Historical and Intergenerational Trauma

Increasingly, understanding how the role of historical events and context affect present-day health inequities has become a dominant narrative among Native American communities. Historical trauma, which consists of traumatic events targeting a community (e.g., forced relocation) that cause catastrophic upheaval, has been posited by Native communities and some researchers to have pernicious effects that persist across generations through a myriad of mechanisms from biological to behavioral. Consistent with contemporary societal determinants of health approaches, the impact of historical trauma calls upon researchers to explicitly examine theoretically and empirically how historical processes and contexts become embodied. Scholarship that theoretically engages how historically traumatic events become embodied and affect the magnitude and distribution of health inequities is clearly needed. However, the scholarship on historical trauma is limited. Some scholars have focused on these events as etiological agents to social and psychological distress; others have focused on events as an outcome (e.g., historical trauma response); others still have focused on these events as mechanisms or pathways embodiment of historical trauma. Future research directions are discussed.

There is nothing wrong with Black people; something happened to Black people. It is my personal belief that African Americans are not sick or mentally ill people, we are simply sick from being constantly exposed to the sickness of racism and racist people! By deepening our understanding on how to properly use metaphysical meditation and affirmations daily along with raising our vibration beyond the sickness of institutionalized racism and white supremacy, we can heal the trauma of generational poverty in African Americans.

is a training and supervising psychoanalyst and faculty member of the Institute of Contemporary Psychoanalysis, Los Angeles. He has worked with victims and perpetrators of family, domestic, and sexual violence in Australia for four decades initially as a counsellor of juvenile offenders, then as a child protection worker and, in private practice, a forensic and counseling psychologist. He is a member of the American Psychoanalytic Association and Vice President of the Australian Forensic Psychotherapy Association. He is past president of both the Australia and New Zealand Association for the Treatment of Sexual Abuse and the Australian Chapter of the International Association of Relational Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy.

Na atualidade, os ecos traumáticos das ditaduras latino americanas e os respectivos modos de lidar com esse passado vêm sendo objeto de análises por parte de militantes, historiadores e cientistas sociais, tendo em vista os retrocessos políticos e sociais observados e o retorno do “negacionismo” relativo à onda autoritária experimentada na região a partir dos anos 1960. No Brasil, ainda não conhecemos a abrangência da repressão brasileira no período e suas repercussões, assim como do legado ditatorial, o que tem demandado o aprofundamento da análise relativa a essa experiência no país.
O presente estudo esforça-se por analisar fatos de relevância histórica do país, a fim de compreender as especificidades do caso brasileiro, onde o bloqueio do testemunho, os mecanismos de denegação e de banalização dos conflitos impediram que a memória traumática se expressasse amplamente no espaço público, tanto em sua forma jurídica quanto em outros modos, sobretudo a dos familiares de mortos e desaparecidos políticos.

California is home to approximately one-third of the Cambodian American population, many of whom came to the United States as refugees. In a chapter from her book, Southeast Asian Migration: People on the Move in Search of Work, Refuge and Belonging, BIMI-affiliate and Associate Professor of Ethnic Studies Khatharya Um, explores how Cambodian American youth participate in artistic expression and political engagement to navigate the burdens of transgenerational trauma and forced migration. Drawing on Prof. Um’s research, this policy brief makes recommendations for activists, educators, policy makers, and service providers to support the empowerment of young Cambodian Americans and other refugee communities.

Given all of the recent high profile stories of Black people dying at the hands of police, it is vital to understand how trauma might affect students at HBCUs.  This presentation covers 4 types of trauma:

1) historical trauma
2) PTSD
3) race-based trauma
4) community trauma

Despite their unique histories, environments, and lifestyles, historically subjugated populations consistently show poorer health outcomes compared to the general population. The theory of historical trauma, which argues that a collective trauma experienced by one generation can negatively impact the wellbeing of future generations , is a potential framework to understand the adverse health outcomes seen among populations with histories of subjugation. However, the biological pathways through which historical trauma actually impacts health have been unclear. In this paper, we present a cumulative, two pathway model that describes how historical trauma can impact health in contemporary generations. The first pathway suggests that personal exposure to trauma or stressors, which are more common among populations that have experienced historical trauma, can induce epigenetic modifications that can contribute to the development of poor health. The second pathway posits that poor health can occur through intergenerational epigenetic modifications in response to parental and grand-parental trauma or stressor exposures. Taken together, these pathways can provide insight into the higher rates of adverse health outcomes among individuals from populations that have historically endured collective trauma. Importantly, the potential reversible nature of epigenetic modifications suggests that these trauma-induced epigenetic effects are not necessarily permanent and that improvements in environmental conditions could reduce the high prevalence of poor health among historically disadvantaged communities.

This comparative study examines the way Israeli Holocaust descendants and Cambodian genocide descendants differentially reconstitute " discontinued " descendant-ancestor relations with the genocide dead they never knew. Empirically examining the way distant bonds " discontinued " in contexts of warfare and mass suffering are restored in everyday life, this study fills a lacuna in the scholarship on genocide legacies, continuing bonds, and person-dead contact. Descendants depict channels of engagement with the dead entailing person-person-dead contact, person-object interaction, and imaginal conversations, constituting copresence and intersubjectivity. Contrary to trauma theory, Holocaust and genocide studies, and the anthropology of absence that reduce relations with the dead to maladaptive identification or the burdensome presence of voided absence, the data points to normalized and empowering relations. Comparative findings contribute to our understanding of the way cross-cultural meaning making differentially conceptualizes the porous border between the living and their ancestors and informs the restoration of (dis)-continued bonds. [continuing bonds, intergenerational transmission of trauma, genocide legacies, memory, death, intercultural variation] Although much has been written about the psychological legacy of trauma survivors and their descendants (Danieli 1998; Kidron 2012), we know little regarding descendants' lived experience of the presence of and relations with those long dead and the mechanisms through which these bonds are constituted and sustained. Recent studies have shown that survivor-descendant empathic interaction and person-object interaction with memento mori constitute the taken-for-granted material, embodied, and emotive copresence of the geno-cide past in the familial domain (Kidron 2009). We may ask whether within this context of the " living memory " (Halbwachs 1980) of genocide in the survivor home, descendants also empathically sense and engage with absent relatives. Do descendants give their absence form, content, and voice? Considering the absence of direct descendant relations with the distant dead and what the literature depicts as the absence of trauma descendant knowledge regarding the genocide and prewar past (Danieli 1998), how might these relations be con-stituted? How do descendants depict this engagement? In keeping with trauma theory, are relations experienced as a personal burden (Wardi 1990), as a psycho-socially distressing form of identification (Kestenberg 1992), or a meaningful and normalized experience of everyday life? Are these relations solely constituted by the deathworlds that ruptured the lives of their forbears? Alternatively, do inherited ancestor-descendant relations mark the

[AMAZON LINK BELOW TO BOOK ITSELF
-- TOC and book summary in downloadable .pdf] 
According to the poet Elias Canetti, "All the things one has forgotten / scream for help in dreams." To the ancient Egyptians they were prophecies, and in world folklore they have often marked visitations from the dead. For Freud they were expressions of "wish fulfillment," and for Jung, symbolic representations of mythical archetypes. Although there is still much disagreement about the significance and function of dreams, they seem to serve as a barometer of current mind and body states.

In this volume, Deirdre Barrett brings together the study of dreams and the psychology of trauma. She has called on a distinguished group of psychiatrists, psychologists, and social workers--among them Rosalind Cartwright, Robert J. Lifton, and Oliver Sacks--to consider how trauma shapes dreaming and what the dreaming mind might reveal about trauma. The book focuses on catastrophic events, such as combat, political torture, natural disasters, and rape. The lasting effects of childhood trauma, such as sexual abuse or severe burns, on personality formation, the nature of memories of early trauma, and the development of defenses related to amnesia and dissociation are all considered. The book also takes up trauma and adult dreams, including Vietnam veterans and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, Holocaust survivors and perpetrators, rape victims, and firestorm survivors. Finally, this volume concludes with a look at the potential "traumas of normal life," such as divorce, bereavement, and life-threatening illness, and the role of dreams in working through normal grief and loss.

Taken together, these diverse perspectives illuminate the universal and the particular effects of traumatic experience. For physicians and clinicians, determining the etiology of nightmares offers valuable diagnostic and therapeutic insights for individual treatment. This book provides a way of juxtaposing the research in the separate fields of trauma and dreams, and learning from their discoveries.

Various conceptions of peacebuilding are examined to reveal a gap - the omission of a perspective from the standpoint of the oppressed.  As counterpoint, a definition, based on  ‘contrapuntal reading, thinking and writing’ is inserted in order to ‘realise suppressed voices, invisible facts and other hidden elements’ as suggested by Edward Said (Magome, 2006:73).

I am deeply passionate about researching personal narrative and intergenerational trauma. As a survivor of domestic violence within my personal relationships and being raised by a female-dominated, large extended family riddled with generations of abuse, I recognize from my own experience that the line between abuser and victim often becomes blurred. Identity and memory has also fascinated and scared me. I struggled with remembering my past, what the truth was and photography,  use of the camera,  was a way of reconstructing my past, myself,  -- on my own terms. 

I applied my investigative nature rummaging through photographs and family videos trying to see where I came from, but what my family filmed and what they recall is much different than what was experienced. I then started to connect this to the literature of mnemonic battles and thought on a larger level how authority and power dynamics shape and determine what and how events are remembered on a national level  (connecting macro and micro and personal). Leading to my interest in the role of photography in shaping memory and collective and personal identity among families of generational trauma .

For decades, state child welfare authorities have been forcibly removing Native American children from their homes to "save" them from being Indian. In Maine, the first official truth and reconciliation commission in the U.S. began an unprecedented investigation. The Emmy award-winning documentary film, Dawnland, goes behind the scenes as the historic TRC deals with difficult truths, questions the meaning of reconciliation, and charts a new course for state and tribal relations. The compelling question of the Dawnland Teacher's Guide is: What is the relationship between the taking of the land and the taking of the children? This question informs our process of inquiry in twelve lessons that span millennia, beginning tens of thousands of years ago with the peopling of Turtle Island and ending in the eighteenth century with settler colonialism and its scalp-bounty proclamations that targeted Native people for extermination. Each lesson includes relevant standards, useful resources to support inquiry, talking points, historical context, differing perspectives (View from the Shore/View from the Boat), learning objectives, supporting questions, key terms, before-class and in-class activities, and lesson closure. This guide is designed for middle and high school teachers and their students, and can be easily adapted for other grade levels.

This teacher's guide is designed

In the mid to late nineteenth century, two Indigenous groups of New Mexico territory, the Mescalero and the Chiricahua Apaches, faced violence, imprisonment, and exile. During a century of settler influx, territorial changeovers, vigilante violence, and Indian removal, these two cousin tribes withstood an experience beyond individual pain best described as ethnotrauma. Rooted in racial persecution and mass violence, this ethnotrauma possessed layers of traumatic reaction that not only revolved around their ethnicity, but around their relationship with their home lands as well. Disconnected from the ritual resources and sacred geographies that made up every day Apache living, both groups faced a profound and uphill struggle to maintain their community and very identity in the wake of immense and collective psychological distress. This essay emphasizes the role that geography plays in both the immediate impact of exile trauma and in the healing possibilities that this sacred connection to place has to offer Indigenous communities, even in the midst of exile.

In public discourse in Nunavut on the painful subject of elevated rates of suicide in the territory, one hears a wide range of opinions on the question of ‘what was the suicide rate in our society before settlement in communities?’ Opinions range from ‘Inuit never killed themselves before the Qallunaat came’ to ‘Suicide is part of our culture’ (the suggestion being that historical Inuit society had a high rate of suicide).
Greater clarity about suicide behaviour in the past may be helpful because perceptions about the frequency and nature of suicide in historical Inuit society can impact on how people understand suicide behaviour today (i.e. whether suicide behavior today reflects traditional cultural norms). This report presents data from a variety of sources that may help clarify understanding about what we know and don’t know about the development of elevated rates of suicide in Nunavut in the last 100 years.

This paper introduces the phenomenon of inter-generational trauma in Indigenous individuals, families, and communities as a product of ongoing colonialism. Explored here, are some of the manifestations of inter-generational trauma as well as some of the mechanisms by which it is inherited. Inter-generational trauma is a form of inequality that especially affects Indigenous peoples globally that may be easily overlooked. Thus it is imperative in Indigenous-related research that inter-generational trauma be further accounted for and explored.

Trauma and traumatization have arguably always been part of the human experience yet have in the last few decades come to occupy a prominent place in various popular and academic contexts. This chapter offers an interdisciplinary and comparative investigation of trauma and traumatization in different historical contexts. More specifically, my aim is to discuss whether the rich bodies of research in trauma and traumatization in Holocaust survivors and their descendants yield relevant insights for post-slavery contexts. It has been shown that children of Holocaust survivors suffer from stress and other symptoms related to their parents’ traumatization which influence the interactions with their environments. Such results made me wonder whether the traumatic impact of chattel slavery—which has been abolished some 160 years ago—might have a similar impact, yet now across several generations.
Issues of the transmission and current persistence of trauma are inherently linked to questions of social justice, recognition and reparations. This chapter is meant, however, as an exploration of interdisciplinary connections that should be studied in concert to account for the traumatic impact of historical and present day experiences. It starts by discussing the concepts of trauma and post-traumatic stress disorder. Continuing by exploring the phenomenon of the inter- and transgenerational transmission of trauma, it relies in part on the important body of research conducted on families of Holocaust survivors. I then turn to the much less researched ‘post-traumatic slave syndrome’ (DeGruy) and discuss two factors that might contribute to the transgenerational transmission of trauma in the families of former enslaved: epigenetics and the continuation of traumatization even after the abolition of slavery as articulated in Historical Trauma theory. Drawing upon these insights, I conclude that it is plausible that a continuing transgenerational transmission of trauma might occur in some families of slavery survivors, the knowledge of which might help to break the chains of such traumatization across generations.

This essay argues that the immense and powerful reservoir of “ethnographic notes” is actually the Indigenous storyteller’s body of work. Focusing exclusively on the narratives of Carmel Indian Isabel Meadows about a Carmel woman named Estéfana Real, the lens of Athabascan scholar Dian Million’s “felt theory” establishes Isabel as a storyteller, scholar, and cultural activist who essentially uses Harrington as a note taker for communicating with future Indian communities through Indigenous storytelling strategies.

While a more recent method for biblical study, Trauma Hermeneutics has helped provide greater context for our understanding of Scripture as a whole. Qoheleth, the author of Ecclesiastes, takes traditional wisdom literature and rewrites a new version in order to make sense and meaning from an experienced traumatic event in the process of rebuilding shattered personal and collective myths. The anti-wisdom of the Teacher can readily be explained through this new method, although it also calls for caution to not westernize or colonize how the Israelites may be processing through disasters they endured.

If you are running a book club or discussion group based on The Black Butterfly, here is the discussion guide developed by the author that you can use to prompt discussion.

This discussion guide might also have utility for high school teachers or professors in higher education as well.

This research explores key themes emerging from the question of the meaning Anishinaabe individuals attach to utilizing traditional practices and ceremonies to address their own trauma.  The contributors share their stories, which are deeply rooted in relationships.  The methodology of this research is also rooted within an Indigenous paradigm; storytelling is a core feature of relationships and knowledge transmission through its ability to weave together and across generations.  Indigenous cultures have had a long history of both verbal and visual storytelling, in the forms of pictographs and petroglyphs, wampum belts, bead and quill work, and so on.  While stories are often entertaining, they are at their core, the most human of activities.    Anishinaabe approaches to ceremony, spirit and the sacred are woven into the language, attitudes and practices that people still engage in, despite the depredations of colonization.  The findings of this research explore how identity, found through love, caring, self-awareness, and the (re)claiming of wellness and wholeness, permeates the stories of healing and is rooted in ceremonies.  This is relationship with self and self-in-relation to all things: niwiikaniginaa.  Land-as-home, culture, family, and love ground people in their sense of self and wellness.  Language and thought emerge from the land, the source of well-being or mino bimaadsiwin in the most profound ways.  It is through home – land, family, culture, spiritual connection – that healing occurs in ways that cannot be found in clinical systems.

Matt Johnson. Applied Psychology in Armenia: A Brief History and Contemporary Perspective. Armenia & Georgia, 2015. University of Minnesota - Twin Cities.  Research was conducted via the examination of relevant scholarly material.  Additionally, a series of interviews were conducted with members of the psychological community in Armenia. The Spitak Earthquake of 1988 saw an influx of international humanitarian aid to Armenia, including those providing mental health services.  Methodologies of applied psychology arrived with aid workers which were previously non-existent in Soviet Armenia. However, the psychiatric model of somatic and medicinal treatment continued to dominate the field. This model features psychiatric hospitals as the primary means of treatment. A series of reports published in the later 2000’s exposed human rights violations and ineffective treatments in these institutions.  Present day members of the applied psychological community were interviewed.  Interview subjects expressed some common beliefs and were divided regarding many issues of the present and future of applied psychology in Armenia.

Family stories give the individual a sense of identity and create a story for the inclusion, transmission and attachment of new generations. If we know the past of the family, we can tell the story of how it is. The family features of the past and today are familiar to the individual. New generations depend on the way of movement and discourses of previous generations. While some of these stories are about identity, ethnicity, culture, some are about family history, positive or negative experiences. Traumatic events that family members have witnessed or experienced are transferred to later generations. Traumatically overwhelming, unbearable, unimaginable memories and discourses go beyond social discourse and are passed to the future generations as emotional tenderness or a chaotic urgency.
Various theories and methods have been developed to understand and clarify this transmission. Transgenerational transmission studies have come into question with Holocaust studies, first studies on that topic began with the 2nd and 3rd generations of Holocaust survivors. Theories of trauma transmission point some different approaches of how traumatic events experienced by the family transmitted, they are: transgenerational transmission, inter-generational transmission, multigenerational transmission, cross-generational transmission and parental transmission.
In 1990, Marianne Hirsch proposed the concept of post-memory as a transgenerational transmission in a work on formation of collective memory of Holocaust. The concept became a fundamental element of memory work, causing a series of debates. According to the theorists who embraced the post-memory conception, there was a need for a specific conceptualization to study the function of traumatic experience transmission through images and stories, to establish the knowledge of experience of later generations. It thus, made possible, to describe a proximal experience or indirect recall from a transgenerational point of view, in which the subjective relationship with the event is preserved. In the last two decades, post-memory was centered on almost all trauma transmission and cultural studies. Not only the next generation of Holocaust survivors, but also dynamics of other societies who were exposed to societal and historical trauma are covered within this concept.
This study handles the transgenerational trauma transmission in post-memory theoretical framework. How transmission occurs, what is transmitted to generations, when transmission took place and how this transmission affects future generations are topics of that study.

Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada
was composed of federally appointed commissioners
and was established to address the colonial impacts
resultant of the Indian Residential Schools (IRS), which
started before Canada was a country (confederation
1867) with the last residential school closing in 1996. As
stated in the TRC document, the goal of the residential
schools was ‘to kill the Indian in the child’ (Truth and
Reconciliation Commission of Canada, 2015, p. 130).

The TRC was the result of a class-action settlement
against the Government of Canada that brought about
some financial compensation for the outcomes of the
IRS program— a condition of the settlement including
an agreement to strike the TRC to collect the stories
as well as uncover the subsequent harms that have
impacted generations of people. The TRC commission
worked to collect those truths—with an overall goal of
reconciliation. In that regard, there remains a substantial
amount of work to do.

With the 2015 release of the TRC report and subsequent
94 Calls to Action, the implication and expectation is
that emphasis can shift from truth to reconciliation.
These recommendations may act as a starting point
to begin to acknowledge and make amends for past
harms. However, there has traditionally been a gap
between truth and reconciliation. As Llewellyn (2012)
explains, truth and reconciliation are not mutually
exclusive, but are distinct entities; simply gathering
the truth does not equate to reconciliation. Llewellyn
(2012) states, ‘Reconciliation requires a truth that
is able to contain the complexities borne by our
interconnectedness and interdependence’ (p. 191).
One criticism is that the TRC Calls to Action are broad,
leaving guesswork as to where to begin to take up these
Calls. One useful approach was highlighted by then
Justice, now Senator Murray Sinclair: “to choose one
and focus on that one Call to Action.” This document
provides a roadmap in how to address and respond
to Call to Action: 34 in which FASD and justice are the
central focus.

The Framework for Action seeks to deliver an evidencebased
approach to taking up this Call to Action. In
so doing, it relies first on the exhaustive evidence
presented during the TRC Commission hearings and
as evidenced in the six-volume set of books later
published. This evidence is complemented with peerreviewed
and policy literature. There is a summary
of relevant practices for consideration followed by
the Framework for Action. The overall goal is to offer
guidance to different sectors that might be engaged
in this work and outline a tangible mechanism to
bring research into reconciliatory research, policy and
practice

How is it possible for diasporic Indigenous women and mothers, to remember, recover and restory what has been lost in the last five hundred years of colonization? How can mothers who have been displaced from land, language, and culture as a result of colonization participate in cultural restoration, their own and that of the collective. How is Trauma involved, relied on, perpetuated, and resolved in order to either maintain or escape patterns of fight, flight and/or paralysis? As a Xicana Indígena mother, existing in the cycle of birth and death, always becoming ancestor, I have searched for an accurate story to pass on to my children, a story that is true but that is also a truth-telling. I address and explore problems of authentic identity – de- Indianization, appropriation and misappropriation, and hemispheric Indigeneity in order to set up the initial problem. I then move on to consider historical trauma, trauma theory, Indigenous healing practices and paradigms as well as resonant western ones. I then consider histories, issues, and ceremonies related to Indigenous birth and mothering. This project is a Ceremony of restoration, of decoding remnants, of generative gestures, and stitching stories. It offers guiding principles and ceremonial protocols that allow for the product of ceremony, vision, to emerge. A large part of this dissertation consists of imaginal, dream-crafted, poietic, and performative output and it is supplemented with an exhibition and a published collection of poetry. I share my vision, a personal transformation and an offering, a generative gesture of In Xochitl In Cuicatl – poetry and prayer that honors Indigenous holistic dualism as a way forward through trauma . . . into freedom. Supplementary materials available at: http://hdl.handle.net/2429/79526

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: While research has identified racial trauma in other contexts, it is often overlooked amongst Canadian society. Racial trauma occurs as a result of an event of racism or cumulative events over time whereby an individual experiences stress and consequent mental health sequelae. Given that the BIPOC (Black, Indigenous, and/or Person of Colour) population in Canada is increasing, it is imperative to identify racial discrimination and the subsequent stress and trauma associated with being racialized in Canada, which subjects BIPOC Canadians to various forms of racism, including microaggressions. RECENT FINDINGS: This paper reviews the published literature on racism and racial discrimination that identifies or infers racial trauma as the source of the mental health implications for various groups (e.g., Indigenous people, Black Canadians, Asian Canadians, immigrants, and refugees). In addition, intersectionality of racialized persons is prominent to their psychological well-being as their psychosocial and socioeconomic position are complex. Therefore, this paper both provides insight into the Canadian experience as a person of colour and signifies the need for further research on racial trauma in a Canadian context. SUMMARY: Despite Canada's emphasis on multiculturalism, racialized individuals are at risk for racial trauma due to prejudice and discrimination. The politicization of multiculturalism has permitted Canada to deny claims of racism, yet the historical basis of established institutions results in irrefutable systemic and systematic barriers for Canadian people of colour.

A syllabus for teachers and students regarding historical trauma and Baltimore Apartheid. This syllabus was compiled to highlight the impacts of ongoing historical trauma in Baltimore’s Black Butterfly communities.

The syllabus highlights how multiple systems in Baltimore were created and continue to proliferate structural disadvantage in Black Butterfly neighborhoods. Systems include education, real estate/housing, food/water, philanthropy, industry, transportation, public health, urban renewal, economic development, corrections, and police.

This somatic, depth psychological, intuitive inquiry explores the transformative and healing effects of the process of remembrance of blood ancestors in body, heart and mind as the Maya, the researcher’s paternal ancestors, understand na’b’al, blood memory, and the way ancestors are brought into present, living relationship through remembrance of ancestral story, culture, and ceremony. This study, based on personal experience, addresses the current lack of depth psychological research and understanding of the healing process of historical trauma within modern indigenous people who have grown up disconnected from the culture of their heritage. Methods used include data collection through journal entries, data analysis through the summary of somatic, relational, visionary, natural and synchronistic changes, and both intuitive and standard thematic analysis. Findings include changes consistent with a shamanic healing journey resulting in an expanded sense of consciousness, spirit and ancestor communication, and an overall increased sense of purpose, wholeness, and wellness. The study compares and contrasts indigenous with depth psychological understandings of ancestors, spirits, space and time, ceremony, balance, and healing. While many commonalities are found, the study suggests that depth psychological language and theory fall short in their ability to fully explain indigenous spiritual experiences. The study also illuminates the potential dangers of assuming that all cultures are the universal heritage of humanity.

Trauma has been garnering more and more attention over the past few years, with the rampant climb of
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, and the understanding of what can cause it. Intergenerational trauma
among American Indians is an area of study that has just started to generate attention from communities
inside Indian country, academicia and the medical profession.
Mary Annette Pember has worked for several years to help bring this dynamic issue to the forefront of mainstream health. Her reporting for ICTMN, with the help of support from The Rosalynn Carter Fellowships for Mental Health Journalism and Annenberg School for Communications and Journalism, University of Southern California; the Dennis A. Hunt Fund for Health Journalism has addressed the concept of intergenerational trauma at its core. By addressing breaking news, such as recent evidence that this type of trauma could be passed along through DNA, and by providing several ways of how American Indians are managing and coping with trauma, Pember helps put a human face on abstract theory and practice. Here she shares personal stories that are gritty, poignant and factual.

Գրքում քննարկւում է 20րդ դարասկզբին նախաձեռնուած թուրքական ինքնութեան կառուցման եւ դրանում թուրքական հասարակութիւնում հայերի նկատմամբ ատելութեան գործօնին հատկացուած դերի հարցը: Խնդիրը դիտարկւում է Մուսաֆա Քեմալի կողմից թուրքական «Ազգային ուխտի» ձեւաորումներից սկսուած, թուրք-հայկական պատերազմը նախապատրաստող եւ պատերազմի ընթացքի քարոզչութեան,
ապա՝ քեմալիզմի շրջանի ինչպէս պետական իրաւական որոշումների, այնպէս էլ կոնկրետ գործողութիւնների վերլուծութեամբ: Սոյն աշխատանքում հարցը քննարկուած է Ցեղասպանութիւնից հետո Թուրքիայի տարածքում, յատկապէս Արեւմտեան
Հայաստանում եւ Կիլիկիայում մնացած հայութեան կեանքի պայմանների եւ ապրումների միջոցով: Որպես նոր նիւթ օգտագործուած են գլխավորապես մինչեւ 20րդ
դարի 80ականները հիշեալ տարածքներում ապրած մարդկանց՝ իրենց ընտանիքների մասին բանաւոր պատմութիւնները: Գիրքը կարող է հետաքրքրել պատմաբաններին, մասնաւորապես ցեղասպանագէտներին, հասարակագէտներին, ազգայնականութեան խնդիրներով հետաքրքրուողներին, ուսանողներին, 20րդ դարի պատմութեամբ
զբաղուողներին:

A text on data colonialism and intergenerational trauma for Indigenous Peoples I was commissioned to write by Donau Festival 2020 (an addendum publication, Donau Reader, to the 2020 edition of the festival). The article discusses data activism more particularly and ways in which we can implement decolonial thought through storytelling and art exhibitions, for example.

This is the Dawnland Teacher's Guide, which accompanies the Emmy-award winning documentary film, DAWNLAND, about the forced removal of Native children by state welfare workers and the truth commission in Maine that set out to uncover the impact of these state policies. It consists of twelve lessons and is apt to use by classroom teachers, especially middle and high school. For teachers who grew up knowing only one perspective of US history (what we refer to as the View from the Boat), it presents an alternative perspective (the View from the Shore). This guide focuses on history because it is what most non-Native teachers need to learn so they can answer the teacher's guide compelling question: What is the relationship between the taking of the land and the taking of the children?

This article considers a relational perspective regarding the intergenerational transmission of the trauma of violence. The psychoanalytic literature suggests that parents often transmit the trauma of violence to their children in the form of projected nameless dread and unmentalized states that interfere with the children's emotional needs and support. The offspring absorbs the trauma, which manifests itself in the form of disorganized attachment and in turn leads to the development of a predisposition toward cocoon-like dissociative states. This study considers two clinical cases that examine the interpersonal dynamics of dissociative processes. The therapist's reverie about his ancestors' survival of depersonalizing violence and Winnicott's concept of the survival and the use of the object help the therapist find his or her identity and gain the relational freedom needed to overcome the dissociative state, thereby becoming an alive subject who is able to help the child patient.

This paper, through an examination of history, challenges the notion of mutuality in the processes that dispossessed Metis, as well as Indigenous peoples more broadly, of their lands following Canada's 1867 Confederation. The Metis scrip system is explored in depth, within the contexts of Canadian colonization that produced its circumstances before, during, and following this event of systematized hegemony.

How did Chile’s National Directorate of Intelligence (DINA) contribute to the institutionalization of the social categories of ‘el enemigo interno’ (the internal enemy) and the “subversion” as a justification for creating a culture of fear and political repression against ever-broadening​ category of enemies of the State? How did la DINA frame their justifications for their use of psychological warfare against ‘el enemigo interno’ and the subversive threat? A historical analysis of the documents released as a part of the United States Department of State’s Chile Declassification Project provides insight into the history of DINA, from its development during the end of 1973 and early months of 1974 to its dissolution in August 1977. While DINA was originally conceived as Chile’s secret police and intelligence service, it was the primary agent of repression, political violence, and terror. DINA’s tactics included torture, forced disappearances and politically motivated assassinations of dissidents in Chile and the United States. A critical examination of these documents reveals how Pinochet and his allies framed their justifications for the institutionalization of DINA and its use of psychological warfare against enemies of the State.

In-depth interviews of Black male graduates from Restorative Practices schools and interviews of their advocates show that Restorative Practices improves the vista for Black male students and that Cultural Restorative Practices offer the greatest opportunity for Black male students to uncover their authentic identities.

This work is an investigation into how youth in Derry~Londonderry are impacted by ‘The Troubles’. Using Hirsch’s concept of postmemory, this work explores how the past affects youth’s historical knowledge, identity and the way they use the urban space. By looking at the segregated and shared areas of the city, this work analyses the spatial patterns of youth. This work also uses Larkin’s notion of ‘memoryscapes’ as a way to investigate the knowledge and understanding youth have of these sites of traumatic memories. It concludes that there are layers of collective memory collected by that impact the understanding youth have. However, the interpretations and knowledge that youth carry about their urban environment emphasise the importance in understanding the collective memory, as these sites play an important role in representing the past in the cityscape.

This paper summarises 9 years of research by strategy consultants into the root causes of violent behaviour and the most effective methods, worldwide, to address these root causes. It draws attention to the particular importance of parenting/care in the early years in the development of violent personalities

Multiple studies on the topic of intergenerational transmission of trauma (IGTT) have been
carried out internationally in various contexts; however little is known about IGTT in the
context of the Idi Amin regime in Uganda. The present study explored the outcomes and
mechanisms via which the trauma of one generation who lived through Idi Amin’s regime
impacted the subsequent generation. Using an Interpretative Phenomenological Approach
(IPA), this study investigated the subjective experiences, beliefs and perceptions of six
Ugandans now based in the UK, whose parents lived in Uganda under Idi Amin’s military
rule. Five superordinate themes were identified: 1. “Family dynamics” which described the
family system as the place in which the parents’ trauma was seeded and the effects of their
trauma were experienced; “Absence and loss” which highlighted the traumatic events and
negative outcomes of the trauma such as psychological absence and death; “Sense making
as a process” which included participants’ more positive interpretations of their experiences
such as making meaning through suffering and gaining strength from their difficulties; “The
dynamic nature of memories and remembering” highlighted dynamic interaction of the
participants with the narrative of their traumatic experiences and ability to reframe them; and
“The individuation process” which explored the impact that the participants experiences had
on their adult life. The findings are discussed in terms of the existing theories on IGTT and
implications for practice are explored, including a recommendation for a multilevel framework
considering the family and community-societal levels, and a holistic approach to trauma
treatment which integrates the mind, body and spirit.

Review of History Beyond Trauma and The Shell and the Kernel. 

History Beyond Trauma, by Françoise Davoine and Jean-Max Gaudillière, has been well-received for over ten years.  I could hardly find a negative review.  But, in my view the book provides no evidence at all for its most fundamental claim: that historical and social trauma is the origin of madness (pp xxii-xxiii).

This study analyzes the final form of Ezra-Nehemiah through the lens of historical trauma. Previous studies examine symptoms of trauma in literary characters and fragmented memories in the literature of the Bible. Historical trauma, however, focuses upon the cross-generational genetic, epigenetic, and social effects of trauma. Sociologists suggest that narrative construction is essential for multigenerational resilience. Based on parallels of forced migration and colonized repatriation, this study utilizes findings regarding historical trauma in indigenous American communities to illuminate the experiences constructed in the Masoretic form of Ezra-Nehemiah. From a colonized perspective, Ezra-Nehemiah imagines a response of resilience to the exile and long-term colonization of repatriated Judeans. Historical trauma theory would frame the reestablishment of the temple, the city walls, and the law as a narrative source of agency, resilience, and cultural clarity. Ezra-Nehemiah communicates to future generations that even though the trauma of exile has not finished, the ability to reassert agency and an adaptable differentiated identity is continual, pressing, and restorative.