Destruction of Cultural Heritage

The concept of the “cultural heritage of all humankind” is often summarily dismissed by scholars, possibly due to the aura of unscholarly idealism it appears to emanate. However, it has long been claimed that the special status of objects of cultural, historical, or religious value is a consequence of their importance to the whole humanity rather than their economic or aesthetic value. Global outrage provoked by destruction of unique symbols of our shared past is proof that such claims are not unfounded. Considering that cultural heritage faces increasing risk of intentional destruction for ideological reasons, and the discriminatory intent inherent in such devastations poses a threat to the entire international community, it is opportune to initiate a discussion on the adequacy of the existing legal mechanisms for the protection of cultural heritage in armed conflicts and the perspectives it offers to address these challenges in a comprehensive and informed manner.

In 2016, the International Criminal Court (ICC) focused on the sole
charge of crimes against cultural property in the Prosecutor v. Al Mahdi case.  This judgment marks a first under several aspects, and scholars have published excellent studies regarding that case’s decision and proceedings by extending the analytic lens into different places and varied spaces. In every scholarly publication, however, authors have failed to explore two components of the ICC judgment that are worth noting: first, the role played by the inhabitants of the Timbuktu area in preserving and safeguarding the buildings and institutions that have been then destroyed; and second, the elements of restorative justice traceable in the ICC Trial Chamber (TC)’s reasoning, in the behavior of those convicted, and in the kind of reparation the TC and the Trust Fund for Victims (TFV) awarded to victims.
This article will present (1) a summary of the Al Mahdi case and the ICC
judgment; (2) an excursus on the crimes against culture at international
level; (3) an analysis of the notion of ‘heritage community’ as applied to the Timbuktu community engaged in the protection of their cultural heritage; and (4) an analysis of the restorative justice measures taken by the ICC as part of the reparation awarded (5 and 6).

This article reflects on the arguments that heritage is as much about people as it is about places and objects. It is focused on Syria and based on a doctoral research project. The article investigates how heritage is approached by both “civil society” groups and extremist religious groups in Syria. It argues that the utilization of heritage by these groups offers learning lessons and examples of people-centered, socially innovative, and future-oriented heritage practices. The article suggests that the heritage community’s efforts in conflict contexts should be less about preservation and more about embracing change and finding creative ways to manage the transformation process from a pre-conflict society to a post-conflict society. In other words, they should tackle issues that matter to conflict-affected people, improve the quality of their life, and increase their horizons of hope and opportunities in assembling better futures.

Jelen tanulmány a biztonságiasítás koncepcióját alkalmazva kívánja bemutatni a kulturális örökség konfliktuszónákban való védelmének a nemzetközi béke és biztonság szempontjából is releváns kihívássá válását, amelyet egyrészt a közel-keleti és afrikai régióban tevékenykedő terrorszervezetek által elkövetett cselekmények, másrészt a térségben zajló fegyveres konfliktusok által okozott járulékos veszteségek nagy volumene generált. Három nemzetközi szervezet (ENSZ, UNESCO, EU) retorikájának, illetve döntéseinek vizsgálata alapján jól látszik a nemzetközi elköteleződés mind a kulturális javak fizikai megsemmisítésének megakadályozása, mind az illegális kereskedelem felszámolása érdekében, s azok békefenntartó műveletekbe való integrációja is lehetségessé vált.

***

By applying the concept of securitization, the paper aims to present how the protection of cultural heritage in conflict zones has been becoming a relevant challenge from the point of view of international peace and security, generated by the large volume of both the deliberate destructions of terrorist group active in the Middle Eastern and African region and the collateral damages of the armed conflicts in the area. Through the examination of the rhetoric and decisions of three international organisations (UN, UNESCO, EU), we can clearly see the evolving international commitment to stop both the physical destruction and the illicit trade of cultural property, and also, their integration in peacekeeping operations has become possible.

In the International Criminal Court case of The Prosecutor v. Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi, neither the Prosecutor nor the Court addressed the issue of whether attacks on cultural heritage can be tried as crimes against humanity under Article 7 of the Rome Statute of the ICC, provided that they are part of a widespread or systematic attack against the civilian population and are committed with knowledge of such attack. Even though his actions were part of a wider persecutory plan against the civilian population, Al Mahdi was held responsible only for war crimes for the intentional destruction of historical buildings during the Islamist occupation of the Malian city of Timbuktu, be- tween April 2012 and January 2013. This raises the question whether one should conclude that at- tacks on cultural heritage simply cannot be tried as crimes against humanity before the ICC. This paper argues that the Al Mahdi judgment does not prevent attacks on cultural property from being tried as crimes against humanity, and that the categorization of certain attacks on cultural heritage as crimes against humanity may have practical implications for the selection and prioritization of cases by the Office of the Prosecutor.

The idea that there exists a certain type of heritage, known as ‘’World Heritage’’, possessing a symbolic value, not only for a national or local group but for the whole humanity and, thus, its protection and preservation is a worldwide obligation, is a quite recent concept that made its appearance in the 20th century. A major landmark towards the protection of World Heritage was UNESCO’s 1972 Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. However, sometimes, there exist conflicting values that can lead to the destruction (and even the elimination), instead of the preservation of material culture. That is exactly what happened in 2001, when the Taliban regime of Afghanistan destroyed the famous Buddhas of Bamiyan, two giant statues of the fifth century, situated in the Hindu Kush mountains, that were considered to be the largest Buddha statues in the world. Their destruction came as a huge shock, not only for the local people of Afghanistan, but for the entire global community.

In 2011, the Prince Sultan bin Salman bin ‘Abd al-‘Aziz Al Saud, President of the Saudi Commission for Tourism and National Heritage, stated that the “Islamic antiquities in the Kingdom represent main face of antiquities of Islam”. This should not be surprising because of the fact that Arabia is the cradle of Islam is a key element of the national identity the Saud family has been disseminating since the creation of the Kingdom in 1932. Nevertheless, the destruction of Islamic sites by the first Saudi rulers in the 19th and in the beginning of the 20th centuries along with the recent destruction of archaeological elements caused by the extension of Mecca may raise some questions about the status of remains and objects of Islam in its native territory. On the other hand, the study of collecting and displaying in Saudi Arabia shows those Islamic antiquities have been progressively and definitely included in the heritage policy developed by the authorities for almost fifty years. This paper aims at presenting the processes and stakes of collecting Islamic items in Saudi Arabia at a time when the Kingdom is looking for a regenerate political, economical and cultural legitimacy.

Apart from the decades-long destruction and desecration of Azerbaijani heritage within the previously occupied territories, acts of appropriation of the Azerbaijani culture in these lands have also been part of a clearly targeted policy pursued by the Armenian occupying forces. The appropriation of Azerbaijani heritage can be seen not only in the previously occupied territories of Azerbaijan but also in the territories of modern-day Armenia where, today, no Azerbaijanis reside (250, 000 Azerbaijanis were forcefully deported during the years 1988–1989).

The struggle to save Hasankeyf from the now imminent flooding in connection with the construction of the hydroelectric dam at Ilisu on the Tigris river in the southeastern part of Turkey has been the subject of international attention for decades. The first part of this paper describes the process with respect to the financing and construction of the dam, examining in particular the lessons learned as to the role of international standards on the protection of cultural heritage in development and their implementation through different actors and processes. The second part discusses the case against Turkey brought by Turkish citizens before the European Court of Human Rights in connection with the construction of the Ilisu dam, highlighting that-despite the outcome of the case-it might still be considered a step forward toward advancing public interest litigation for the protection of cultural heritage. Part three offers conclusions.

A bronze sculpture of a girl could have implications for the North-Korean missile crisis. An artistic installation in a small German village is called a terrorist act. In New York, a monument that was only visible for a few hours prompts the New York Police Department to conduct DNA tests. These are just a few examples from the extreme world of illegal monuments.

The creators of these monuments do not wait for permission in order to commemorate certain persons and occurrences. Instead, they present a version of events that runs counter to the established political or historical narrative: suddenly, enemies of the state are re-cast as heroes; forgotten victims are remembered and vindicated. One might assume that most of these illegal monuments are short-lived and fleeting. But the various international examples in this article show that illegal monuments can have tremendous influence on a national or even global scale. In addition, they do not only exist in the unlawful realm. Practically overnight, they can become state-sanctioned, or transform from activist objects into works of art, showcased in galleries and museums. Illegal monuments are slippery and often harbour many contradictions, merging humour with trauma or the virtual with the real. Thus, they may be impossible to define. And yet – at the same time – it is precisely their shifting nature which allows us to reconsider what a monument, be it legal or illegal, actually is.

The process of destruction and seizure of historic-artistic assets during the Civil War affected, in the northern districts of the province of Granada, especially the diocesan Church.  The Bishopric of Guadix had managed to accumulate an ample movable patrimony, administered by different ecclesiastical institutions. The systematic attacks against these properties in the first months of the conflict motivated the action of the Board of the Artistic Treasure, managing to safeguard what was not destroyed. After the war a process of restoration began that allowed to recover not only disappeared goods, but to attract the attention of the artistic historiography.  The quantification of losses and the narrative of its restoration, in the light of documentary research, allow us to understand the true value of an unprecedented heritage.

Why  cultural heritage becomes a target? Using examples of heritage  destruction  and abuse in Jammu and Kashmir, India, this paper aims to analyze inherent links between heritage, identity and politics. It outlines various aspects of the ongoing cultural crisis in the conflict afflicted Northern state of India.

Chapter from Cultural Emergency in Conflicts and Disasters
ISBN 978-90-5662-817-8 | 1. edition | September 2011 | available | Georg Frerks, Berma Klein Goldewijk (eds.), Els van der Plas (visual eds.) | design: Irma Boom | English | paperback | 17 x 24 cm | 400 pages | illustrated (145 color and b/w) | in conjunction with: Prince Claus Fund for Culture and Development

Hanspeter Schaudig,

“Uprooting”: A Visual Element of Assyrian Imperialistic Propaganda”, in: Writing and Re–Writing History by Destruction. Proceedings of the Annual Minerva Center RIAB Conference, Leipzig, 2018. Research on Israel and Aram in Biblical Times III. Edited by A. Berlejung, A.M. Maeir, T.M. Oshima. Mohr-Siebeck 2022, pp. 258–274.

Due to copyright restrictions, this article is not yet publicly available in electronic form.

For a copy, please contact the author via H.Schaudig@gmx.de; subject line: Uprooting

This research paper aimed to determine which damage types were the most frequent and caused the greatest amount of damage to sites during the Syrian civil war. Furthermore, the author aimed to understand if different types of damage differentially affected sites due to their period or topographical attributes. The author carried out a desk-based survey to assess damage at 202 heritage sites using satellite imagery and second-hand sources. The author has used the frequency-severity model to analyse and categorise site damage; overall there are four scales; high frequency-high severity, low frequency-high severity, high frequency-low severity and midfrequency-mid severity. The author’s research has revealed that there are relationships between damage types, frequency, severity and site period. Overall, the most frequently occurring and most severe damage types affecting cultural heritage sites in Syria are; looting, military collateral damage and militarisation. Furthermore, Classical and Medieval sites as periods were targeted the most during the armed conflict, however, topographically, tells and mounds are the most affected sites. The research has highlighted the importance of using risk management theories to predict and prevent damage by implementing anticipatory and preemptive strategies during peacetime rather than reacting to damage during crisis (OCHA 2014).

This paper looks at some case studies of destructions, ancient and modern, and suggests that a more nuanced approach is necessary to understanding the reasons behind them and in future applying a more forensic approach to their analysis and excavation. The case studies include the destruction of sites and museums in Afghanistan and Iraq, the effects of abandonment occasionally resembling a sack, and what patterns of destruction can be detected in the archaeological record at some of the major Late Assyrian sites.

ÖZET 20. yüzyılın ilk çeyreğinde geçirmiş olduğu büyük savaşlardan sonra Anadolu ve Trakya'da birçok Türk şehri harap duruma düşmüştür. Savaş sonrasında yeni kurulan Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, hukuk, eğitim, imar gibi birçok alanda reformlar yaparak uygarlaşmaya çalışmıştır. Savaşın izlerini taşıyan Türk şehirlerine modern kent kimliğini kazandırmak amacıyla imar planları oluşturulmuş ve bu planlara göre imar çalışmaları uzun yıllar boyunca sürmüştür. İmar çalışmaları kapsamında kentlerimiz birçok meydan, bulvar gibi modern kentlerin ihtiyacı olan donatı elemanlarını kazanmıştır. Ancak Türk kentleri, özellikle 1950'li yıllardan itibaren plansız ve aceleci uygulamalar nedeniyle birçok kültürel varlığını kaybetmiş ve şehirlerin tarihi dokusu bozulmuştur. Söz konusu imar çalışmaları özellikle İstanbul'da dönüşü olmayan yıkımlara sebep olmuştur. İstanbul'da Beşiktaş – Karaköy güzergâhı bu imar çalışmaları sonucunda tarihi siluetin kaybolduğu en belirgin örneklerden biridir. Beşiktaş – Karaköy arasında açılan Dolmabahçe, Meclis-i Mebusan ve Kemeraltı caddeleri nedeniyle birçok sivil mimarlık örneği ile anıtsal nitelikteki yapı yıkılmış veya taşınmıştır. Yıkılan yapıların arsaları çok katlı olarak imara açılarak bu caddeler günümüzdeki haline dönüşmüştür. Plansız ve fütursuzca yapılan imar çalışmaları Beşiktaş-Karaköy siluetinin değişmesine ve kültür varlıklarının kaybına neden olmuştur. Bu çalışmada, Beşiktaş-Karaköy güzergahında 1950'li yallardaki imar faaliyetleri nedeniyle yıkılarak kaybolmuş ve yeniden yapılmış (rekonstrüksiyon) taşınmaz kültür varlıkları incelenmiştir. Yeniden yapılmış olan yapıların yıkılmadan veya taşınmadan önceki halleri arşiv ve literatür araştırmaları ile belirlenmiş ve bugünkü durumları yerinde tespit edilmiştir. Bu yapıların özgün halleri ile bugünkü durumu karşılaştırılarak yeniden yapım sonrasında yapılardaki değişim ve bozulmalar tespit edilmiştir. Bu çalışma ile yeniden yapım uygulamalarının kültür varlıklarının korunmasına ne derecede katkı sağladığı sorusuna cevap aranmıştır. ABSTRACT In the first quarter of 20th century, many Turkish towns were ruined in Anatolia and Thrace after the World War I and the Independence War of Republic of Turkey. Republic of Turkey attempted for a reformation in many fields such as education, law, zoning etc. for achieving a modern civilization. One of these reforms was development of urbanism in Turkish cities that carry traces of the war. For this purpose, zoning plans were made and implementation of these zoning plans continued for many years. Within the context of these zoning plans, Turkish towns were gained modern urbanization components such as squares, boulevards etc. However, because of hasty and unplanned construction, a lot of cultural heritages and historical silhouettes have been disappeared, especially after 1950's. As a result of these constructions, many historical buildings have been demolished or removed and irreversible mistakes have been made in İstanbul.

Recently, the UN Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights has stated that the intentional destruction of cultural heritage is a violation of cultural rights. The Rapporteur examines a timely issue but bases her statement on narrow understandings ‘heritage’ as irreplaceable and ‘destruction’ as ideologically motivated and aggressive. This reinforces hegemonic ideas about heritage and what constitutes its destruction. In this article, I discuss the case of Bagan in Myanmar to illustrate the limitations of the Rapporteur’s statement. In Bagan, whether and how ‘heritage’ should be protected has been the topic of controversy. By implication what is – or is not – considered intentional destruction is contested. Ambiguity about the meaning of cultural rights, the dissonant nature of heritage, the subjectivity of destruction, and complex multi-layered motivations behind ‘destructive’ practices make overarching statement about the destruction of cultural heritage and cultural rights violations too bold and call for more nuance and contextualised research.

On 2 August 2019, the eve of the 5th anniversary of the attacks on Sinjar by the Islamic State (IS), RASHID International, Yazda and the Endangered Archaeology in the Middle East and North Africa Project (EAMENA) released the results of their investigation into cultural heritage destruction during the genocide against the Yazidis, in a report entitled ‘Destroying the Soul of the Yazidis: Cultural Heritage Destruction during the Islamic State’s Genocide against the Yazidis’.
Out of the total of 68 sites reported destroyed we consider 16 sites in the Bahzani/Bashiqa area and 8 in the Sinjar area to which access was possible and which could be documented.
Discussions of the genocide committed against the Yazidi people by IS from 2014 onwards have generally focused on murder, slavery and sexual exploitation. In this report we analyze the destruction of Yazidi tangible and intangible cultural heritage as a significant facet of the Islamic State’s policy of ethnic cleansing and genocide. Evidence of destruction is collected and presented in context with other criminal acts.

Cultural heritage often becomes a victim of armed conflicts either by collateral damage or by deliberate destruction and looting. As a consequence of the terrorist attacks of recent years – especially the large-scale and widely broadcasted iconoclastic destruction perpetrated by ISIL/Daesh in Iraq and Syria – their protection gradually became part of the international security policy agenda. Proving the symbolic significance of these attacks, they have been often claimed both as acts against the peaceful coexistence of different religions and cultures in the region and as an insult against Western civilisation and multilateral bodies which the meticulously drawn-up discourse of the terrorist group strongly underpinned. Using the securitization theory as a framework, the aim of this paper is to analyze through discursive means the reaction of different international political actors – especially France, Italy, UN and UNESCO – over the attacks of the terrorist organisation, arguing that a continuous securitization process has been taking place as regards the safeguarding of cultural heritage.

The war in Bosnia and Herzegovina can be labelled as in part a war for memories. The different national-religious groups destroyed religious buildings, since such structures both represent the national presence of the Others and act as places of memory. Many churches and mosques were completely destroyed and sometimes even replaced by parking lots (i.e. the Ferhadija mosque in Banja Luka, the church in Odžak, the church in Teslić, etc). Since the war ended, however, we see a “war of architecture,” in which the different religious communities compete to build more religious buildings and  more monumental ones, as markers of space and place as theirs. These processes are not new phenomenon in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Competing religioscapes can be observed and followed for centuries (conversion of churches into mosques after the Ottoman conquest, building of the Orthodox and Catholic cathedrals in Sarajevo in the late 19th Century etc). In this paper we give an historical overview of such religioscapes and problematise the contemporary processes that are being used to religiously nationalize the landscape.

THE SPECIFICITY OF THE IMPLEMENTATION OF TASKS TO PROTECT THE CULTURAL HERITAGE IN ARMED CONFLICTS IN THE LIGHT OF THE EXPERIENCE OF THE MISSION OF THE POLISH MILITARY CONTINGENT IN IRAQ (2003-2008)
The central-southern part of Iraq is a special and invaluable area of Mesopotamian heritage. The Multinational Division Central-South (MND CS) under Polish command operated in five central and southern governorates. It was partially prepared to protect archaeological and architectural treasures of ancient Babylonia and the northern part of Sumer. Since the beginning of the 1990s hundreds of archaeological site have been looted by well-organized and armed groups of robbers. This consistent and methodical plunder could not have been prevented by either the coalition troops entering Iraq or the local antiquity service.
Since October 2003 till 2008, eleven Polish archaeologists were acting within a frame of the Polish Military Contingent in Iraq. They were delegated by the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage for documentation, intervention and protection of archeological monuments located within the MND CS area of responsibility.
An aerial and ground reconnaissance and salvage recording of the state of preservation archeological heritage encompassed dozens of sites. In November 2004 three archaeologists elaborated a wealthy documented report on that time condition of the central part of the Babylon archaeological site, including historical buildings and monuments. This part was of the site had been used by the military as Camp Alpha (2003-2004). Initial condition assessment of the cultural heritage status in Qadisiyyah governorate was carried out at the beginning of 2005.
The protective barbed wire fences were installed around the most important archeological sites (Tell Uhaimir - Tell Ingharra, Tell Nuffar, Tell es-Sadum). Watchtowers were set at Birs Nimrud. Protective fences were installed around the most important monuments at the Babylon site  together with a system of cameras.
The archaeologists co-operated and supported the regional branches of the State Board of Antiquities and Heritage in Babil, Najaf, Qadisiyyah and Wasit governorates (refurbishment of museums and offices; delivery of cars, computer equipment). Every cultural heritage project was consulted and agreed with Iraqi regional authorities responsible for monuments.
Recreated in 2004 the Facility Protection Service (FPS or “Archaeological Police”) was equipped with basic equipment including uniforms, bullet proof vests, helmets, radios, metal detector. Shooting training was also provided by the MND CS staff. The FPS stations were created (building at Tell Nuffar; containers at Birs Nimrud, Tell es-Sadum) or repaired (Babylon).
The archaeologists delivered to the MND CS detachments awareness training on legal issues on protection of cultural heritage and the history of Iraq. Prepared leaflets on Babylon’s monuments were distributed. Military presence at the heart of such priceless ancient settlements like Babylon and Kish influenced heavily their state of preservation.

Suppose an artist escapes war, an oppressive regime and censorship, and they arrive in a place where freedom of artistic expression is guaranteed by the constitution. Then such a person can finally be the artist they always wanted to be – or so it seems. Strangely enough, a fleeing artist might still end up trading oppression for less apparent, but still pervasive, limitations. This is demonstrated through the stories of two artists: Syrian sculptor and painter, Rasha Deeb, who felt re-traumatised by well-intentioned charitable support, and Iraqi painter Samir Khurshid, who painted 83 portraits of Saddam Hussein, then, after the fall of the dictator, gained some very unexpected new clients, which, though profitable, ultimately resulted in death threats, his flight from Iraq, and imprisonment in Turkey. Deeb and Khurshid’s stories are not just told here to demonstrate the hardships of “refugee artists.” They also show how this very term – “refugee artist” – can become, for years on end, the main thing the artists are identified by, even if this is the last thing they want: a label that is nearly impossible to peel off.

Les dégâts provoqués par les bombardements de 1914 sur la cathédrale de Senlis, généralement considérés comme légers, n’en furent pas moins inquiétants. Ils se concentrèrent majoritairement au niveau de la façade occidentale et de la toiture. S’il est vrai que ces dégradations furent moins conséquentes que pour les cathédrales voisines de Noyon, Soissons ou Reims, le manque de crédits pour y remédier enclencha une détérioration progressive de l’édifice.
C’est pourquoi l’objectif de cette étude est de réévaluer les conséquences matérielles de cet épisode, de mieux en saisir le contexte ainsi que de souligner la mobilisation sans faille des architectes et des collectivités pour préserver ce monument. Ce travail s’appuie principalement sur les Archives des Monuments historiques et départementales, les témoignages écrits ainsi que les précieuses photographies d’Eugène Durand.

Once the Young Turk ideologists decided to rid the Armenian homeland of its native population, the logical consequence of this decision was to complete the Genocide by removing forever any association of the Armenian people with the territories on which there remained physical traces of their past. Thus, the name “Armenia” was completely dropped from all Turkish maps and documents. When “Armenia” inadvertently surfaced in textbooks or popular literature, like airline maps, the publications were confiscated and destroyed. The Turkish government has gone to great lengths to efface all traces of Armenian civilization on its historical lands.

As part of their aggressive campaign in Iraq and Syria, ISIS have intentionally destroyed multiple forms of cultural heritage including buildings of unique value, causing widespread condemnation and leaving society with the question of what to do with this destroyed heritage. This dissertation investigates this question through application of mixed methods of research to primary data gleaned from 21 semi-structured interviews and 46 survey responses from two main expert community groups. It finds that reconstruction of cultural heritage is a complex area featuring multiple legitimate stakeholders in the decision-making process and exposes knowledge gaps and power imbalances where heritage destroyed by terrorists is concerned. The analysis concludes that to provide a sustainable solution, each case must be taken on its merits in a depoliticised process involving local communities, and offers a new framework combining the factors of rebuilding cultural heritage and countering violent extremism in the hope of encouraging further research in this nexus.

With contributions by Richard Carlton, Amra Hadžimuhamedović, Valery Perry and Tina Wik.

The massive intentional destruction of cultural heritage during the 1992–1995 Bosnian War targeting a historically diverse identity provoked global condemnation and became a seminal marker in the discourse on cultural heritage. It prompted an urgent reassessment of how cultural property could be protected in times of conflict and led to a more definitive recognition in international humanitarian law that destruction of a people’s cultural heritage was an aspect of genocide. Yet surprisingly little has been published on the subject.

This wide-ranging book provides the first comprehensive overview and critical analysis of the destruction of Bosnia-Herzegovina’s cultural heritage and its far-reaching impact. Scrutinizing the responses of external actors (including IGOs like UNESCO and the Council of Europe, national governments and NGOs) to the destruction as it took place and after, it looks also at the role restoration of cultural heritage played in postwar refugee return.

The volume interrogates what intervention the international community took to protect Bosnia’s heritage during the war and where assistance to restore was directed after the conflict ended, analyzing how external agendas impinged on heritage reconstruction to the detriment of the broader peace process. It examines issues like the treatment of war crimes involving cultural property in the prosecutions of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) and implementation of Annex 8 of the Dayton Peace Agreement, a unique attempt to address the devastation to Bosnia’s cultural heritage.

With its numerous case studies and plentiful illustrations, this important volume brings together practitioners with long-term experience of working in the field of cultural heritage in Bosnia-Herzegovina, considering questions which have moved to the foreground with the inclusion of cultural heritage preservation as a vital element of post-conflict and development aid and in discussions of the right to culture in human rights discourse.

Issues discussed include: overview and analysis of the destruction, including case studies; international responses to the destruction; Annex 8 of the Dayton Peace Agreement and the Commission to Preserve National Monuments of Bosnia-Herzegovina; documenting the destruction; fieldwork assessing cultural heritage destruction; post-war responses (local and international) in respect of restoration including: lack of restoration,  politicization of restoration, restoration as justice and a human right, mobilization of the dispossessed, mobilization of the international community; the destruction of cultural heritage during the Bosnian conflict as a war crime and the role it played in human rights discourse, looking at cases of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) and the Human Rights Chamber for Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Contents:

Helen Walasek: Introduction
Helen Walasek: 'Destruction of the Cultural Heritage in Bosnia-Herzegovina: An Overview'
Richard Carlton & Helen Walasek: 'Documenting the Destruction'
Valery Perry: 'Cultural Heritage Protection in post-Conflict Bosnia-Herzegovina: Annex 8 of the Dayton Peace Agreement'
Richard Carlton & Helen Walasek: 'Topography of Destruction: post-Conflict Fieldwork Assessing the Cultural Heritage in Bosnia-Herzegovina'
Helen Walasek: 'Domains of Restoration: Actors and Agendas in post-Conflict Bosnia-Herzegovina'
Amra Hadžimuhamedović: 'The Built Heritage in the Post-War Reconstruction of Stolac'
Tina Wik: 'Restoring War-damaged Built Cultural heritage in Bosnia-Herzegovina: An International Perspective'
Helen Walasek: 'Cultural Heritage, War Crimes and Human Rights'
Helen Walasek: 'A Brief Introduction to the Cultural Heritage of Bosnia-Herzegovina'

With 126 illustrations, map, glossary and bibliography.

Pre-publication Reviews:

‘As culture is increasingly targeted in conflicts, Walasek reminds us of an episode from which vital lessons should have been drawn. Her forensic analysis of the failure of the international community to understand whose heritage was destroyed during the Bosnian conflict and why, is essential for informing future efforts to preserve both heritage and human rights.’
      Robert Bevan, author of The Destruction of Memory: Architecture at War

'Based on impressive expertise and prodigious research, this ground-breaking study of cultural destruction and reconstruction in Bosnia-Hercegovina represents a tour de force. Helen Walasek and her collaborators have produced a book that no serious student of the Bosnian war and its aftermath should be without.'
      Marko Attila Hoare, Kingston University, UK, author of 'How Bosnia Armed' and 'The Bosnian Muslims in the Second World War'

'Walasek's unique collaboration with other leading experts in cultural heritage uses a plethora of Bosnian case studies to forge an extensive, superbly detailed account of the kaleidoscopic effects of cultural destruction. This account pulls no punches politically but systematically stresses the critical role of cultural heritage in sustaining pluralism and diversity, its deep-rooted connection to justice and human rights in peace building contexts.'
      Gregory Kent, University of Roehampton, UK, author of 'Framing War and Genocide: British policy and media reaction to the war in Bosnia'

‘The concept of cultural genocide is often warily received, even now, but this tremendous and unforgettable book will establish its validity forever in the public mind. This is a detailed and compellingly readable account of the fearsome cultural destruction of the Bosnian war, as communities tried not only to expel and exterminate their rivals but to destroy the physical evidence that they had ever existed. But Helen Walasek and her colleagues also indict the unforgiveable reluctance of the international community to recognise what was happening, intervene or name the guilty.’
      Neal Ascherson, Institute of Archaeology, University College London, UK, author of 'Black Sea' and 'The Struggles for Poland'

Representations of historical or cultural sites in videogames have
always been contested by videogames scholarship, arguing that
historical games often court controversy. This paper examines
the history of the National and University Library in Sarajevo,
particularly the destruction of the site and how it has been
represented with different meanings across various media. The
second part of the paper will analyze the representation of the
library (post-reconstruction) in the videogame, Sniper: Ghost
Warrior 2’s Act 2 (called ‘Ghost of Sarajevo’), in order to raise
issues about the ethical challenges of the representation of a
heritage site that has not only been destroyed and reconstructed,
but that it is part of a national heritage.The analysis shows that
there are important pressures derived from the ways in which
videogames represent heritage which has gone through a process
of destruction, and how videogames adapt a historical event
following formal videogame conventions. The paper concludes by
pointing out the benefits of studying cases such as the National
and University Library in Sarajevo, as well as new avenues of
research regarding the representation of contested cultural sites in
videogames.