Knowledge Exchange

This article focuses on issues concerning science and technology relationships posed by the emergence of a new drug discovery method, namely, combinatorial chemistry and biology. We assess the scientific content of combinatorial chemistry and biology using citations in patents to scientific journals and compare this research platform with biotechnology. We also identify the institutional affiliation of all the authors of the cited papers, which leads us to an analysis of knowledge spillovers between the main participants in the research network. Finally, we examine the relevance of localisation in the process of knowledge exchange with regard to EU countries and the US. The result of the analysis provides evidence to support the view that the inventive capacity of a country is dependent upon the basic research which is carried out, especially in universities and public research centres located in the inventor's country.

Both in theory and in practice insight is limited about how firms in dynamic environments could organize to manage concurrently the strategic processes of exploring new knowledge and exploiting existing knowledge. To contribute to this issue, a conceptual framework is developed which considers the ability to exchange knowledge across organization-units within a firm as a prerequisite to achieve both the goals of exploring and exploiting organizational knowledge. This framework shows how awareness and interest towards exchanging knowledge across units, internal knowledge transfer mechanisms, prior knowledge of the organization units and their organization form, influence the processes of exploration and exploitation within the firm. The conceptual framework and the propositions are illustrated by two case studies of Novartis, one of the leading European life-science companies. The first case is about exchanging knowledge between Novartis’ divisions in the actual organization context....

pentland d., forsyth k., maciver d., walsh m., murray r., irvine l. & sikora s. (2011) Key characteristics of knowledge transfer and exchange in healthcare: integrative literature review. Journal of Advanced Nursing67(7), 1408–1425.pentland d., forsyth k., maciver d., walsh m., murray r., irvine l. & sikora s. (2011) Key characteristics of knowledge transfer and exchange in healthcare: integrative literature review. Journal of Advanced Nursing67(7), 1408–1425.AbstractAim.  This paper presents the results of a review of literature relating to knowledge transfer and exchange in healthcare.Background.  Treatment, planning and policy decisions in contemporary nursing and healthcare should be based on sound evidence wherever possible, but research knowledge remains generally underused. Knowledge transfer and exchange initiatives aim to facilitate the accessibility, application and production of evidence and may provide solutions to this challenge. This review was conducted to help inform the design and implementation of knowledge transfer and exchange activities for a large healthcare organization.Data sources.  Databases: ASSIA, Business Source Premier, CINAHL, PsychInfo, Medline and the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews.Review methods.  An integrative literature review was carried out including an extensive literature search. English language systematic reviews, literature reviews, primary quantitative and qualitative papers and grey literature of high relevance evaluating, describing or discussing knowledge transfer or exchange activities in healthcare were included for review (January 1990–September 2009).Findings.  Thirty-three papers were reviewed (four systematic reviews, nine literature reviews, one environmental scan, nine empirical studies and ten case studies).Conclusion.  Robust research into knowledge transfer and exchange in healthcare is limited. Analysis of a wide range of evidence indicates a number of commonly featured characteristics but further evaluation of these activities would benefit their application in facilitating evidence-based practice in nursing.Aim.  This paper presents the results of a review of literature relating to knowledge transfer and exchange in healthcare.Background.  Treatment, planning and policy decisions in contemporary nursing and healthcare should be based on sound evidence wherever possible, but research knowledge remains generally underused. Knowledge transfer and exchange initiatives aim to facilitate the accessibility, application and production of evidence and may provide solutions to this challenge. This review was conducted to help inform the design and implementation of knowledge transfer and exchange activities for a large healthcare organization.Data sources.  Databases: ASSIA, Business Source Premier, CINAHL, PsychInfo, Medline and the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews.Review methods.  An integrative literature review was carried out including an extensive literature search. English language systematic reviews, literature reviews, primary quantitative and qualitative papers and grey literature of high relevance evaluating, describing or discussing knowledge transfer or exchange activities in healthcare were included for review (January 1990–September 2009).Findings.  Thirty-three papers were reviewed (four systematic reviews, nine literature reviews, one environmental scan, nine empirical studies and ten case studies).Conclusion.  Robust research into knowledge transfer and exchange in healthcare is limited. Analysis of a wide range of evidence indicates a number of commonly featured characteristics but further evaluation of these activities would benefit their application in facilitating evidence-based practice in nursing.

Background
While evidence-based practice is a familiar concept to allied health clinicians, knowledge translation (KT) is less well known and understood. The need for a framework that enables allied health clinicians to access and engage with KT was identified. The aim of this paper is to describe the development of the Translating Allied Health Knowledge (TAHK) Framework. Methods: An  iterative  and  collaborative  process  involving  clinician  and  academic  knowledge  partners  was  utilised  to  develop  the  TAHK  Framework.  Multiple  methods  were  utilised  during  this  process,  including  a  systematic  literature  review,  steering  committee  consultation,  mixed  methods  survey,  benchmarking  and  measurement  property  analysis.  Results: The TAHK Framework has now been finalised, and is described in detail. The framework is structured around four  domains  –  Doing  Knowledge  Translation,  Social  Capital  for  Knowledge  Translation,  Sustaining  Knowledge  Translation  and  Inclusive  Knowledge  Translation  –  under  which  14  factors  known  to  influence  allied  health  KT  are  classified. The formulation of the framework to date has laid a rigorous foundation for further developments, including clinician  support  and  outcome  measurement.  Conclusion: The method of development adopted for the TAHK Framework has ensured it is both evidence and practice based, and further amendments and modifications are anticipated as new knowledge becomes available. The Framework will enable allied health clinicians to build on their existing capacities for KT, and approach this complex process in a rigorous and systematic manner. The TAHK Framework offers a unique focus on how knowledge is translated by allied health clinicians in multidisciplinary settings.

Using Free/Libre Open Source Software Projects as E-learning Tools Antonio Cerone1∗ and Sulayman K. Sowe2 1 antonio@iist.unu.edu UNU-IIST, Macau SAR China. ... A workshop held at Bagnols, ∗ Correspondence Author: Antonio Cerone. Email:{antonio@iist.unu.edu}. ...

www.ihmc.us Abstract. The CmapTools program, and concept mapping in general, have seen a steady growth in usage in the last few years. With new users come new requirements and needs for the software that we can’t always satisfy. Until now, the CmapTools architecture has been relatively closed to third party developers. In this paper we report on a new open architecture, KE (Knowledge Exchange Architecture), that provides the data and procedural framework to allow third party developers to design programs that interact with the CmapTools suite of programs. KEA consists of a portable, standard file format for data exchange (CXL), and a set of protocols for retrieving, storing, and manipulating Cmap information. We also describe how KEA was implemented and provide three sample client-server applications illustrating the steps we have taken toward the completion of this implementation. 1

This paper explores the Indian crafts industry-examining the craft communities from a social constructionist perspective with the aim to document and analyse the knowledge exchange within and beyond these communities, thus illustrating the peripheral factors and issues which affect the knowledge transfer. In order to understand the knowledge exchange in the craft communities it has been important to understand the community structures, the outlook and the perception of crafts by the craftspeople themselves. In the Indian context, illiteracy among the craftspeople has always remained the primary challenge in the amelioration of the craft communities and their crafts. Also, the migration of the craftspeople from their crafts reflects the growing impoverishment of artisans and unsustainability of their craft. Mapping the invisible knowledge exchange networks of the craft communities reveals the top-down structure of the crafts industry; which incidentally, is also largely the result of the widespread illiteracy. Replacing the top-down structure with a bottom-up one will provide a more proactive role for the craft communities , thereby also the impetus for the much needed change in their social status. To keep the knowledge wheel turning, the study finds an insistent need to encourage interaction and collaboration among the craft communities and various interest groups employing different means and media to do the same. This understanding of the ecosystem that crafts-people are part of proposes the need for a paradigm shift in the outlook and perception of crafts, particularly in the context of the new knowledge-based economy, where information, creativity, and innovation play a major role.

This essay is written to address conversations about the best ways to engage in knowledge exchange on important sustainability issues between Indigenous knowledges and fields of climate, environmental and sustainability sciences. In terms of sustainability, a crucial facet of the self-determination of peoples such as Indigenous nations and communities is the responsibility and the right to make plans for the future using planning processes that are inclusive, well-informed, culturally-relevant, and respectful of human interdependence with nonhumans and the environment. Indigenous knowledges often play a crucial role in Indigenous planning processes. In my work, I have found that scientists often appreciate what I will call here the supplemental-value of Indigenous knowledges—the value of Indigenous knowledges as inputs for adding (i.e. supplementing) data that scientific methods do not normally track. In the domain of supplemental-value, Indigenous people’s planning processes will improve, in turn, by having access to the supplemented and hence improved science. But it is also the case that Indigenous knowledges have governance-value. That is, they serve as irreplaceable sources of guidance for Indigenous resurgence and nation-building. Scientists should appreciate governance-value because it suggests that for some Indigenous peoples in knowledge exchange situations, we need to be assured that the flourishing of our knowledges is respected and protected. I hope to make the case for why it is important for scientists who work with Indigenous peoples to understand governance value in the hopes that this understanding will improve their approaches to knowledge exchange with Indigenous peoples.

Background: UKs engagement in global health through Health Links seems to offer benefits on personal, professional and organizational level. However, the concept of Health Links is only in its infancy and particularly benefits perceived to make a positive impact on personal and professional development have not been monitored and evaluated in sufficient detail yet. This creates the need for further investigations in the field and particularly in the area of medical electives.
Purpose: To examine the impact of international involvement in Health Links on personal and professional development of medical students and to create an example of a systematic approach to monitoring and evaluating link performance in order to make use of their full potential.
Design: This paper proposes a qualitative exploratory study of observations and unstructured interviews with 20 medical students taking part in a University elective in Gambia, Africa.  Observations will take place over the 4 week elective. Interviews will be held at 4 weeks after return from the elective. The data will be analysed using the method of thematic analysis.
Conclusions: Limitations of previous studies could be overcome by emphasizing on Ethnographic interviewing techniques, focusing on medical student electives and combining observation and in-depth interviewing methods to gather longitudinal data on personal and professional development in order to create a more comprehensive source of information concerning the area of Health Links.

This research, conducted by the author when a Senior Researcher at Newcastle University, UK, was funded by a UK governance organisation to help them assess, integrate and improve their understanding of the governed population.

ABSTRACT: Governance organisations have been urged to develop more holistic evidence-based approaches with partners to better deal with issues affecting the governed population. This presupposes an understanding of the population, yet there has been little research work addressing how governance organisations come to understand their governed population, nor how this understanding can be improved upon within such organisations.

This case study examined in-depth how understanding of a governed population was developed within one UK local governance organisation and it explored how such understanding might be developed and improved through more holistic and evidence-based organisational learning within the organisation and its governance partnerships.

The research methodology involved placement within the governance organisation, participant observations on several projects and innovative initiatives, observations within, across, and outside the organisation, and also interviews with varied key stakeholders.

The study examined:

- stakeholder engagement and networks
- current and varied understandings of the population
- mechanisms actually used for developing understandings
- the influence of context on organisational learning

and analysed these to arrive at a recommendations to improve organisational understanding of the governed population.

In the case studied, significant strengths were found: including innovative past learning trials for development, extensive ongoing networking activities, and many varied and accumulating quantitative datasets available across partnerships.

However, entrenched organisational approaches and practices constrained the development of holistic evidence-based understanding, for instance: the absence of systematic maintained collective learning processes; weak recording and forgetting of understandings; methodological exclusion of stakeholders from the development of understanding; the relative neglect of qualitative data, explanations, investigations, interpretations, and reflexivity; and also implicit organisational acceptance of such limitations and low aspirations.

Nonetheless, untapped opportunities existed to enable change including: latent practitioner knowledge and innovative management champions, the desire for improvement and raised aspirations within learning networks, and the development potential of alterative learning approaches.

It was concluded that more holistic evidence-based understanding was possible, but required new learning approaches beyond those then in use in both local government or academia.   

Recommendations are made to utilise and develop improved organisational learning approaches trialed and reported in the case study.

It is argued that the case study findings, conclusions, and recommendations may be applicable to other similar local governance organisations and partnerships that seek to better understand local populations, services and interventions.

The work was also submitted for, and awarded, an MPhil (at Newcastle University, supervised by Prof. Patsy Healy)

Vastly growing online free-hospitality networks are a phenomenon of modern times. They have been already subject of social and peace studies, here explored from the perspective of information science.
The main focus in this research, author puts on the role of information in modern society, particularly on access to information and information management as prerequisites for participative and democratic society.
Both theoretically and empirically, author explores first the changes in society that were caused by popular usage of Internet, secondly introduces the phenomenon of free-hospitality as an example of modern social network, lastly explores in details functioning of these networks and throughout whole text the role of information in here.
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Even though there are substantial differences in political, social, and economic conditions across the Mediterranean region, it is safe to say that the un- and underemployment of university graduates has been a major challenge. Despite numerous initiatives, youth unemployment in the Southern and Eastern Mediterranean has been among the highest in the world for more than two decades. And unlike other regions, unemployment is highest amongst those with tertiary education reaching an average of 30% across the region. Moreover, there is a strong gender dimension. While young women have made remarkable progress in educational attainment, unemployment rates among young women in the region are almost double those of young men.

Various drivers of construction innovation are distinguished and classified in four distinctive categories: environmental pressure, technological capability, knowledge exchange, and boundary spanning. Innovation drivers in these categories are active at the transfirm, intrafirm, and ...

The UK Conservative Government 2017-2019 has taken steps to promote Engagement as a means of Knowledge Exchange (KE). In 2019/2020, a Knowledge Exchange Framework (KEF) will be introduced alongside the existing Research (REF) and Teaching (TEF) evaluations. Indeed, the OfS (Office for Students) and UKRI (UK Research and Innovation) (2018, 1) regard each of these evaluations as 'mutually reinforcing'. Given that the KEF is likely to take place in full for the first time in 2020, it is essential that colleagues understand both the nature of the Engagement agenda, the reasons for its emergence, the possibilities it offers and means by which to reduce opportunity cost. In this article, I draw upon a range of resources to present a clear overview of these factors and argue that KEF can be harnessed effectively for a number of, often socially valuable, ends and that its most onerous implications can be mitigated efficiently.

The UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre in Florence, Italy, was established in �988 to strengthen the research capability of the United Nations Children's Fund and to support its advocacy for children worldwide. The Centre (formally known as the International Child Development Centre) generates knowledge and analysis to support policy formulation and advocacy in favour of children; acts as a convener and

A knowledge exchange platform, or Open Knowledge Exchange, (OKE) is an effective means for sharing and re-using knowledge among all members under the workforce development umbrella in the United States. The OKE is a necessary step in shaping and pushing forward the evolution of a workforce development system. The authors are the principals for a pilot OKE initiative that includes 1) a workforce ontology that serves as a semantic framework connecting various disciplines, organizations and programs engaged in workforce development; 2) a knowledge base; and 3) user interfaces, and tools and templates for automatic knowledge capture. The OKE, the project will lead to the development of a comprehensive OKE and associated products supporting interoperable workforce information systems.

Today’s general perception of Gulf cities is based on the assumption of a fu- turistic vision, a visionary development and a cluster of hi-tech constructions of steel and glass reaching towards the sky.
Since oil was struck, this ‘brave new world’ has been a testing ground for experimental, risk-imbued architecture and real estate. The sudden affluence and ambition of the rulers to demonstrate progress and social advancement (sometimes expressed through outlandish ‘iconic’ designs) has certainly fired this drive. The building of cities seemed an appropriate culvert for the vast funds generated, turning what was once barren into a fertile land for real estate, as well as prioritising education, health and basic services such as water and electricity.
Furthermore, there is an ever-present sense of the ‘tabula-rasa approach’ that forced (or perhaps tempted) architects to pursue different and alternative design processes. Gulf cities seem to encourage the idea, if not always the reality, of be- ing able to ‘start again’, to be re-made, re-imagined and re-modernised. There is a sense of being in an ever-present ‘now’, with ‘historical’ projects stretching back....

The relationship between society and design is in a period of transition. We are observing a move from the ‘object’ to ‘service’, and from problem solving, to problem finding, to design strategy. In this paper we explore how a ‘toolkit approach’ allows us to both contribute to democratic innovation activity but also build a deeper understanding of the potential contribution design can have in this emerging area.
This work was conducted in the prototyping stages of the Homesense initiative, a project run by Tinker London and Électricité de France. Homesense aims to facilitate user led innovation in smart home development through provision of toolkits and expert support. Through engagement with the
Homesense project we identify areas and mechanisms for intervention in Democratic Innovation (DI) and discuss methodologies for future potential for a wider professional design engagement in DI.

Farmers' experiments can be defined as the autonomous activities of farmers to try or introduce something new at the farm, and include evaluation of success or failure with farmers' own methods. Experiments enable farmers to adapt their farms to changing circumstances, build up local knowledge, and have resulted in countless agricultural innovations. Most research on the topic has been conducted in countries of the south. In this paper, however, we present experiments of randomly sampled organic farmers in Austria, and we discuss implications for agricultural innovation systems. In 76 structured questionnaire interviews we investigated topics, motives, methods and outcomes of farmers' experiments, and factors related to the frequency of experimentation. From the interviewed farmers, 90% reported experiments, and the majority of experiments (94%) involved monitoring and evaluation strategies. Farmers who reported a high frequency of experimentation showed a significantly higher propensity to plan, document and repeat their experiments, and had a more positive attitude towards experimenting than farmers that rarely experimented. We conclude that experimenting is a common activity among organic farmers in Austria, and that farmers have their own methods to conduct and assess their experiments. The most significant outcome is the creation of new knowledge, stressing the importance of experimentation for learning and adaptive farm management. Farmers' experiments are significant on two levels, i.e. at individual farm level and at the level of agricultural innovation systems. Taking full advantage of this innovative potential requires a better involvement of farmers as co-researchers into the development of agricultural innovations.

This study aims to articulate the students' perception about cyber bullying, particularly on social media. Even though ICT technology provides a large number of benefits, particularly those who are young, as Campbell (2005) has pointed out that it has also a "dark side" (p. 68). Particularly after the intensive and extensive use of the social media, the impact of the cyberbullying has dramatically increased, but it is rarely discussed and prevented. Hence, in this study, the forty-five participants were selected from two different universities and by using phenomenological analysis (Moustakas, 1994), eight research questions were answered in the semi-structured interviews, which were approximately 45 minutes in length. By gathering theoriginal data were gathered from 'naive' descriptions the experiences related to cyber bullying were taken into account based on reflection and interpretation of the participant's different stories. The collected data were analyzed in Atlas.ti 6 in order to make depth study. Additionally, there were limitations in terms of selecting the participants since a few students wanted to share their personal experiences. As a result, the data showed that the students had inevitably affected by the cyber bullying in the social media in many ways. Among ali these students, the female students had been influenced to a greater degree comparing to male students. Most (96%) of the participants agreed that social relations had changed a lot and they had to have connections with their friends through the social media. The students— particularly females—viewed cyber bullying as a problem, but no one rarely discussed at the university. More importantly a large number (89%) felt loneliness and they did not know how to behave properly. Most (91%) students did not see any helpful resources when dealing with cyber bullying. Students (82%) were currently experiencing the majority of cyber bullying instances outside of the school day, but they had direct relationship with the events at the university. Students (84%) were not able to suggest some basic strategies in order to deal with cyber bullying. They (79%) agreed that they did not know how to respond to cyberbullying. Additionally, a large number of the (94%) participants agreed that the effects would be different on the elite environments comparing to the socially disadvantaged environments. They (96%) pointed out that the future of social media had been changing in terms of education and learning so that they did not have any chance to ignore the social media. Most (85%) of the participants clarified that the university social environment, centres and counselling offices would develop a better network and understanding in order to decrease cyber bullying. Most (88%) participants articulated that cyber bullying on the socail media would develop particuiar problems and would change the culture of social life. Most (81%) claim that social media are important not only for their social life but also for their Professional life so that they did not want to see their private photographs on the walls of their friends. These (61%) participants strongly pointed out that
privacy was remarkably important for the individuals but it was not controlled. Furthermore, most (92%) participants mentioned that the autonomy in the social media would make the individulas aggressive due to the fact that there was not any law and regulations to.

Knowledge spillovers have been used to explain the increased rate of innovation that is found in technological clusters. The last two decades have seen an increasing interest by researchers trying to capture and measure the effects of these spillovers. However, very little is known about the mechanisms of knowledge exchange that take place in clusters. In this paper we draw on the current body of knowledge and use the concepts of tacit and explicit knowledge to understand how knowledge spillovers actually take place. We present a conceptual model of knowledge accessibility as a mean for knowledge transfer, and we distinguish between knowledge transfer and knowledge spillover based on the knowledge holder's intention or lack of it to exchange such knowledge. We then review how tacit knowledge is being accessed in technological clusters and how it affects knowledge creation.

Possible contacts between hunter-gatherers of Northern Africa and Europe via the Strait of Gibraltar during the Pleistocene are still object to discussions. In the absence of significant fossil remains, debates are mainly based on similarities and differences of singular aspects of material culture. However, a theoretical framework for these discussions was lacking. The first aim of this study thus has been the development of a theoretical base. We therein included Maslow´s pyramid of basic needs. The idea of our approach is that the presence or absence of so-called cultural tracers identify either contact or disparity. A large database on archaeological sites of Morocco and Southern Iberia dating between 160 ka and 40 ka years ago has been compiled, containing information about lithic technology and typology, lithic raw material acquisition, subsistence patterns and symbolic behaviour. We formulated three potential contact scenarios between the two regions. The presence and/ or absence of so-called cultural tracers within the data set, that covered all levels of Maslow´s pyramid, led us to conclude that – based on the present archaeological and anthropological data-no contact took place between Iberian and North African populations across the Strait of Gibraltar in the given time frame. RESUMEN Contactos entre grupos humanos del Pleistoceno superior entre África del Norte y la Península Ibérica cruzando el Estrecho de Gibraltar están siendo objeto de debates. Por la falta de fósiles humanos significativos el debate se centra básicamente en similitudes y diferencias en la cultura material. Pero todavía falta un marco metodológico para la discusión. Este trabajo intenta la presentación de una base teórica preliminar. La pirámide de Maslow con necesidades básicas forma parte de estas reflexiones. La ausencia o presencia de marcadores cul-turales indica según nuestro enfoque contactos o disparidades. En un banco de datos de yacimientos arqueológicos entre 160 ka y 40 ka de Marruecos y del sur de España hemos compilado información sobre tecnología de inventarios líticos, aprovisionamiento de materias primas, patrones de asentamiento y comportamiento simbólico. Se pueden formular tres escenarios de contacto entre ambas regiones. La aplicación de marcadores culturales in relación con la pirámide entera de Maslow indica que según la información actual no se pueden demostrar con-tactos entre ambos continentes. LABURPENA Iparraldeko Afrikaren eta Iberiar penintsularen artean, Gibraltargo itsasartea zeharkatuta, Goi-pleistozenoan giza taldeen artean izan ziren harremanak eztabaidagai bihurtu dira. Gizakiaren fosil esanguratsurik ez dagoenez, eztabaidaren gai nagusia, batez ere, kultura materialean dauden antzekotasunak eta aldeak dira. Baina oraindik eztabaidarako testuinguru metodologikoa falta da. Lan honen helburua da aurretiazko oinarri teorikoa aurkeztea. Oinarrizko beharrak dituen Maslow piramidea gogoeta horien baitan dago. Gure ustez, markatzaile kulturalik ez izateak edo halakoak izateak harremanak edo desberdintasunak adierazten ditu. Marokotik eta Espainiako hegoaldetik 160 ka eta 40 ka arteko distantziara dauden aztarnategi arkeologikoetako datu-basean, inbentario litikoen teknologiari, lehengaien hornikuntzari, finkapeneko ereduei eta portaera sinbolikoari buruzko informazioa jaso dugu. Hori guztia kontuan hartuta, bi eskualdeen arteko harremanetako hiru egoera formula ditzakegu. Gaur egun eskuragarri dugun informazioaren arabera, Maslowko piramide osoarekin lotuta kultur markatzaileak aplikatzeak bi kon-tinente horien arteko kontaktuak ezin direla egiaztatu adierazten du.

This paper seeks to contribute to the growing literature on the entrepreneurial university by mapping knowledge exchange relationships of entrepreneurial faculty in a comprehensive manner and also capturing faculty attitudes towards measures taken by the university administration to promote entrepreneurship. We report on an exploratory study of Sussex University, a medium-sized, research-oriented university, which launched technology transfer activities in the mid-1990s. Our results show that, in spite of a comparatively late start, a considerable number of researchers engage in knowledge exchange processes with industry and other non-academic partners. We present evidence that suggests faculty in the social sciences and humanities as well as natural sciences and engineering maintain links to industrial partners, including multinational corporations. Furthermore, our observations indicate that schools differ in the way their faculty engage in university–industry collaborations. Further differences can be observed with respect to faculty attitudes towards technology transfer and awareness of the university’s respective codes of practice.

Despite fragmentation, heterogeneity and the continuous pressure of the Ottoman Empire, early modern “divided Hungary” witnessed a surprising cultural flourishing in the sixteenth century, and maintained its common cultural identity in the seventeenth century. This could hardly have been possible without intense exchange with the rest of Europe. This three-volume series about early modern Hungary divided by Ottoman presence approaches themes of exchange of information and knowledge from two perspectives, namely, exchange through traditional channels provided by religious/educational institutions and the system of European study tours (Volume 1 – Study Tours and Intellectual-Religious Relationships), and the less regular channels and improvised networks of political diplomacy (Volume 2 – Diplomacy, Information Flow and Cultural Exchange). A by-product of this exchange of information was the changing image of early modern Hungary and Transylvania, which is presented in the third and in some aspects concluding volume of essays (Volume 3 – The Making and Uses of the Image of Hungary and Transylvania). Unlike earlier approaches to the same questions, these volumes draw an alternative map of early modern Hungary. On this map, the centre-periphery conceptions of European early modern culture are replaced by new narratives written from the perspective of historical actors, and the dominance of Western-Hungarian relationships is kept in balance due to the significance of Hungary’s direct neighbours, most importantly the Ottoman Empire.

Knowledge is at the heart of international development work. Knowledge may be the only resource that is not depleted; as we share it, we create more of it. We live in the era of the “knowledge-based economy”. The term is defined by Powell and Snellman (2004) as “production and services based on knowledge-intensive activities that contribute to an accelerated pace of technical and scientific advance”. The key element of the knowledge-based economy is a greater dependency on intellectual capabilities than on physical inputs or natural resources (Powell and Snellman 2004). It covers a wide range of activities. A thread of research on the topic of knowledge-based economy focuses on the role of learning and continuous innovation inside organisations (Drucker 1993, Nonaka & Takeuchi 1995). Some organisations perform better in producing knowledge and diffusing it within and beyond, and researchers are particularly interested in learning the reasons for this, and how such good practices can be duplicated in other organisations or contexts.
In a seminal report published by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (1996), “learning-by-doing” is highlighted as a key element in the knowledge-based economy. An essential aspect of learning is the transformation of tacit knowledge into codified knowledgei and cycling back to practice where new kinds of tacit knowledge are produced (OECD 1996). The report places great importance on the creation, diffusion and use of information and knowledge and concludes that the determinants of success of organisations, and of national economies as a whole, is ever more dependent upon their effectiveness in gathering and utilizing strategic know-how and competence (OECD 1996).
Knowledge has been recognized as an important source of organisational growth, particularly for organisations competing in international environments (Winter 1987; Wenger 1998). Organisational knowledge is indicative of intangible assets, operational routines and creative procedures that are difficult to emulate (Wasko and Faraj 2000). Collective learning occurs when organisational members share their ideas and “engage in constructive confrontations and challenge each other's viewpoints” (Zollo and Winter 2002).
Increasingly we notice that employment and productive work are becoming disaggregated, as more tasks are performed outside of the formal boundaries of an organisation (OECD 1996). Face to face interactions are costly and time consuming, therefore the new collaborative approach of working in a particular field by forming online communities and networks is becoming prevalent. This is typified by the growing number of international organisations that cooperate remotely around the globe. As a result, international organisations are devoting more time and investment on knowledge management, sharing practices, and e-platforms.
The concept of communities of practice (CoPs - Lave and Wenger 1991) has also become more popular with both academics and practitioners over the last two decades. CoPs can be utilized to promote learning and innovation within and between organisations, in an extra-organisational context at the national, regional and international levels. Numerous scholars have documented the roles and implications of CoPs in development sectors. Yet systematic empirical studies on this topic, addressing challenges in sustaining CoPs in development context, are scarce and have not dealt with the implications of engaging development partners (on national/regional/international-levels) in these virtual practices.
This paper describes a case study that is contributing to regional and international knowledge exchange and learning, through establishment of a CoP. It deals with the roll-out of the real-time monitoring (RTM) CoP (as part of the Programme Monitoring and Response Initiative), an online network that brings together practitioners working on the subject of RTM, with the main focus of increasing consistent information-capturing, storage, dissemination and sharing of key lessons learned within and beyond this initiative.

Abstract. This article analyses problems and solutions in the governance of knowledge exchange and joint knowledge production. The analysis is based on a theory which combines elements of transaction cost economics, social exchange theory and theory of knowledge. The ...

Transnational education is a growing trend in higher education that decouples learning from the location of the awarding institution. However, few studies of entrepreneurial universities have considered entrepreneurial universities in the context of the changing geographic landscape of education. This chapter examines the entrepreneurial dimensions of transnational education using empirical evidence from a transnational partnership between De Montfort University and Niels Brock Copenhagen Business College. The authors conclude that the commercialization of knowledge through transnational education requires processes and interactions that foster regional development and thus have implications for social and economic development.