Sokol

The present book Associations in Silesia and their life in the light of preserved artefacts intends to acquaint the general public with the phenomenon of associations and their development on the historical territories of Austrian Silesia (with a few exceptions) from the beginning of the 19th century up to the year 1938. Public associations and their activities remained an integral part in social life of towns and communities of particular geographic areas, which becomes evident from preserved artefacts, works of art and academic writings described in this publication. The book is also designed as a catalogue guide to an exhibition prepared under the same title by the Silesian Museum in 2016. It should serve both as an extended comprehensive guide to the exhibition project, and a report on newly obtained or sporadically quoted material sources. Attention of the authors is rather paid to the collection of various objects of interest connected with the activities of associations rather than to a systematic presentation of individual associations and their history. Concrete associations were chosen, besides the above mentioned time and space delimitation, with regards to whether artefacts relating to the individual types of associations had been preserved and, last but not least, with regards to their present physical state.

Sokolstvo se je na Slovenskem uveljavilo v obdobju do prve svetovne vojne kot pomembna narodno – obrambna organizacija temelječa na Tryševem telovadnem sestavu in nacionalni ideji. Po prvi svetovni vojni se je slovensko sokolstvo leta 1919 združilo s hrvaškimi in srbskimi Sokoli v Jugoslovansko sokolsko zvezo, utemeljeno na unitarističnem nacionalnem načelu: en narod, ena država, eno sokolstvo. V dvajsetih letih je narodno – obrambni koncept sokolskega dela zamenjalo kulturno in državotvorno delo za jugoslovansko državo in jugoslovanstvo, medtem ko je del hrvaških Sokolov 1921 izstopil iz nove organizacije. Sokolstvo je sokoliziralo telesno vzgojo, na tekmovalnem področju pa je bilo Sokolstvo po tekmovalni uspešnosti osrednja organizacija v novi državi in njen promotor, saj so bile vse osvojene olimpijske medalje plod sokolskih nastopov. Tekmovalni uspehi so bili nadaljevanje dobre strokovne šole, ki jo je že v predvojnem obdobju postavil Viktor Murnik, resda pa so se uspehi v tridesetih letih ob generacijski menjavi in nenastopanju na mednarodnih tekmovanjih v prvi polovici tridesetih let deloma zaustavili.
Nastop šestojanuarske diktature leta 1929 ni zaobšel telesnovzgojnega področja in telovadnih organizacij. Nasprotno, telesna vzgoja je bila za kralja Aleksandra, nosilca šestojanuarske diktature, pomembno področje zbiranja  naroda in njegovega jugoslovaniziranja, oziroma je bila pomembno področje  promocije in indoktrinacije politike integralnega jugoslovanstva. Oblast je korenito posegla na področje telesne vzgoje in razpustila vse dotedanje telovadne organizacije ter v začetku decembra 1929 sprejela zakon o Sokolu kraljevine Jugoslavije (SKJ) in postavilo za starosto prestolonaslednika kraljeviča Petra. V novo organizacijo je prestopila celotna Jugoslovanska sokolska zveza.
Sokolstvo je imelo veliko oporo v kralju Aleksandru in vladajoči oblasti. Po atentatu na Aleksandra in nastopu vlade Milana Stojadinovića 1935, v kateri je notranji minister postal Anton Korošec, so se razmere spremenile in Sokolstvo je moralo v drugi polovici tridesetih let braniti svoje pozicije. Ostalo je na poziciji slovanstva in jugoslovanstva, delo pa se je koceptualno usmerjalo na narodno – obrambni koncept, zlasti v času zaostrenih mednarodnih političnih dogodkov v letih pred začetkom druge svetovne vojne.  Prav tako je Sokolstvo podprlo državni udar v Jugoslaviji 27. marca 1941 ter bilo na čelu številnih proslav in povork organiziranih v znak podpore novi vladi in ustoličenju sokolskega staroste Petra II. za kralja Jugoslavije.

Avtor analizira spremembe v pogledih slovenskega katoliškega tabora na področje telesne vzgoje na prelomu iz 19. v 20. stoletje oziroma v obdobju t. i. delitve duhov in ostrega kulturnega boja. To je imelo za posledico nastanek katoliške telesnovzgojne organizacije Orel, ki se je v enem desetletju v mnogih segmentih, na čelu s številčnostjo, močno približala Sokolu. V prispevku je prikazan proces od pojava prvih konkretnih idej o lastni katoliški organizaciji do njene uresničitve in rasti pred prvo svetovno vojno. / CREATION OF THE SLOVENIAN CATHOLIC GYMNASTICS ORGANISATION OREL The author analyses changes in the views of the Slovenian Catholic camp with regard to physical education at the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries or, rather, in the period of the so-called "separation of spirits" and fierce cultural struggle. One of the consequences was the establishment of the Catholic gymnastics organisation Orel, which in the span of a decade came very close to its counterpart Sokol in many aspects, including its numerical strength. The contribution describes the process from the first concrete notions about establishing their own Catholic organisation to its materialisation and growth before the First World War.

Grad  Otočac  (lat.  Bivium)  se  nalazi  u  Gackoj  dolini,  smještenoj
između  Velebita  i  Male  Kapele,  kroz  koju  protječe  rijeka  Gacka.
Administrativno se nalazi u Ličko-senjskoj županiji, te se sastoji od 22
naselja:  Brlog,  Brloška  Dubrava,  Čovići,  Dabar,  Doljani,  Drenov
Klanac, Glavace, Gorići, Hrvatsko Polje, Kompolje, Kuterevo, Ličko
Lešće,  Lipovlje,  Otočac,  Podum,  Ponori,  Prozor,  Ramljani,  Sinac,
Staro Selo, Škare i Švica.

В статье рассматривается проблематика русской эмиграции в межвоенной Латвийской Республике. Основное внимание в статье уделено благотворительной деятельности наиболее популярных русских молодежных организаций в межвоенной Латвии, коими являлись дружины русских скаутов, организации движения “Русский сокол”, отделения Русского студенческого православного единения, Союз молодых женщин, а также русские студенческие организации. Часть организаций была основана в имперский период, другие общества, характерные для стран русского рассеяния, развили деятельность в независимой Латвии, сохранив и приумножив традиции благотворительности, исконно присущие русским общественным объединениям. При написании статьи использовались документы Латвийского государственного исторического архива, материалы архивов различных организаций, русская и латышская периодика, воспоминания и историческая научная литература.

Ключевые слова: Русские в межвоенной Латвийской Республике, русская эмиграция, русские молодежные организации, Русский Сокол, русские Скауты, РСХД, русские студенческие корпорации
Статья подготовлена в рамках проекта Латвийского университета “Летоника, диаспора и межкультурное взаимодействие” и субпроекта “Территория Латвии как зона пересечений культурных пространств, религий, социальных и экономических интересов с доисторических времен до наших дней.” Номер проекта: Nr. AAP2016/B060

Avtor v prispevku osvetljuje proces postavitve sokolskega telovadišča in doma telovadnega društva Sokol I na ljubljanskem Taboru, ki je potekal v obdobju med svetovnima vojnama. Pri tem se je drugo ljubljansko sokolsko društvo že od samega začetka soočalo s precejšnjimi težavami, katerih izvor je bila predvsem politika. Kljub preprekam pa je z domom Ljubljana dobila takrat največji sokolski dom v državi in še eno delo v nizu mojstrovin arhitekta Ivana Vurnika. / SOKOL GYMNASTICS CENTRE AND SOKOL I GYMNASIUM AT TABOR In this article, the author sheds light on the process of constructing the Sokol gymnasium and the seat of the gymnastics society Sokol I at Tabor, Ljubljana, which took place in the interwar period. In doing so, the second Sokol society in Ljubljana had from the very start faced significant problems, most of which were of political nature. Despite the obstacles, Ljubljana eventually obtained what was at the time the biggest Sokol gymnastics centre in the country, as well as one of many architectural masterpieces designed by Ivan Vurnik.

The establishment of the national gymnastic organisation
Južni Sokol (Southern Falcon) in Ljubljana in 1863 gave rise
to a fully-fledged movement whose extent and activities
would, in the decades to follow, go beyond the realm of
physical culture in Slovenia, and influence society at large.
The organisation focused on both physical and mental
education of the individual as a single part in the mosaic of
society and nation which, in order to survive in the turbulent
world, must continuously strengthen itself. If the struggle for
Slovenehood and Slavhood in Austria-Hungary was difficult,
it seemed that the founding of the Yugoslav state meant a
long-standing dream had been achieved. However, Sokol’s
task had not been accomplished, as it would ultimately
never be: it was only that the organisation was given a
broader (i.e., Yugoslav) framework that, however, meant
new challenges and problems. Until 1930, the Yugoslav
Sokol was managed from Ljubljana, its strongest unit in
the entire state. It, therefore, comes as no surprise that
in 1922 it had the honour of organising the first Yugoslav
all-Sokol rally, accompanied by the world championship
in gymnastics. Requiring considerable efforts in terms of
finance, personnel, and organisation, both events were
carried out superbly, as evidenced by various archives,
memoirs, newspapers, and photographs, along with
numerous objects, which are now featured in museum
showcases and storerooms. The related exhibits are kept
by a number of Slovenian museums, including the Sports
Museum, which takes care of a number of well-preserved
photographs of the rally itself and the accompanying events.
The museum also keeps several postcards issued on the
occasion of the rally, as well as a badge and a figurine by
Lojze Dolinar. The latter is a good example of connecting
arts and sports, which have always tended to be closely
related. The ceramic statuette of a seated muscular gymnast
shown deep in thought symbolises the physical and spiritual
power of the Sokol movement, which was also manifested in
both the successful rally and the performance of Slovenian
gymnasts in the championship. The model for the statuette
was Stane Derganc, a Sokol member himself, whose athletic
figure might have inspired several other works by Dolinar.
The sculptor also designed the badge and two statues
flanking the entrance into the majestic wooden stadium in
Ljubljana’s Bežigrad neighbourhood, which was constructed
specifically for this occasion and was the biggest of its kind
in Ljubljana and Slovenia.

1. oktobra 1863 je v Ljubljani potekal ustanovni občni zbor prvega slovenskega telovadnega društva, ki so ga ustanovi-telji poimenovali Južni Sokol. Akcija je stekla že v letu 1862, kmalu po organiziranju češkega telovadnega društva Sokol v Pragi. Južni Sokol je bil začetnik sokolskega gibanja na Slovenskem, množičnega civilnodružbenega gibanja, no-silca modernega sestava telesnih vaj, ki so ga obelodanili v prvem slovenskem strokovnem priročniku Nauk o telovadbi 1867. Slovenski sokoli so za razliko od marsikaterega evrop-skega okolja, ki je podobno dejavnost imenoval gimnastika, Nemci turnen, imenovali slovensko telovadba. O slovenski telovadni terminologiji so ljubljanski telovadci spregovorili že na ustanovnem občnem zboru, do realizacije pa potre-bovali nekaj let. V članku sledimo organiziranju in vprašanju zametka slovenskega izraza telovadba ter vprašanju, ali je bil povod organiziranju češki vpliv, kot se v slovenskih pisa-njih stereotipno navaja. Ključne besede: Južni Sokol, sokolstvo, telovadba, telesne vaje, gimnastika, E.H. Costa. Tomaž Pavlin »Dajati pobudo, priložnost in navad pravilnim telesnim vajam« (ob 150-let nici ustanovitve prvega sloven-skega telovadnega društva Južni Sokol) Južni Sokol, 1863. Foto: Arhiv Fakultete za šport.
On 1 October 1863 the founding general meeting of the first Slovenian gymnastics society was held in Ljubljana and the society was named "Južni Sokol" (Southern Sokol). Its activities started already in 1862, soon after the Czech gymnastics society "Sokol" was organised in Prague. Južni Sokol was the pioneer of the Sokol movement in Slovenian territory, a mass civil-society movement and the precursor of the modern set of physical exercise elements which was presented in the first Slovenian expert manual entitled "Nauk o telovadbi" (Lessons in Gymnastics) in 1867. The Slovenian Sokols, unlike many European nations which named a similar activity "gymnastics", with the Germans even using "turnen", named this activity with a Slovenian term "telovadba" (physi-cal exercise). The gymnasts from Ljubljana spoke about the Slovenian gymnastic terminology already at the founding general meeting, but needed several years to implement it. The article deals with the organisation of the activity and the origin of the Slovenian term "telovadba", and explores whether the motive for the organisation was the Czech model or influence, which is a stereotype often stated in the Slovenian literature.

Sokolstvo kot narodnoobrambno in telovadno gibanje je s svojo idejo in vzgojo po prvi svetovni vojni trčilo ob pozicije tradicionalnega vzgojitelja, Rimskokatoliške cerkve, in bilo vpeto v kulturni boj. Utemeljitelj sokolske ideje in telovadbe je bil Čeh Miroslav Tyrš, ki je načelne smernice in naloge sokolskega delovanja opredelil v članku Naša naloga, smer in cilj leta 1871. V članku avtor opredeli sokolsko vzgojo in sokolsko idejo na podlagi tega Tyrševega članka. V slovenskem sokolstvu je idejo uveljavil Viktor Murnik.
After World War I the so-called "Sokoli" (Falcons) as a national defence and gymnastic movement with its idea and education clashed with the positions of the traditional tutor - the Roman Catholic Church - and was thus involved in the cultural struggle. The founder of the Sokoli idea and gymnastic activities was Miroslav Tyrš, a Czech who defined the basic
guidelines and tasks of the Sokoli movement in his article Our Task, Direction and Goal, published in 1871. The author of the following contribution shall define the Sokoli education and idea on the basis of Tyrš's article. Within the Slovenian Sokoli movement, this idea was introduced by Viktor Murnik.

Jan Hus, the Hussites, and the Sokols: the Instrumentalisation of the Fifteenth-Century Events by Czech Nationalists and the Repercussions of these Actions in the Russian Empire (1862–1916)

В статье рассматривается конструирование образа Яна Гуса и гуситов чешскими националистами XIX в. как эффективный инструмент распространения и усиления приверженности к чешской идентичности. Значительную роль в этом конструировании сыграли представители сокольского движения. При этом последнее соединило в себе, по образцу немецких «Турнферайнов», национализм и гимнастику и постепенно получило широчайшее распространение в т.н. чешских землях монархии Габсбургов, а затем и за их пределами. Главной причиной особого отношения чешских гимнастов к «божьим воинам» был военный потенциал движения. Сокольский образ Гуса и гуситов мало отличался от основного направления чешского национализма и был тесно связан с представлениями о «чужих» (немцах и «клерикалах»), а также с идеалами эгалитаризма. «Соколы» пользовались широким набором практик конструирования событий XV в., включая, например, разведение костров в день казни Гуса и театральные постановки. В Российской империи «соколы» принимали участие в мероприятиях, в которых был задействован как чешский националистический образ Гуса и гуситов, так и российский, связанный с идеей славянской взаимности и православием.

The paper examines the construction of the image of Jan Hus and the Hussites by Czech nationalists in the 19th century as an effective tool of spreading the Czech identity and strengthening the commitment to it. The Sokol (Czech for a “falcon”) movement played a significant part in the construction of these images of Jan Hus and the Hussites. Like the German “Turnvereins”, which had served as a model for the Sokols, the movement combined nationalism with gymnastics and gradually spread throughout the so-called Czech lands (a part of the Habsburg Monarchy) and beyond. The main reason for the Sokols’ special interest in “God’s warriors” was their military potential. The Sokols’ image of Hus and the Hussites did not considerably differ from the one formed in the mainstream of Czech nationalism and included the notion of “the Other” (Germans and “Clericals”) and the egalitarianism. The Sokols used a wide range of practices to reconstruct the 15th-century events, including, for example, building of bonfires on the day of Hus’s execution and theatrical performances. In the Russian Empire, the Sokols took part in the events which employed the Czech nationalistic image of Hus and the Hussites as well as the Russian one. The latter implied the idea of Slavic reciprocity and the connection to the Orthodox Christianity.

Первые шаги сокольского движения в Москве (кон. XIX - нач. XX вв)

Beginnings of the Sokol Movement in Moscow (End of the 19th and Beginning of the 20th Century)

This article examines the history of the Moscow Sokol movement at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century. The Sokol movement in Russia is here conceived as an example of translating a cultural practice from a Central European to East European environment. The Sokol movement originated and evolved in the Czech lands under very different historical and social conditions than those of that time in Russia. Assimilation to the different environment necessarily required implementing certain modifications. A milestone for the Russian Sokol movement was the founding of the First Russian Gymnastics Society in Moscow in 1883, which gradually transformed into a genuine Sokol club. Certain personalities had a crucial influence upon these developments. Starting in 1891 František Olšaník was the leader of the gymnastic organization in Moscow, and Ferdinand Karel Šnepp took over after him in 1901. It was these two who introduced many of the truly Sokol elements into the Russian gymnastics organizations. However, they did not manage to impress upon them all of the characteristics of Czech Sokol, nor did the groups taking shape in Russia even bear the name of Sokol. The Krajanský Český kroužek [Czech Compatriots’ Club] that was founded in 1902 also still did not have the word Sokol in its name, though it had much in common with the Czech Sokol movement. The era of the Sokol movement’s heyday in Russia came after the revolution in 1905, and it was associated with social transformations and with neo-Slavism.

The article deals with Anton Mahnič’s attitude towards the gymnastic organisation Sokol at the end of the 19th century based on an analysis of his articles. It also presents Mahnič’s views on topics that are closely related to the question of physical education and are the basis of his criticism of the Sokol movement as well as the responses of the environment to these first attacks on the views of the organisation. The article also explains Mahnič’s changing attitude towards exercise and sport in general and presents his role in the Catholic physical education organisation Orel.

An outline of the terminology of gymnastics and sports, compiled after 1862 by M. Tyrš and his collaborators and used longer than 100 years within the Czech Sokol Sport Association (and in general, within the Czech physical culture and sport). The paper deals with influence of Tyrš´s terminology of gymnastics and sports on the Czech military terminology  and with the reflection of Sokol culture in the contemporary spoken Czech. Another topic is the influence of Tyrš´s terminology on the terminology of gymnastics and sports in Slovenian, Polish, Ukrainian and Bulgarian language.

Že pred dokončno »delitvijo duhov« v devetdesetih letih 19. stoletja, so se pojavljale kritike Sokola, predvsem na račun organizacije, narodne zavesti ipd., medtem ko je politično komponento dodal začetnik katoliškega preporoda Anton Mahnič. Sprva pri glavnih voditeljih katoliškega tabora, tudi že po začetku oblikovanja političnih društev oziroma strank, ni opaziti posebnega odklonilnega odnosa do Sokola, a hkrati je pojenjalo tudi navdušenje nad njim. Ta spreminjajoč odnos katoliškega tabora do sokolstva se nazorno pokaže skozi članke njihovega osrednjega časopisa Slovenec.

Medtem ko se je kulturni boj proti koncu 19. stoletja širil s političnega prizorišča na družbeno področje in začel vse bolj prepredati vse pedi vsakdanjega življenja, Sokol na telovadnem področju sprva še ni dobil katoliškega nasprotnika. Janez E. Krek je sicer z ustanovitvijo Planinskega Sokola leta 1896 skušal uresničiti misel katoliškega ljudskega Sokola, a z njegovim propadom, sklepi katoliških shodov, zaostrovanjem spora z liberalci, ki so dejansko imeli vodilni položaj v Sokolu, je tudi v katoliškem taboru počasi dozorela ideja po ustanovitvi lastne telesnokulturne organizacije. Ustanovitev katoliškega Orla je tudi na področje telesne kulture vpeljal neizprosen katoliško-liberalni boj, kateremu se Sokoli, kljub vsaj navideznemu upiranju (nekaterih) taki delitvi, niso mogli izogniti. Postavljeni so bili pred izvršeno dejstvo.

Kljub močni politični konotaciji pri sokolskem gibanju že od vsega začetka, nenazadnje so bili prvi borci za narodno prebujo večinoma javno znane osebe, ki so pustile pečat na svojem poklicnem področju in politiki, pa primeri kažejo, da na vsakdanje življenje preprostih ljudi politika ni vedno imela odločilne vloge. To velja tudi za telesnokulturna društva, v katere so se posamezniki, predvsem mladi, vključevali na podlagi različnih motivov in razlogov. Ti niso bili nujno povezani s političnim prepričanjem in ideološko pripadnostjo, temveč so bili lahko čisto osebne narave in stvar hipne odločitve v danih razmerah in okolju. Tako tudi spori med pripadniki telesnokulturnih organizacij niso bili nujno povezani s političnim dogajanjem, a jih je dnevna politika vseeno hitro izrabila za obračun z nasprotnikom.

SUMMARY
Even before the ultimate »division of souls« (the division of Christians into the fervently devoted and the »more liberal« by the Catholic Church) in the 1890s, criticism of Sokol had primarily been directed to its organisation, national awareness etc., whereas the political  component was added by the initiator of the Catholic renaissance, Anton Mahnič. Initially, the main leaders of Catholic circles did not express any opposition to Sokol, even when political societies and parties started to form, but their enthusiasm for Sokol soon started to wane. This changing attitude of the Catholic circles to the Sokol movement is clearly illustrated in articles published by their Slovenec newspaper.

While the cultural struggle close the end of the 19th century spread from the political arena to the social sphere and started to permeate every corner of daily life, Sokol did not have to face a catholic opponent in the domain of gymnastics. By establishing the »Planinski Sokol« in 1896, Janez E. Krek attempted to bring the idea of a Catholic people’s Sokol to life; after the latter fell apart and some resolutions were adopted by Catholic assemblies, along with the worsening of the dispute with those liberals who had held the leading positions in Sokol, the Catholic section realised it was time to establish its own physical-culture organisation. The establishment of the catholic »Orel« (Eagle) brought into the physical-culture arena a fierce Catholic-liberal struggle which the Sokols could not avoid, despite the at least ostensible disapproval of such a division by (some) members. They simply had to accept the fact.

Despite a strong political flavour in the Sokol movement from the outset – last but not least, the first fighters for the national awakening were largely public figures who had left an indelible mark on their profession and on politics – examples show that politics did not always play a decisive role in common people’s everyday lives. This is also true of the physical-cultural societies of which people, primarily the young, became members for various motives and reasons. These were not necessarily related to political belief or ideological belonging, but could be a completely personal or momentary decision in the given circumstances and environment. Thus, the disputes occurring between members of the physical-cultural organisations were not automatically related to political happenings, yet daily politics used them to pummel their opponents.

From its founding in 1863 until its disbanding in 1945, the Sokol movement in Slovenia had a long and interesting history. As the leading (liberal) physical education organisation of its time, it played an important sociopolitical role in the country. In keeping with both its liberal outlook and wider emancipatory tendencies, the Sokol movement started including women at an early stage: it saw them as having a vital part to play in the education of the nation, and in the early 20th century started including them as equals in the movement’s activities. Although
outnumbered by their male counterparts, the female Sokols included a higher proportion of gymnasts. Unlike male Sokols, who had had both gymnastic and ceremonial uniforms from the outset, females were not given ceremonial uniforms until the 1930s. Given that they were only in use for a decade or so, it is no wonder that only a small number of them have survived. The items that once belonged to the female Sokol Stanislava Makuc, which the Sports Museum acquired from Stanislava’s daughter, Bojana Savenc, are therefore very important for the preservation and study of Slovenian sports heritage. The items consist of a number of photographs plus incomplete female Sokol ceremonial and gymnastic uniforms, including a gymnastics t-shirt, a ceremonial jacket and the characteristic red blouse, all of which were used in the 1930s, when the owner held a number of important positions in the Maribor Sokol Society. Stanislava Makuc, whose family had moved to Maribor from the Goriška region during the first world war, was a primary
school teacher by profession. Both before and after the second world war, she mostly taught children with special needs. The war had a major impact on her personal life: her husband, Pavel Vošner, who was both a military officer and commander of the Sokol Legion, was sentenced to death after fighting against the partisans in the Battle of Grčarice in 1943. Despite this, she was actively involved in physical education after the war and joined the Partisan Gymnastics Society in Hrastnik.

The Sokol was a gymnastic movement born in Prague in 1862, which transcended the realm of physical education and became a symbol of nation building. This article examines in depth how the press spread the popularity of Sokol in the capital of Spain (1921-1936). The aim is to observe its various identifying images and meanings. One of the main conclusions is that the Sokol model was presented during the Second Republic as an ideal metaphor of the national and territorial unification of the state. In contrast, by the 1920s, the Primo de Rivera regime perceived Sokol as a political threat.

El Sokol fue un movimiento gimnástico nacido en Praga en 1862 que trascendió el ámbito de la educación física y se convirtió en un símbolo de construcción nacional. Este artículo estudia en profundidad la difusión del Sokol en la prensa de la capital de España (1921-1936) con el fin de observar las diversas identificaciones. Una de las principales conclusiones es que el modelo Sokol fue presentado durante la Segunda República como la metáfora idealizada de la unificación nacional y territorial del Estado. En cambio, en los años veinte, para el régimen de Primo de Rivera el Sokol fue percibido como una amenaza.

The Sokol movement and Czech-Russian translation. В статье намечается исследовательская программа изучения истории сокольства в России. Чешско-русский перевод применительно к этому интересному явлению отнюдь не сводится только лишь к переводу ряда отдельных терминов и целых текстов с чешского на русский язык, его также можно понимать в значении трансфера культурной практики в среду с весьма отличными условиями общественной жизни. Изучение этого процесса позволяет взглянуть на процесс модернизации чешского и российского обществ во второй половине «долгого XIX века» в широкой компаративистской перспективе. Наконец, возвращаясь к узкому значению рассматриваемого понятия, переводу подлежали не только тексты «соколов», но и их визуальный образ и музыкальный стиль.

The Yugoslav Sokol movement was one of the most influential non-governmental organizations in the interwar Yugoslav Kingdom. In the course of the 1920s, it moved from an independent and idealistic organization which celebrated brotherhood between the South Slavs to being a still independent but Serb-centered organization whose version of Yugoslav integration pushed away Croats in particular. But it was only from 1929, when King Aleksandar’s royal dictatorship brought a reconstituted organization under direct state control, that it became a vehicle for official propaganda and an exponent of assimilating Serbs as well as non-Serbs under the banner of integral Yugoslavism. These efforts by the royal dictatorship in Belgrade from 1929 did not survive the king’s assassination in 1934. Helping to widen the political divide, particularly between Serbs and Croats, this official Sokol became a well-known focal point for Serb confrontation with non-Serb majorities in western and southern Yugoslavia. This article moves from the often neglected initial promise of the movement to concentrate on its role as a centerpiece in Aleksandar’s campaign to impose a Serbian-inspired Yugoslavism from Belgrade. And the centerpiece of that campaign was the all-Sokol rally organized at great expense and with great fanfare in Belgrade in 1930. This single event usefully illustrates the ambitions of the royal dictatorship to use Belgrade as a focal point for drawing the country together under a single authority.

The Yugoslav Sokol movement was one of the most influential non-governmental organizations in the interwar Yugoslav Kingdom. In the course of the 1920s, it moved from an independent and idealistic organization which celebrated brotherhood between the South Slavs to being a still independent but Serb-centered organization whose version of Yugoslav integration pushed away Croats in particular. But it was only from 1929, when King Aleksandar’s royal dictatorship brought a reconstituted organization under direct state control, that it became a vehicle for official propaganda and an exponent of assimilating Serbs as well as non-Serbs under the banner of integral Yugoslavism. These efforts by the royal dictatorship in Belgrade from 1929 did not survive the king’s assassination in 1934. Helping to widen the political divide, particularly between Serbs and Croats, this official Sokol became a well-known focal point for Serb confrontation with non-Serb majorities in western and southern Yugo...

Prezentowany tekst jest czwartym (ostatnim) felietonem z czteroodcinkowego cyklu poświęconego historii krakowskich Błoń - niezwykłej łąki wpisanej na listę zabytków. W tym odcinku pokryty jest okres od 1910 roku do dnia dzisiejszego. W tym okresie odbyły się na tej łące uroczystości z okazji 500. rocznicy bitwy pod Grunwaldem,  Błonia były też miejscem pokazów towarzystwa Sokół, które przyczyniło się do odzyskania niepodległości Polski. Ostatnie ważne wydarzenia na Błoniach wiązały się z wizytami w kraju papieża Jana Pawła II. Wcześniejsze odcinki cyklu też są dostępne w serwisie Academia.edu.