reflectance from mineral compounds and vegetation is predominantly due to absorption and scattering in the bulk material. Except for a factor of scale, the radiative transfer mechanism is similar to that seen in murky optically complex waters. We therefore adapted a semi-empirical algebraic irradiance model developed by Albert and Mobley to calculate the irradiance reflectance from both mineral compounds and vegetation commonly found on the sea bottom. This approach can be used to accurately predict the immersed reflectance spectra given the reflectance measured in air. When applied to mineral-based compounds or various types of marine vegetation, we obtain a simple two-parameter fit that accurately describes the key features of the reflectance spectra. The non-linear spectral combination effect as a function of the thickness of vegetation growing on a mineral substrate is then accounted for by a third parameter. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Outstanding Topics in Ocean Optics)

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6 pages, 977 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Anomalous Light Scattering by Pure Seawater

by Xiaodong Zhang and Lianbo Hu

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(12), 2679; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8122679 - 19 Dec 2018

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3201

Abstract

The latest model for light scattering by pure seawater was used to investigate the anomalous behavior of pure water. The results showed that water exhibits a minimum scattering at 24.6 °C, as compared to the previously reported values of minimum scattering at 22 [...] Read more.

The latest model for light scattering by pure seawater was used to investigate the anomalous behavior of pure water. The results showed that water exhibits a minimum scattering at 24.6 °C, as compared to the previously reported values of minimum scattering at 22 °C or maximum scattering at 15 °C. The temperature corresponding to the minimum scattering also increases with the salinity, reaching 27.5 °C for S = 40 psu. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Outstanding Topics in Ocean Optics)

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20 pages, 4404 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Concentrations of Multiple Phytoplankton Pigments in the Global Oceans Obtained from Satellite Ocean Color Measurements with MERIS

by Guoqing Wang, Zhongping Lee and Colleen B. Mouw

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(12), 2678; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8122678 - 19 Dec 2018

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4161

Abstract

The remote sensing of chlorophyll a concentration from ocean color satellites has been an essential variable quantifying phytoplankton in the past decades, yet estimation of accessory pigments from ocean color remote sensing data has remained largely elusive. In this study, we validated the [...] Read more.

The remote sensing of chlorophyll a concentration from ocean color satellites has been an essential variable quantifying phytoplankton in the past decades, yet estimation of accessory pigments from ocean color remote sensing data has remained largely elusive. In this study, we validated the concentrations of multiple pigments (Cpigs) retrieved from in situ and MEdium Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MERIS) measured remote sensing reflectance (R_rs(λ)) in the global oceans. A multi-pigment inversion model (MuPI) was used to semi-analytically retrieve Cpigs from R_rs(λ). With a set of globally optimized parameters, the accuracy of the retrievals obtained with MuPI is quite promising. Compared with High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) measurements near Bermuda, the concentrations of chlorophyll a, b, c ([Chl-a], [Chl-b], [Chl-c]), photoprotective carotenoids ([PPC]), and photosynthetic carotenoids ([PSC]) can be retrieved from MERIS data with a mean unbiased absolute percentage difference of 38%, 78%, 65%, 36%, and 47%, respectively. The advantage of the MuPI approach is the simultaneous retrievals of [Chl-a] and the accessory pigments [Chl-b], [Chl-c], [PPC], [PSC] from MERIS R_rs(λ) based on a closure between the input and output R_rs(λ) spectra. These results can greatly expand scientific studies of ocean biology and biogeochemistry of the global oceans that are not possible when the only available information is [Chl-a]. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Outstanding Topics in Ocean Optics)

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33 pages, 1064 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Characterization of the Light Field and Apparent Optical Properties in the Ocean Euphotic Layer Based on Hyperspectral Measurements of Irradiance Quartet

by Linhai Li, Dariusz Stramski and Mirosław Darecki

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(12), 2677; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8122677 - 19 Dec 2018

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3866

Abstract

Although the light fields and apparent optical properties (AOPs) within the ocean euphotic layer have been studied for many decades through extensive measurements and theoretical modeling, there is virtually a lack of simultaneous high spectral resolution measurements of plane and scalar downwelling and [...] Read more.

Although the light fields and apparent optical properties (AOPs) within the ocean euphotic layer have been studied for many decades through extensive measurements and theoretical modeling, there is virtually a lack of simultaneous high spectral resolution measurements of plane and scalar downwelling and upwelling irradiances (the so-called irradiance quartet). We describe a unique dataset of hyperspectral irradiance quartet, which was acquired under a broad range of environmental conditions within the water column from the near-surface depths to about 80 m in the Gulf of California. This dataset enabled the characterization of a comprehensive suite of AOPs for realistic non-uniform vertical distributions of seawater inherent optical properties (IOPs) and chlorophyll-a concentration (Chl) in the common presence of inelastic radiative processes within the water column, in particular Raman scattering by water molecules and chlorophyll-a fluorescence. In the blue and green spectral regions, the vertical patterns of AOPs are driven primarily by IOPs of seawater with weak or no discernible effects of inelastic processes. In the red, the light field and AOPs are strongly affected or totally dominated by inelastic processes of Raman scattering by water molecules, and additionally by chlorophyll-a fluorescence within the fluorescence emission band. The strongest effects occur in the chlorophyll-a fluorescence band within the chlorophyll-a maximum layer, where the average cosines of the light field approach the values of uniform light field, irradiance reflectance is exceptionally high approaching 1, and the diffuse attenuation coefficients for various irradiances are exceptionally low, including the negative values for the attenuation of upwelling plane and scalar irradiances. We established the empirical relationships describing the vertical patterns of some AOPs in the red spectral region as well as the relationships between some AOPs which can be useful in common experimental situations when only the downwelling plane irradiance measurements are available. We also demonstrated the applicability of irradiance quartet data in conjunction with Gershun’s equation for estimating the absorption coefficient of seawater in the blue-green spectral region, in which the effects of inelastic processes are weak or negligible. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Outstanding Topics in Ocean Optics)

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19 pages, 3692 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Estimation of Suspended Matter, Organic Carbon, and Chlorophyll-a Concentrations from Particle Size and Refractive Index Distributions

by Jacopo Agagliate, Rüdiger Röttgers, Kerstin Heymann and David McKee

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(12), 2676; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8122676 - 19 Dec 2018

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4163

Abstract

Models of particle density and of organic carbon and chlorophyll-a intraparticle concentration were applied to particle size distributions and particle real refractive index distributions determined from flow cytometry measurements of natural seawater samples from a range of UK coastal waters. The models allowed [...] Read more.

Models of particle density and of organic carbon and chlorophyll-a intraparticle concentration were applied to particle size distributions and particle real refractive index distributions determined from flow cytometry measurements of natural seawater samples from a range of UK coastal waters. The models allowed for the estimation of suspended particulate matter, organic suspended matter, inorganic suspended matter, particulate organic carbon, and chlorophyll-a concentrations. These were then compared with independent measurements of each of these parameters. Particle density models were initially applied to a simple spherical model of particle volume, but generally overestimated independently measured values, sometimes by over two orders of magnitude. However, when the same density models were applied to a fractal model of particle volume, successful agreement was reached for suspended particulate matter and both inorganic and organic suspended matter values (RMS%E: 57.4%, 148.5%, and 83.1% respectively). Non-linear organic carbon and chlorophyll-a volume scaling models were also applied to a spherical model of particle volume, and after an optimization procedure achieved successful agreement with independent measurements of particulate organic carbon and chlorophyll-a concentrations (RMS%E: 45.6% and 51.8% respectively). Refractive index-based models of carbon and chlorophyll-a intraparticle concentration were similarly tested, and were also found to require a fractal model of particle volume to achieve successful agreement with independent measurements, producing RMS%E values of 50.2% and 45.2% respectively after an optimization procedure. It is further shown that the non-linear exponents of the volume scaling models are mathematically equivalent to the fractal dimensionality coefficients that link cell volume to mass concentration, reflecting the impact of non-uniform distribution of intracellular carbon within cells. Fractal models of particle volume are thus found to be essential to successful closure between results provided by models of particle mass, intraparticle carbon and chlorophyll content, and bulk measurements of suspended mass and total particulate carbon and chlorophyll when natural mixed particle populations are concerned. The results also further confirm the value of determining both size and refractive index distributions of natural particle populations using flow cytometry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Outstanding Topics in Ocean Optics)

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19 pages, 4420 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Control Requirements for Future Gas Turbine-Powered Unmanned Drones: JetQuads

by Soheil Jafari, Seyed Alireza Miran Fashandi and Theoklis Nikolaidis

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(12), 2675; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8122675 - 19 Dec 2018

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5564

Abstract

The next generation of aerial robots will be utilized extensively in real-world applications for different purposes: Delivery, entertainment, inspection, health and safety, photography, search and rescue operations, fire detection, and use in hazardous and unreachable environments. Thus, dynamic modeling and control of drones [...] Read more.

The next generation of aerial robots will be utilized extensively in real-world applications for different purposes: Delivery, entertainment, inspection, health and safety, photography, search and rescue operations, fire detection, and use in hazardous and unreachable environments. Thus, dynamic modeling and control of drones will play a vital role in the growth phase of this cutting-edge technology. This paper presents a systematic approach for control mode identification of JetQuads (gas turbine-powered quads) that should be satisfied simultaneously to achieve a safe and optimal operation of the JetQuad. Using bond graphs as a powerful mechatronic tool, a modular model of a JetQuad including the gas turbine, electric starter, and the main body was developed and validated against publicly available data. Two practical scenarios for thrust variation as a function of time were defined to investigate the compatibility and robustness of the JetQuad. The simulation results of these scenarios confirmed the necessity of designing a compatibility control loop, a stability control loop, and physical limitation control loops for the safe and errorless operation of the system. A control structure with its associated control algorithm is also proposed to deal with future challenges in JetQuad control problems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gas Turbine Engine - towards the Future of Power)

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11 pages, 266 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Estimation of Association between Healthcare System Efficiency and Policy Factors for Public Health

by Seunggyu Lee and Changhee Kim

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(12), 2674; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8122674 - 19 Dec 2018

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 5468

Abstract

Objective: To assess the association between the healthcare system’s efficiency and policy factors (the types of healthcare systems and various health policy indicators). Methods: In this study, a data envelopment analysis (DEA) with bootstrapping was applied to the healthcare system’s efficiency to correct [...] Read more.

Objective: To assess the association between the healthcare system’s efficiency and policy factors (the types of healthcare systems and various health policy indicators). Methods: In this study, a data envelopment analysis (DEA) with bootstrapping was applied to the healthcare system’s efficiency to correct the bias of efficiency scores and to rank countries appropriately. We analyzed data mainly from the OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development) Health Data from 2014. After obtaining the efficiency score result, we analyzed which policy factor caused the inefficiency of the healthcare system by Tobit Regression. Results: Based on five types of healthcare system classification, the result suggested that the social health insurance (e.g., Austria, Germany, Switzerland) showed the lowest efficiency score on average when compared to other types of systems, but evidence of a statistically significant difference in healthcare efficiency among four types of healthcare systems was not found. It was shown that the pure technological efficiency of the healthcare system was negatively influenced by two main factors: user choice for basic insurance coverage and degree of decentralization to sub-national governments. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that countries with relatively low healthcare system efficiency may learn from countries that implement policies related to a low level of user choice and a high level of centralization to achieve more economical allocation of their healthcare resources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Data Analytics in Smart Healthcare)

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Appl. Sci., Volume 8, Issue 12 (December 2018) – 371 articles

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