Lawrence Kohlberg

This essay proposes a detailed justification model that includes decision criteria beyond those of the widely used Potter Box.  The model's steps, which correspond to Kohlberg's stages of moral development, encourage journalists to examine the relative morality of their decisions on multiple levels.  These rationales include: 1) avoiding punishment and evaluating potential personal rewards, 2) identifying stakeholders, loyalties, and fair exchange, 3) weighing interpersonal expectations, 4) evaluating organizational policy, precedent and values, 5) conducting a cost-benefit analysis to determine the greatest good for the greatest number, and most importantly, 6) universalizing the decision through a caring response and just distribution of resources.

The rising number of scandals leading to the closure of many large companies is worrisome. The traditional belief is that business and ethics are oxymorons and one is not expected to be totally virtuous during business operations. Nonetheless, this does not mean ethical standards should be side-lined. Professional associations such as the Chartered Financial Institute (CFA) uphold moral values and urge members to exercise high moral standards and diligence in their duties. Philosophically, major accounting scandals could have been nipped in the bud by whistle blowing before the wrong deeds escalated. However whistle blowing is a major issue and is viewed as disloyalty. In this paper, the dilemmas of whistle blowing are evaluated using contemporary ethical theories which are: egoism, deontology and utilitarianism. The analysis shows that deontology and utilitarianism are based on altruism and may support whistle blowing because they are grounded on consideration of other people. It is worth noting that morally upright adults are often a result of being brought up as ethical children from a psychological standpoint.

Abstrak
Minimnya pengetahuan mengenai perkembangan moral menimbulkan beberapa penyimpangan moral di Indonesia. Dengan hal tersebut, dapat diciptakan sebuah tujuan, yaitu memperbaiki moral dengan mempelajari teori perkembangan moral, salah satunya adalah menurut Kohlberg. Metode yang digunakan dalam penulisan esai ini adalah metode kualitatif, yaitu mengumpulkan data sedalam-dalamnya dan menganalisisnya. Hasil menunjukkan dari total 10 responden dari masing-masing kalangan usia dari 18-46 tahun, 20% responden mengetahui tahapan tingkatan moral dan 80% lainnya tidak mengetahui tahapan tersebut. Hasil data yang diperoleh dengan permasalahan yang terjadi sangat berkaitan satu sama lain. Oleh karena itu, alangkah baiknya mengenalkan teori-teori perkembangan moral seperti menurut Kohlberg agar masyarakat dapat menentukan keputusan yang baik dan benar.

Abstract
Lack of knowledge about moral development raises some moral lapses in Indonesia. With it, can be created a moral purpose, i.e. fix by studying the theories of moral development, one of which was according to Kohlberg. The method used in the writing of this essay is qualitative method, i.e., collect data and analyze it profusely. The results show a total of 10 respondents from their respective ages of 18-46 years, 20% of respondents know the moral level stage and 80% did not know the stage. The results of data obtained with the problems occurred are much related to each other. Therefore, it would be nice to introduce theories of moral development as according to Kohlberg so that the public can determine good decisions and correct.

Esta obra aborda a Educação em Valores em jovens estudantes, mensurando sua presença e a forma de adesão no ambiente escolar. Apresenta teorias e conceitos de Educação Moral. Discorre sobre os valores morais: Respeito, Justiça, Solidariedade e Convivência Democrática. Trabalha o plano moral e o plano ético, propõe caminhos para uma educação democrática, relacionando os valores morais com o perfil dos jovens e o contexto escolar estudado; colabora com a reflexão de estudantes de Graduação em Pedagogia, de Psicologia, de docentes, de gestores, bem como, de instituições educacionais interessadas em ofertar uma Educação Integral para nossos jovens e crianças.

El presente artículo pretende realizar un acercamiento a los estudios sobre el razonamiento moral humano desarrollados por Lawrence Kohlberg[1] así como a la crítica realizada por parte de Carol Gilligan a dicho trabajo. Abordaremos pues, la teoría del desarrollo moral de Kohlberg, adentrándonos en los niveles morales preconvencional, convencional y postconvencional, con el objetivo de discernir si esta explicación evolutiva de la moralidad humana adquiere un carácter universal, o si por el contrario, se refiere a las estructuras morales de un grupo humano concreto. Más tarde, nos introduciremos en la crítica de Gilligan[2] hacia dichos niveles morales, haciendo hincapié en la necesidad de incorporar las particularidades contextuales en la noción de razonamiento moral para definir un nivel postconvencional contextualista, que nos permita confrontar las nociones de ética de la justicia y ética del cuidado.

Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987), kendisini Sokrat, Aristo, Platon, Kant, Mill, Dewey, Rawls ve Habermas'tan itibaren gelen Batı felsefesinin bilimsel vârisi olarak görmektedir. Kohlberg'in ahlak gelişim teorisi; bu geleneksel felsefi birikimden beslenen, aynı zamanda çağdaş görüşlerle zenginleşen güçlü bir temele dayanmaktadır. Felsefe, psikoloji, sosyoloji, antropoloji ve eğitim başta olmak üzere birçok alanı sentezleyen Kohlberg'in teorisinin gücü ve orijinalitesi de buradan kaynaklanmaktadır. Ancak Kohlberg'in ortaya koyduğu teorinin, istisnasız kabul görmediği, bizzat çağdaşları tarafından kendisine meydan okuyan ciddi eleştirilerle karşı karşıya kaldığı da bilinmektedir. Kohlberg, bir taraftan bu eleştirileri dikkate alarak teorisini revize ederken öte yandan eğitim alanında yaptığı çalışmalarla da ahlak eğitiminin çağdaş rönesansında en seçkin isimlerden biri olmuştur. Bu kitapta, ahlaka ilişkin çalışmaları ülkemizde çoğunlukla teorinin altı basamaklı yapısına indirgenen Kohlberg; hayatı, ahlak anlayışı, ahlak gelişim teorisi ve temelleri, ahlak gelişim teorisine yöneltilen eleştiriler, ahlak eğitimine ilişkin görüşleri ve uygulamaları gibi konular çerçevesinde bütüncül bir şekilde ele alınmıştır. Kohlberg'in ahlak çalışmalarına temel ve eleştirel bir bakış sunan bu kitabın, özellikle ahlak gelişimi ve eğitimi konularında yapılacak çalışmalara zemin sunması beklenmektedir.

Spiritual Development

    Traditional theology teaches that there are three stages in the spiritual life: the purgative, wherein one moves away from sin; the illuminative, wherein one grows in virtue; and the unitive, wherein one attains abiding union with God. This conception was never  meant to define discrete successive stages. At any time in one's spiritual journey, any of the three emphases—purgative, illuminative, or unitive—might take priority over the others, or in some way one may be at all the stages simultaneously. Or again, if strict succession was suggested, it was only that of "beginning, middle, and end."
   
The history of spirituality provides many accounts of the "scale" or "ladder" of perfection. Scattered throughout the voluminous writings of Augustine of Hippo alone are at least eight accounts of the path of spiritual development, most with seven stages and some with three, but all different.  Clearly those accounts intended a suggestive and inspirational presentation and not a strictly systematic one. Nonetheless, inherent in these and all conceptions of spirituality is the notion of a path, a journey, a process, a developmental sequence.
   
Contemporary psychology also speaks of the human in terms of development. But with the rigor of a methodical science, psychology attempts systematically to delineate the stages of that development. If spiritual development were conceived as human development viewed against a particular set of concerns, the stage theories of psychology could significantly contribute to defining systematic stages of spiritual development. Then spiritual development  would stand with other psychologically defined conceptions of human development: Piaget's cognitive development, Kohlberg’s moral development,  Fowler's faith development, and Loevinger’s ego development.

                                    Psychology, Theism, and Christianity
That is the hypothesis pursued in this essay.  Acceptance of that hypothesis necessitates separate treatment of the psychological and the theological questions.  Accordingly, Part I of this essay begins by critically reviewing the scant literature at this early date, 1987, that theoretically either treats spiritual development from a psychological point of view or attempts to integrate psychological developmental findings into theological concern for spiritual growth.  Borrowing on the reviewed literature, the second chapter of Part I develops an initial definition of spiritual development and a list of the distinctive factors that determine it in contrast to other specific facets of human development.  Next Chapter 3 presents an overview of current research on the stages of human development.  Although all conclusions in this domain remain tentative, according to the purposes of this essay, focus will be on the integrative position in James Fowler’s Stages of Faith and of the encyclopedic statement in Jane Loevinger’s Ego Development.  Insofar as developmental research hazards to suggest such a conclusion, the result is a sketch of the more or less currently determined lines and stages of human development within the populations studied.  Finally, integrating this developmental material with the understanding developed in Chapter 2, Chapter 4 suggests a summary understanding of spiritual development and its stages.
   
Part I uses a critical, analytical, synthetic approach, sorting out the issues as they arise, consolidating issues where possible, introducing new material when necessary, all the time forging a progressively more coherent understanding of a very elusive subject.  In the end the hope is to have justified as reasonable that psychology properly conceived can appropriately and adequately deal with many of the questions about spiritual development traditionally treated in theology.  Indeed, within the contemporary context of extensive differentiation and specialization of disciplines, an adequate psychology and not theology is the discipline that properly treats questions of spirituality, at least insofar as practical issues are concerned.
   
Part II of this essay turns to the question of God and theist faith.  Three chapters present a theory of theodicy, treatment of practical religious issues related to spiritual development, and the question of growth in holiness.  The overall argument is this.  Theism adds a further dimension of meaning to even an adequate psychological understanding of spiritual development.  This is a contribution to a comprehensive theoretical account of the matter.  But granted that God exists and is active whether acknowledged or not, theism changes nothing in an adequate psychological treatment and, as such, offers no answer to practical questions about spiritual development.  An adequate psychological account already provides this.  Finally, growth in holiness, understood as a profound relationship with God, is not the same as spiritual development.  The different possible coincidences of the two are multiple.
   
Part III, limiting its consideration to Christianity, treats the still further question about Christian faith and its contribution to a comprehensive understanding of spiritual development.  In the present context, the distinctive contribution of Christianity is the conception of human life as a process of divinization—theosis in the Greek, which provides a name for this distinctive facet of spiritual development, theotic (not merely theological or theist).  Because of the redemptive work of Christ and the sanctifying mission of the holy spirit, the human life created by God and studied by the human sciences is actually a growing participation in divine life.  Granted the incarnation and resurrection of the eternal son, Jesus Christ, an understanding of the Holy Spirit as God’s own Love poured into the human heart is the key to this specifically Christian contribution.  But once again, since divinizing grace is available to all whether they recognize it or not, Christianity’s contribution is a further expanded understanding of this matter rather than a distinctive prescription for living it or any change in its mechanisms and requisites.
   
Throughout, when practical issues of spiritual development are at stake, adequate psychological treatment retains the priority.  It explains the process of development, and it defines the stages.  Yet a comprehensive theoretical understanding of spiritual development is incomplete without the theist and Christian components.

Este artículo se escribió en el año 2000 e intenta mostrar las visiones que tenía Lawrence Kohlberg sobre la educación moral. Se hace una presentación desde el uso de los dilemas como estrategia pedagógica hasta la defensa de la comunidad justa.
El artículo sale en el libro: "Diálogos. Discusiones en la Psicología Contemporánea". Publicado por la Universidad Nacional de Colombia. Bogotá. 2.000.

Lawrence Kohlberg was a pioneer in the
study of the development of moral judgment,
actions of responsibility, appreciation of
justice, solidarity, and commitment to
others. His career, however, was marked by
multiple turns and reconceptualizations.
In the current article, we present some
of these variations associated with the
description and characterization of the
stages and understandings of morality in
developing subjects. We characterize first
the initial formulations of the stages of moral
development, proposed in his doctoral
thesis, and his work from the 60s (a period
marked by an evident influence of the
Piagetian perspective). Last, we address his
conceptualization exposed in the posterity
of his work, where he resumed approaches
to life cycle theories and non-Piagetian
development theories. We conclude that,
despite the multiple criticisms and conflicts,
his formulation struggles with three points:
to account for a permanent tension in the
psychological approaches that are interested
in moral development, to address some
of the tensions between structuralist and
hermeneutical approaches, and to provide
a novel formulation against the traditional
discussion between forms and contents.
We close, stating that Kohlberg's work
determined the different paths that followed
the subsequent developments of moral
psychology and was a generator of ideas and
varied ways that his followers have traveled in
recent decades.

An individual is in the lowest phase of moral development if he thinks only of his own personal interest and has only his own selfish agenda in his mind as he encounters other humans. This lowest phase corresponds well with sixteenth century British moral egoism which reflects the rise of the new economic order. Adam Smith (1723–1790) wanted to defend this new economic order which is based on economic exchange between egoistic individuals. Nevertheless, he surely did not want to support the moral theory of British egoism. His book The Wealth of Nations suits well into the world view of British moral egoism, but in the book The Theory of Moral Sentiments, he presents a moral theory which is the total opposite of moral egoism. Contemporary German intellectuals saw contradiction in Adam Smith’s moral (social) philosophy which they called as Das Adam-Smith-Problem. Smith himself didn’t think that there is any contradiction in a situation where in economic sphere (civil society) individual act egoistically and in ethical sphere (encounter with the imagined Other) he feels humanity and compassion toward his fellow men. Hegel was a passionate reader of Adam Smith and he acknowledged Das Adam-Smith-Problem. He set the task of his social philosophy to overcome this paradox. He wanted to create a theory of a social totality where economic egoism and feelings of humanity are not in contradiction. In the same time Hegel wanted to create a theory on Bildung process where human spirit develops from moral un-freedom (heteronomy) to moral freedom and maturity (autonomy) taking care both aspect of love and reason. In certain Hegel’s texts notion of recognition plays crucial role. That is why modern Hegelians Ludwig Siep, Axel Honneth and Robert Williams consider the notion of recognition to be elementary in Hegel’s threefold theory of developing human spirit from family via civil society to sittliche state. For Hegel family is a sphere where people love their “concrete other” and where feeling surpasses reason. Civil Society is a sphere of private contracts and economic exchanges where cold egoistic and calculative reason surpasses feelings. In the sphere of State the contradiction between family and Civil Society (Das Adam-Smith-Problem) is solved by “rational feeling”. According to Hegel State should protect citizens from alienating effect of egoistic reason of Civil Society and cultivate “family-feelings” to rational feelings which integrate citizen into “sittliche community” through reciprocal process of recognition. In this article I want to consider Hegelians Honneth’s and Williams’s relevance to the theory of moral development.

La référence au concept d’autonomie de l’élève fait ici l’objet d’une analyse critique à la suite du constat de l’absence de précision de ses assises théoriques dans le discours éducatif québécois et de la carence d’explication quant à l’utilisation par les recherches en éducation de la référence à l’autonomie de la personne. Ce travail vise la clarification du concept d’autonomie de l’élève et s’appuie sur la recherche, l’identification et la justification d’un corpus à partir duquel procéder à l’analyse de ce concept. Plusieurs méthodes de recherche façonnent cette recherche de nature théorique. Le chemin est balisé historiquement par l’Émile de Rousseau et la proposition théorique de Kant sur l’autonomie de la volonté, ainsi que par l’éducation nouvelle et les trois grandes réformes de l’éducation au Québec. Chacune des périodes retenues et analysées permet de dégager des auteurs majeurs en lien avec la référence à l’autonomie de l’élève et issus des disciplines contributives à l’éducation. Le changement de statut de l’autonomie de l’élève à la fin des années 1990 au Québec s’éloigne significativement de celui qu’accordaient les référents humanistes des décennies précédentes. Deux discours sont comparés pour comprendre les écarts et les correspondances dans la référence à l’autonomie de l’élève : celui de Rosenshine, sur l’enseignement explicite, et celui de Kohlberg, sur ce qu’exige l’adoption d’une théorie du développement en éducation. Trois angles d’analyse sont retenus pour apprécier ces deux discours, à savoir le statut du développement, celui des finalités inhérentes aux modèles théoriques liés à ce concept, ainsi que les critères de validité interne de ces discours entourant le recours au concept d’autonomie de l’élève. Une carence de référents humanistes pour penser ce concept laisse apparaître plusieurs contradictions et inconsistances théoriques. Revisiter le corpus permet de fournir sept considérations théoriques potentiellement nécessaires pour référer au concept d’autonomie de l’élève.

O segredo profissional é um dos princípios mais evocados nos códigos de conduta dos jornalistas. Porém, a proteção das fonte é uma questão relativamente controversa. Uma das perspetivas defende que o dever do jornalista é não delatar a fonte confidencial mesmo em face de exigências legais. Este artigo propõe-se analisar o princípio do sigilo profissional enquadrando-o na teoria de desenvolvimento moral de Laurence Kohlberg. Identifica perspetivas acerca da confidencialidade das fontes
em códigos deontológicos nacionais e supranacionais dos jornalistas, recorrendo à análise de conteúdo. Tem em consideração apreciações sobre o tema feitas noutros mecanismos de media accountability em Portugal: provedores do leitor e Conselho Deontológico do Sindicato dos Jornalistas.

A lo largo del presente escrito se pretende llevar a cabo una aproximación a la teoría crítica filosófica de Jürgen Habermas, que nos aproximará al mismo tiempo, al proceso de construcción de la sociedad civil y a la disociación de las esferas pública y privada de la vida social. Además, hablaremos de las críticas elaboradas desde la teoría feminista hacia las tesis de Habermas, viendo como principales autoras a Carol Gilligan, Carole Pateman, Seyla Benhabib y Nancy Fraser. Se hará especial hincapié en las ideas desarrolladas por Carol Gilligan en referencia a la teoría del desarrollo moral de Lawrence Kohlberg, y a la posición de Seyla Benhabib respecto a la ética discursiva de J. Habermas.

Among the four epistemological origins of John's christological tensions (the evangelist as a dialectical thinker, John's Mosaic-Agency schema, John's dialectical situation, the rhetorical design of John's narrative), its cognitive origins are among the most significant in accounting for John's distinctive presentation of Jesus as the Christ. First published in Horizons in Biblical Theology; An International Dialogue 17 (1995): 1-24, this essay was also published in Psychology and the Bible; A New Way to Read the Scriptures, edited by J. Harold Ellens (4 Volumes, Westport/London: Praeger Publishers, 2004), Vol. 3, pp. 127-49.

Featuring an overview of "Cognitive-Critical Biblical Analysis" (by Paul N. Anderson) a review of Anderson's The Christology of the Fourth Gospel (by J. Harold Ellens), a reception report of two dozen reviews (by Paul N. Anderson), these analyses are followed by a review of Anderson's use of faith development theory in his analysis of gospel traditions (by James W. Fowler). It was published in Psychology and the Bible; A New Way to Read the Scriptures, edited by J. Harold Ellens (4 Volumes, Westport/London: Praeger Publishers, 2004), Vol. 4, 246-76.

RESUMEN
La figura de L. Kohlberg ha sido la más destacada en las décadas anteriores en el ámbito de la Psicología moral.
Este trabajo se orienta a determinar objetivamente el impacto producido por su obra mediante el análisis de sus trabajos y las citaciones que este autor recibea través del Social Science Citation Index. Este análisis permite mostrar la implantación progresiva de L. Kohlberg en la comunidad científica internacional a los largo de los años estudiados (1989-septiembre 1997); la enorme visibilidad de algunas de sus obras, el creciente impacto en la literatura actual y los principales autros que lo citan en la actualidad.

ABSTRACT
L. Kohlberg has been the most significant single figure in recent decades in the field of Moral Psychology.
This essay aims to determine objectively the impact his work had, through an analysis of all his works and the extent to which this author is quoted, through the Social Science Citation Index. The analysis shows the progressive implantation of L. Kohlberg in the international scientific community during the period of years studied (1989-September 1997), the immense visibility of some of his works, the growing impact on modern literature and the number of important authors who quote him nowadays.

In this history of the development of ideas of honor in Western philosophy, Peter Olsthoorn examines what honor is, how its meaning has changed, and whether it can still be of use. Political and moral philosophers from Cicero to John Stuart Mill thought that a sense of honor and concern for our reputation could help us to determine the proper thing to do, and just as important, provide us with the much-needed motive to do it. Today, outside of the military and some other pockets of resistance, the notion of honor has become seriously out of date, while the term itself has almost disappeared from our moral language. Most of us think that people ought to do what is right based on a love for jus­tice rather than from a concern with how we are perceived by others. Wide-ranging and accessible, the book explores the role of honor in not only philosophy but also literature and war to make the case that honor can still play an important role in contemporary life.

Review
CHOICE Choice Reviews July 2015. Olsthoorn (Netherlands Defense Academy) offers a timely philosophical examination of honor.  He traces the intellectual history of honor and its transformation throughout philosophical and political thought in the West.  He considers both honor generally and its various manifestations, such as the notion of honor among individuals, groups, and states.  The book reveals important insights about comparative concepts such as integrity, respect, and humiliation.  Though fewer people in today's world are concerned with honor in their everyday lives than in the past, the topic remains significant and continues to resonate in contemporary times in a variety of ways (as evidenced, for instance, by widespread interest in the phenomenon called "honor killing").  The book features an introduction, a conclusion, and five full-length chapters.  Although the background framework is primarily philosophical, the scope of the book is deeply interdisciplinary, drawing from political science, literature, military ethics, and related areas. Summing Up: Recommended. Upper-division undergraduates through researchers/faculty.

--B. Romaya, University of Massachusetts Lowell

Trata-se da apresentação de resultados parciais de uma pesquisa concluída financiada pela Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) e dos primeiros resultados de um Programa de Pesquisa, em andamento, culminado a partir dela. Objetiva-se conhecer o estado atual das ideias de Carol Gilligan sobre o desenvolvimento moral das mulheres e de sua proposta de Ética do Cuidado na produção de pesquisa em Psicologia do Desenvolvimento Moral no Brasil, com recorte ao contexto paulista da produção. Analisou-se a produção de teses de doutorado e dissertações de mestrado provenientes de Programas de Pós-Graduação stricto sensu. Por meio de buscas na Biblioteca Digital de Teses e Dissertações (BDTD) a partir dos descritores “Carol Gilligan” e “Ética do cuidado”, sem delimitação temporal, foram encontrados 45 trabalhos, 38 dissertações e 07 teses, mas, considerando-se apenas pesquisas que tinham o desenvolvimento moral como tema de pesquisa, restaram apenas cinco, 03 dissertações e 02 teses. Devido a essa escassez, buscou-se mapear e analisar as produções de três Programas de Pós-Graduação em Educação vinculados a três diferentes Universidades públicas paulistas, em que parte de suas produções volta-se para o campo da Psicologia do Desenvolvimento Moral em intersecção com a Educação. No período delimitado de 2008-2019, foram encontrados 70 trabalhos, 41 dissertações e 29 teses, sendo 18 dissertações e 07 teses do Programa A, 10 dissertações e 10 teses do Programa B e 13 dissertações e 12 teses do Programa C, todas com o desenvolvimento moral como tema de pesquisa. Após a leitura de seu conteúdo, observou-se que são predominantemente fundamentados pelas teorias piagetiana e kohlberguiana. Dessas pesquisas, apenas 06 dissertações e 09 teses citam Gilligan, limitando-se, quase em sua totalidade, a referi-la como uma crítica à teoria de Lawrence Kohlberg e sem maiores aprofundamentos em seu trabalho.

Orang tua di dalam keluarga memiliki peran sebagai pendidik. Nilai-nilai kehidupan harus diajarkan kepada anak, apalagi dalam kasus anak beresiko. Menurut F. Clark Power (Power 2008), orang tua perlu diajarkan mengenai cara mendidik nilai moral serta keterampilan hidup, untuk diteruskan kepada anak-anaknya agar mampu menekan masalah kriminalitas di masyarakat. Kekhawatiran ini terjadi disebabkan adanya perilaku para orang tua memasukkan anaknya di penitipan anak usia dini, sehingga anak cenderung tidak memperoleh pendidikan nilai-nilai moral dan kemampuan sosial dari orang tuanya. Inilah salah satu pemicu munculnya urgensi pentingnya pendidikan moral dilakukan oleh orang tua (Wringe 2006). Moral perlu diajarkan mulai dari keluarga, karena keluarga adalah tempat ideal seorang anak mempraktekkannya.

Siegfried Lenz’s novel Deutschstunde is analyzed on the basis of work conducted by two American psychologists: Stanley Milgram and Lawrence Kohlberg. The concept of duty and obedience to authority are considered as social phenomena that go beyond personal disposition. The article uses Milgram’s famous obedience experiment in order to consider the literary depiction of psychological processes underlying compliance with orders to commit reprehensible acts. A comparison is made between Jens Jepsen, the fictional obedient policeman in Deutschstunde, and Paul Grueninger, a real policeman in wartime Switzerland, who refused to follow orders and saved many refugees at the Austrian border.

Democracy is bound to fail if its citizens lack opportunities to develop their moral-democratic competence, that is, their ability to solve conflicts through thinking and discussion, instead of through violence, deceit or bowing down to others. The concept of Discussion Theatre has been designed to provide such an learning opportunity. In contrast to traditional theatre, there is no above and below, no division between actors and listeners – all are participants. The Discussion Theatre is the “public” version of the Konstanz Method of Dilemma Discussion (KMDD), which is been successfully used in institutions of education in many countries for over two decades.

This volume commemorates Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-197), educator, psychologist, and philosopher. His developmental theory, research program, and educational practices began a dialogue that expanded and strengthened our conceptions of morality. yet Kohlberg's legacy reaches beyond traditional areas of inquiry in moral psychology. Grounding his theory in the writings of Piaget, Kohlberg addressed conceptions of justice, cross-cultural universality of moral judgements, gender identity and sex-typed behavior, motivation, moral education, and the relationship between moral judgement and moral action. The contributions in this volume of New Directions for Child Development exemplify the influence of Kohlbreg's revolutionary ideas on eleven scholars in four of those areas: gender identification, universality in moral judgement, moral reaoning and conduct, and moral education. This is the 47th issue of New Directions for Child Development. For more information on the series, please s...

Which preference underlies giving in dictator games? To date, the experimental evidence has either been interpreted as a preference over the distribution of payoffs, or as an experimenter demand effect. We show that under strict dictator-dictator as well as strict dictator-recipient anonymity, giving in dictator games springs from a preference over the distribution of decision rights. In contrast, concerns which trigger experimenter demand (Andreoni and Bernheim 2009) are negatively correlated with dictator game giving. Our experiments cover a series of dictator game variants which have sparked the experimenter demand debate. In addition, we identify the sets of ethical ideals that dictators em-ploy to derive the ‘right’ course of action in a formal moral judgement test and model dictator transfers econometrically by means of dictators’ actual ethical ideals. Our results explain the lion’s share of results from the literature: lower transfers when dictators earn the pie (Cherry et al. 2002); lower transfers when ’take’ options are available (List 2007; Bardsley 2008); lower transfers when anonymity is lifted (Hoffmann et al. 1994); generous dictators consistently pre-ferring to avoid the game altogether, if given the option (Lazear et al. 2012), and findings that social norms and beliefs cause dictator transfers (Krupka and Weber 2013; Di Tella et al. 2015; Kimbrough and Vostroknutov 2015).

As an enthusing concept to redefine the organizational cosmos in a novel form, this study approve the cognition of individuals as a starting point. Despite the abundant study of organizational cognition concept, there remains an uncharted area which depicts; how perceptions of different cognitive capacities might hierarchise the organizational cosmos. Upon this, we used 'Kohlberg's Moral Development Theory' as a metaphor and found 3 hierarchic cognitive level which characterize on different justification modes. Also an additional theoric level identified for possible phenomenons. We show that the consideration styles of organization members evolve while their cognitive capacities and related environmental perceptions broaden and that these shifts are consistently patterned. An objective scale was developed using an ontological approach to confirm the oral interviews. Eventually, we obtained two different scales for industrial use.

The American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg is a modern classic in the fields of moral social psychology and theory of moral development. His cognitivistic theory of moral development has become a paradigm in the psychology of education. Many Kohlbergian empirical studies have modified Kohlberg’s original model but have left the basic idea intact. Thus, there must be something true about the basic idea. It can be found in textbooks of education and it has been empirically verified. Nevertheless, one might ask can there be empirical proof on transcendental (philosophical) theory of morality and its development. Jürgen Habermas was the first to note that Kohlberg’s theory of moral stages is a kind of rational reconstruction and that, as such, it cannot be empirically verified or falsified. The most famous opponent of Kohlberg is the feminist thinker Carol Gilligan who presents both philosophical and empirical counterclaims against Kohlberg’s cognitivistic theory of moral development. Gilligan’s main criticism is that Kohlberg constructs what he considers “the highest stage of moral development” from a male viewpoint and thus it is not neutral and impartial at all. Gilligan claims that the Kohlbergian ethic of justice is only one aspect of moral maturity because Kohlberg rejects the side of moral feelings and sentiments. Gilligan develops a theory of the ethic of care. Its highest phase is a stage on which an adult human being recognizes the dual context of justice and care. The Gilligan-Kohlberg controversy touches the very core of philosophical ethics: what is the relation of reason and love in morality. This was also central issue in the 18th century discussion in moral theory. Francis Hutcheson’s, David Hume’s, Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s, Adam Smith’s and Immanuel Kant’s ethical theories are very relevant when dealing with Gilligan-Kohlberg controversy.

Understanding rights not only means knowing what is permitted by law and what is not, but also being aware of and knowing one's own rights as a human being. This analysis explores how children understand right and wrong, how they gain moral orientations and a sense of justice, and whether they are aware of human rights and children's rights, and if so to what extent. Twelve children aged either 8 or 12 participated in an interview on a dilemma story, as pioneered by Kohlberg, and were also asked about children's rights and human rights. Qualitative content analysis showed that the majority used moral judgements based on fairness and justice, taking the view that behaviour that is wrong should be duly punished. Eight children were able to make substantive statements on human rights; of the eight, three also had some knowledge of children's rights. There were differences between the types of arguments used by the two age groups. There were also some differences between boys and girls, but they were negligible. In German-speaking countries there is little empirical research on children's rights. Few studies have focused on the topic of human rights from the perspective of educational science, and there is also little research on moral concepts and children's rights. What follows is therefore a first attempt to link two neglected research topics.

The field of rhetoric provides unique frameworks and tools for under- standing the role of language in moral reasoning and corruption. Drawing on a discursive understand- ing of the self, we focus on how the rhetoric of conversations constructs and shapes our moral reasoning and moral behavior. Using rhetori- cal appeals and a moral develop- ment framework, we construct three

Dissertation Abstract: "Mind's I/Eye's Mind: From Causal Thinking to Thinking Context" I argue that the descent to earth from objectivist truth has done little to validate thinking that would bind us to the world and each other. Since explanations are always made and "get behind" experience, they emphasize the subject/object opposition that separates us from context. Thus, though distinct from claims to absolute knowledge, theories of interested and constructed knowledge continue to emphasize consciousness, acts, and power. They threaten to reduce the insights of oppressed groups to by-products of subjugation. Drawing on the philosopher Maurice Merleau-Ponty and the sociologist Dorothy Smith, I find H.D. and Mary Shelley's shifting focus to be from mind's I to eye's mind, from causal thinking to thinking context. Paradoxically, while causal thinking has supplanted perception, perception can recontextualize agency. ;Perhaps some feminist discourse did fall into essentialism in daring to speak for all women, but do gender skeptics escape doing the same by privileging heterogeneity, by proposing a visceral world of power relations as an alternative? In finding metaphor, gendered and otherwise, inevitable in our language and thought, I question reliance on only the causal metaphor of explanatory discourse, abstract or situated. Casting any difference between objective truth and subjective truths simply as a difference between concrete and abstract is misguided. For that return to earth still may be a fall not into the affective presence of world and others but the same old world of changeless truth and a world only conceived as changing time.not being/with/in world.