Characterization of the Light Field and Apparent Optical Properties in the Ocean Euphotic Layer Based on Hyperspectral Measurements of Irradiance Quartet
<p>Location of stations in the Gulf of California where underwater radiometric and ancillary measurements were made. Circles indicate the station sites in 2010 and squares in 2011. Optical measurements were made at four, three, and four stations in the Guaymas, Carmen, and Farallon Basins, respectively. Stars indicate two stations where the absorption and beam attenuation measurements with an ac-9 instrument were made in 2011.</p> "> Figure 2
<p>Vertical profiles of water temperature <span class="html-italic">T</span>, density anomaly <span class="html-italic">σ</span>, chlorophyll-<span class="html-italic">a</span> concentration <span class="html-italic">Chl</span>, and beam attenuation coefficient of particles at 660 nm <span class="html-italic">c<sub>p</sub></span>(660) measured at two contrasting stations. (<b>a</b>) Station in the Guaymas Basin (27.54° N, 111.64° W) with lower <span class="html-italic">Chl</span> and <span class="html-italic">c<sub>p</sub></span> and smaller solar zenith angle of ~5° and (<b>b</b>) station in the Farallon Basin (25.28° N, 109.58° W) with higher <span class="html-italic">Chl</span> and <span class="html-italic">c<sub>p</sub></span> and larger solar zenith angle of ~57°.</p> "> Figure 3
<p>The instrument package used to measure the irradiance quartet and upwelling radiance. As shown, the five radiometric sensors are aligned to the same depth level.</p> "> Figure 4
<p>Spectra and vertical profiles of the irradiance quartet, <span class="html-italic">E<sub>d</sub></span> (<b>a</b>,<b>e</b>), <span class="html-italic">E<sub>od</sub></span> (<b>b</b>,<b>f</b>), <span class="html-italic">E<sub>u</sub></span> (<b>c</b>,<b>g</b>), and <span class="html-italic">E<sub>ou</sub></span> (<b>d</b>,<b>h</b>), measured at the station in the Guaymas Basin shown in <a href="#applsci-08-02677-f002" class="html-fig">Figure 2</a>a. In panels (<b>a</b>–<b>d</b>) different colors represent the measurement depths as indicated in (<b>a</b>). In (<b>e</b>–<b>h</b>) different colors and symbols represent selected light wavelengths as indicated in (<b>e</b>).</p> "> Figure 5
<p>Spectra and vertical profiles of average cosines of underwater light field, <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mover accent="true"> <mi>μ</mi> <mo>¯</mo> </mover> <mi>d</mi> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> (<b>a</b>,<b>e</b>), <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mover accent="true"> <mi>μ</mi> <mo>¯</mo> </mover> <mi>u</mi> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> (<b>b</b>,<b>f</b>) and <math display="inline"><semantics> <mover accent="true"> <mi>μ</mi> <mo>¯</mo> </mover> </semantics></math> (<b>c</b>,<b>g</b>) as well as irradiance reflectance, <span class="html-italic">R</span> (<b>d</b>,<b>h</b>), derived from the irradiance quartet for Guaymas Basin shown in <a href="#applsci-08-02677-f004" class="html-fig">Figure 4</a>. In panels (<b>a</b>–<b>d</b>) different colors represent depths as indicated in (<b>a</b>). The black arrow in (<b>d</b>) indicates a spectral feature caused by Raman scattering of water molecules. In (<b>e</b>–<b>h</b>) different colors and symbols represent light wavelengths as indicated in (<b>e</b>).</p> "> Figure 6
<p>Spectra and vertical profiles of diffuse attenuation coefficients, <span class="html-italic">K<sub>d</sub></span> (<b>a</b>,<b>e</b>), <span class="html-italic">K<sub>od</sub></span> (<b>b</b>,<b>f</b>), <span class="html-italic">K<sub>u</sub></span> (<b>c</b>,<b>g</b>), and <span class="html-italic">K<sub>ou</sub></span> (<b>d</b>,<b>h</b>), derived from the irradiance quartet for Guaymas Basin in <a href="#applsci-08-02677-f004" class="html-fig">Figure 4</a>. In panels (<b>a</b>–<b>d</b>) different colors represent the mid-point depths of the layers within which the <span class="html-italic">K</span> coefficients were determined as indicated in panel (<b>a</b>). Dashed lines represent the spectrum of pure water absorption coefficient, which is a theoretical minimum of <span class="html-italic">K</span> for a hypothetical case when no inelastic processes and true emission sources are present. In (<b>e</b>–<b>h</b>) different colors and symbols represent the light wavelengths as indicated in panel (<b>e</b>) and dashed lines represent pure water absorption at respective wavelengths.</p> "> Figure 7
<p>Vertical profiles of average cosines, irradiance reflectance, and diffuse attenuation coefficients for the station in the Farallon Basin shown in <a href="#applsci-08-02677-f002" class="html-fig">Figure 2</a>b. Data for <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mover accent="true"> <mi>μ</mi> <mo>¯</mo> </mover> <mi>d</mi> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> panel (<b>a</b>); <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mover accent="true"> <mi>μ</mi> <mo>¯</mo> </mover> <mi>u</mi> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> (<b>b</b>); <math display="inline"><semantics> <mover accent="true"> <mi>μ</mi> <mo>¯</mo> </mover> </semantics></math> (<b>c</b>); <span class="html-italic">R</span> (<b>d</b>); <span class="html-italic">K<sub>d</sub></span> (<b>e</b>); and <span class="html-italic">K<sub>u</sub></span> (<b>f</b>) are shown for selected light wavelengths as indicated in panel (<b>a</b>).</p> "> Figure 8
<p>(<b>a</b>) Relationship between <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mover accent="true"> <mi>μ</mi> <mo>¯</mo> </mover> <mi>d</mi> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> at selected light wavelengths as indicated and solar zenith angle <span class="html-italic">θ<sub>s</sub></span>. (<b>b</b>) Same as (<b>a</b>) but for <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mover accent="true"> <mi>μ</mi> <mo>¯</mo> </mover> <mi>u</mi> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math>. The presented data were collected at all stations within the top 10 m layer. For comparison, solid lines in (<b>a</b>,<b>b</b>) represent the relationship reported by Lewis et al. [<a href="#B29-applsci-08-02677" class="html-bibr">29</a>] and dashed lines by Aas and Højerslev [<a href="#B94-applsci-08-02677" class="html-bibr">94</a>]. Dotted line in (<b>a</b>) represents <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mover accent="true"> <mi>μ</mi> <mo>¯</mo> </mover> <mi>d</mi> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> = cos(<span class="html-italic">θ<sub>sw</sub></span>) where <span class="html-italic">θ<sub>sw</sub></span> is the zenith angle of the refracted solar beam just beneath the ocean surface obtained from Snell’s law.</p> "> Figure 9
<p>Average cosines in the red spectral bands (650 and 683 nm) plotted as a function of depth <span class="html-italic">z</span> using data from all stations and depths. (<b>a</b>) <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mover accent="true"> <mi>μ</mi> <mo>¯</mo> </mover> <mi>d</mi> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math>(<span class="html-italic">z</span>, 650) (crosses) and <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mover accent="true"> <mi>μ</mi> <mo>¯</mo> </mover> <mi>d</mi> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> (<span class="html-italic">z</span>, 683) (open circles) vs. <span class="html-italic">z</span>. (<b>b</b>) Same as (<b>a</b>) but for <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mover accent="true"> <mi>μ</mi> <mo>¯</mo> </mover> <mi>u</mi> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math>. Data points surrounded by dotted lines in (<b>a</b>) are for the station in the Farallon Basin with the solar zenith angle significantly larger (~57°) than at other stations. Solid lines show the best-fit regression functions for the average cosines vs. depth.</p> "> Figure 10
<p>Relationships between average cosines based on measurements from all stations and depths. Data for (<b>a</b>) <math display="inline"><semantics> <mover accent="true"> <mi>μ</mi> <mo>¯</mo> </mover> </semantics></math> vs. <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mover accent="true"> <mi>μ</mi> <mo>¯</mo> </mover> <mi>d</mi> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> and (<b>b</b>) <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mover accent="true"> <mi>μ</mi> <mo>¯</mo> </mover> <mi>u</mi> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> vs. <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mover accent="true"> <mi>μ</mi> <mo>¯</mo> </mover> <mi>d</mi> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> are shown for selected light wavelengths as indicated in panel (<b>a</b>). In (<b>a</b>) data points for the blue and green (440 nm and 550 nm) were combined to determine the best-fit regression function (blue line) and data points for the red (650 nm and 683 nm) were combined to determine the best-fit regression function (red line).</p> "> Figure 11
<p>Irradiance reflectance <span class="html-italic">R</span> in the red spectral bands (650 and 683 nm as indicated) plotted as a function of depth <span class="html-italic">z</span> using data from all stations and depths. Solid lines represent the best-fit regression functions.</p> "> Figure 12
<p>Diffuse attenuation coefficients in the red spectral bands (650 and 683 nm) plotted as a function of depth <span class="html-italic">z</span> using data from all stations and depths. (<b>a</b>) <span class="html-italic">K<sub>d</sub></span>(<span class="html-italic">z</span>, 650) (crosses) and <span class="html-italic">K<sub>d</sub></span>(<span class="html-italic">z</span>, 683) (open circles) vs. <span class="html-italic">z</span>. (<b>b</b>) Same as (<b>a</b>) but for <span class="html-italic">K</span><sub>u</sub>. Solid lines represent the best-fit regression functions.</p> "> Figure 13
<p>Relationships between diffuse attenuation coefficients based on measurements from all stations and depths. (<b>a</b>) <span class="html-italic">K<sub>u</sub></span> vs. <span class="html-italic">K<sub>d</sub></span>; (<b>b</b>) <span class="html-italic">K<sub>E</sub></span> vs. <span class="html-italic">K<sub>d</sub></span>; (<b>c</b>) <span class="html-italic">K<sub>o</sub></span> vs. <span class="html-italic">K<sub>d</sub></span>. (<b>d</b>) <span class="html-italic">K<sub>dPAR</sub></span> vs. <span class="html-italic">K<sub>d</sub></span>; (<b>e</b>) <span class="html-italic">K<sub>oPAR</sub></span> vs. <span class="html-italic">K<sub>dPAR</sub></span>; and (<b>f</b>) <span class="html-italic">K<sub>u</sub></span> vs. <span class="html-italic">K<sub>Lu</sub></span>. In (<b>a</b>–<b>c</b>,<b>f</b>), different symbols represent data at different light wavelengths as indicated. In (<b>d</b>) symbols indicate the relationships between <span class="html-italic">K<sub>oPAR</sub></span>(<span class="html-italic">z</span>) and different <span class="html-italic">K</span>-coefficients as indicated, including the relationship between <span class="html-italic">K<sub>oPAR</sub></span>(<span class="html-italic">z</span>) and [<span class="html-italic">K<sub>d</sub></span>(<span class="html-italic">z</span>, 490) + <span class="html-italic">K<sub>d</sub></span>(<span class="html-italic">z</span>, 550)]/2. The best fit regression functions (solid lines) are shown for (<b>a</b>) data at 440 nm and 550 nm analyzed separately, (<b>b</b>,<b>c</b>) combined data at 440 nm, 550 nm, and 650 nm, (<b>d</b>) data of <span class="html-italic">K<sub>oPAR</sub></span>(<span class="html-italic">z</span>) vs. [<span class="html-italic">K<sub>d</sub></span>(<span class="html-italic">z</span>, 490) + <span class="html-italic">K<sub>d</sub></span>(<span class="html-italic">z</span>, 550)]/2, and (<b>e</b>,<b>f</b>) all data displayed in these panels. Dashed lines represent the 1:1 agreement between the variables.</p> "> Figure 14
<p>Comparison of the absorption coefficient of seawater measured with an ac-9 instrument (<span class="html-italic">a<sub>ac9</sub></span>) and estimated from AOPs using the irradiance quartet measurements and Gershun’s equation (<span class="html-italic">a<sub>AOP</sub></span>). (<b>a</b>) Spectra of absorption coefficient at depths for which the determinations of <span class="html-italic">K<sub>E</sub></span> were made on the basis of radiometric measurements taken at one station in the Carmen Basin where ac-9 measurements were made during the 2011 cruise. The vertical dotted line indicates the transition region to long-wavelength portion of the spectrum where the use of Gershun’s is inadequate because of the effects of inelastic processes. (<b>b</b>) Vertical profiles of absorption coefficient measured with the ac-9 instrument (solid lines) and estimated from AOPs (dashed lines) at selected light wavelengths as indicated. Data were collected at the same station as in panel (<b>a</b>). (<b>c</b>) Direct comparison between <span class="html-italic">a<sub>AOP</sub></span> and <span class="html-italic">a<sub>ac9</sub></span> at selected blue and green spectral bands as indicated. Data were collected at one station in the Guaymas Basin and one station in the Carmen Basin where ac-9 measurements were made during the 2011 cruise. (<b>d</b>) Relationship between <span class="html-italic">K<sub>E</sub></span>·<math display="inline"><semantics> <mover accent="true"> <mi>μ</mi> <mo>¯</mo> </mover> </semantics></math> and <span class="html-italic">K<sub>d</sub></span>·<math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mover accent="true"> <mi>μ</mi> <mo>¯</mo> </mover> <mi>d</mi> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> for the blue-green spectral regions based on data at the three selected light wavelengths as indicated. Solid lines in (<b>c</b>,<b>d</b>) represent the best-fit regression functions and dashed lines the 1:1 agreement between the variables.</p> ">
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. CTD Measurements
2.3. Chlorophyll-a Concentration
2.4. Radiometric Quantities and Apparent Optical Properties
2.5. Absorption and Beam Attenuation Coefficients
2.6. Regression Analysis
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Contrasting Examples of Light Field Characteristics and AOPs
3.2. Overall Variability and Relationships Involving the Apparent Optical Properties
3.2.1. Average Cosines
3.2.2. Irradiance Reflectance
3.2.3. Diffuse Attenuation Coefficients
(r2 = 0.908, RMSE = 0.010 m−1, N = 54).
3.3. Application of Gershun’s Equation
4. Summary
Author Contributions
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Symbol | Description | Units |
---|---|---|
λ | Light wavelength in vacuum | nm |
z | Depth in water | m |
θs | Solar zenith angle | degree |
a | Absorption coefficient | m−1 |
b | Scattering coefficient | m−1 |
c | Beam attenuation coefficient (sum of a and b) | m−1 |
Lu | Spectral upwelling radiance at zenith direction | W m−2 sr−1 nm−1 |
Ed, Eu | Spectral downwelling and upwelling plane irradiances | W m−2 nm−1 |
Eo, Eod, Eou | Spectral total, downwelling, and upwelling scalar irradiances | W m−2 nm−1 |
Kx | Diffuse attenuation coefficients for irradiance or radiance x | m−1 |
, , | Average cosines of total, down- and upwelling light fields | dimensionless |
R | Irradiance reflectance | dimensionless |
Chl | Chlorophyll-a concentration | mg m−3 |
Subscripts | ||
w | Water | |
p | Suspended particulate matter | |
g | Colored dissolved organic matter (CDOM) |
Depth of Measurement | Shallowest | Greatest | Chl Maximum |
---|---|---|---|
z (m) | 5.4 ± 2.9 | 64.9 ± 12.1 | 33.0 ± 9.9 |
(1.2, 10.5) | (47.6, 80.7) | (20.4, 50.5) | |
Chl (mg m−3) | 0.067 ± 0.067 | 0.13 ± 0.15 | 0.81 ± 0.54 |
(0.005, 0.24) | (0.004, 0.42) | (0.25, 2.17) | |
cp(660) (m−1) | 0.173 ± 0.035 | 0.089 ± 0.048 | 0.239 ± 0.076 |
(0.103, 0.238) | (0.043, 0.202) | (0.125, 0.405) | |
Solar zenith angle θs (degrees) | 0.5–57.1 | ||
Euphotic depth zeu (m) | 40.5 ± 8.9 | ||
(29.3, 60.0) |
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Li, L.; Stramski, D.; Darecki, M. Characterization of the Light Field and Apparent Optical Properties in the Ocean Euphotic Layer Based on Hyperspectral Measurements of Irradiance Quartet. Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 2677. https://doi.org/10.3390/app8122677
Li L, Stramski D, Darecki M. Characterization of the Light Field and Apparent Optical Properties in the Ocean Euphotic Layer Based on Hyperspectral Measurements of Irradiance Quartet. Applied Sciences. 2018; 8(12):2677. https://doi.org/10.3390/app8122677
Chicago/Turabian StyleLi, Linhai, Dariusz Stramski, and Mirosław Darecki. 2018. "Characterization of the Light Field and Apparent Optical Properties in the Ocean Euphotic Layer Based on Hyperspectral Measurements of Irradiance Quartet" Applied Sciences 8, no. 12: 2677. https://doi.org/10.3390/app8122677