Behaviourism

Gilbert Ryle famously denied that knowledge-how is a species of knowledge-that, a thesis that has been contested by so-called "intellectualists." I begin by proposing a rearrangement of some of the concepts of this debate, and then I focus on Jason Stanley's reading of Ryle's position. I show that Ryle has been seriously misconstrued in this discussion, and then revise Ryle's original arguments in order to show that the confrontation between intellectualists and anti-intellectualists may not be as insurmountable as it seems, at least in the case of Stanley, given that both contenders are motivated by their discontent with a conception of intelligent performances as the effect of intellectual hidden powers detached from practice.

This is a translation of the table of contents from Maurice Merleau-Ponty's first book, "La structure du comportement". This TOC is more detailed than the one provided in A. Fisher's English translation, and lays out the structure of the text with greater clarity. Page numbers are given for the English translation and the original French.

My analysis straddles Descartes' metaphysics and some parts of contemporary philosophy, especially regarding consciousness, and aims to show that once our understanding is freed from philosophical habits that affect current debates, Descartes' views offer an opportunity to draw important insights. Primarily, I examine Descartes' mind-body dualism and contrast it with behaviourism, particularly with philosophical behaviourism, focusing on Gilbert Ryle's dispositional behaviourism and his attacks on Descartes' dualism. The discussion takes the form of Objections and Replies, presenting the two thinkers in some sort of dialogue with one another. This bring out clearly who is distorting our ordinary language, violating the logical geography of concepts, committing a category mistake, and systematically misleading us. Ryle's two well-known accusations-the category mistake, and the dogma of the ghost in the machine-are turned, by a reductio ad absurdum, against his own commitments, leading to an evaluation of his highly paradoxical view, and showing how it collapses in on itself. The closing parts touch upon, but do not pursue, some fundamental concerns about personhood and the self, the metaphysics of mind, freedom, and moral significance, and raise the question of what our deepest concerns and responsibility in the twenty-first century must be.

The subject of this article is the military institution, with particular reference to the training and the military culture. The approach to the subject is through the results of micro-sociological research, which mostly refer to the conceptual instruments of symbolic interactionism, and through the first results of a long ethnographic research. 
The present study shows a correlation between the training model of the military and episodes of sadistic and uncontrolled violence and torture, perpetrated by social actors trained on the basis of that model.

The constructivist and behaviorist approaches for educating children with special needs induced plenty of controversy. Many authors suggest that an amalgamation of both methods would conduct to an improved educational process. This research contains a brief debate of approaching pupils with special needs, a summary of key constructivist and behaviorist ideologies and their influence on scholars with special needs and a list of suggestions that could find applicability on classroom.

A substantial proportion of philosophers are operating under the assumption that Chomsky's conception of language acquisition has refuted Quine's behavioristic conception (Gibson 1982). In this paper I will evaluate Quine's theory of language acquisition in light of Chomsky's poverty of stimulus argument, and his claims that children are not corrected when using incorrect grammatical constructions, which are typically used to show that Quine's behavioristic project is impossible. I will demonstrate that current empirical research does not support either, Chomsky's poverty of stimulus argument, or his claims about children not being corrected when using language incorrectly. It will be shown that Quine's behavioristic research program is still a live option and one that is currently better supported by empirical data than Chomsky's conception of language is. When it comes to the details of how children learn their first language there is a substantive difference between Chomsky and Quine. The primary

La struttura del comportamento (1942) rappresenta il primo contributo originale di Merleau-Ponty alla filosofia del Novecento. La riflessione che qui si inaugura, poi approfondita in Fenomenologia della percezione (1945), prende avvio dall'analisi del-la concezione del comportamento umano fornita dalle principali scuole di psicologia sperimentale del tempo (in particolare la Gestalttheorie e il comportamentismo), per poi proseguire nella critica e nel tentativo di rielaborazione degli assunti impliciti di tali teorie. L'indagine merleau-pontiana cerca di provare come l'esperienza percettiva, non comprensibile tramite l'applicazione di categorie estrinseche alla percezione stessa, debba essere posta alla base di una nuova fenomenologia, al fine di comprendere, senza pregiudizi, il tessuto dell'esperienza umana.

"La struttura del comportamento, così come si offre all'esperienza percettiva, non è né cosa né coscienza, ed è questo che la rende opaca per l'intelligenza."

Competent Technical and Vocational Education Teachers are critical in the training of a skilled workforce that is globally competitive and can effectively contribute to sustainable economic growth and development. For technical teachers to be globally competitive, their training has to be based on a comprehensive training philosophy. This paper explores the current technical teacher training philosophy in Uganda and its implication to the quality of technical teachers. Data was collected from technical teachers, instructors (24) and administrators (12) from 6 Technical teacher training institutions in Uganda. A total of 36 respondents participated in the study and were selected using purposive and convenience sampling. A structured interview guide was used. Findings show technical teacher and instructor training in Uganda still lacks a specific training philosophy. Policy, curricula, and practices do not clearly show the type of trainee needed and how to produce that person. Training activities still remain in their infancy and relatively little has been done to develop a modern, effective and specific training philosophy based on relevant learning theories. The mode of training does not promote specific values and beliefs among trainees. Learning theories that are known to promote relevant values have had little application because are not perceived as very relevant to technical teacher education. Adopting relevant values from cognitivism and behaviorism can ensure the development of the needed values among trainees. We need a training philosophy that will produce active participants who can explore, manipulate, experiment, question, and search for answers by themselves. The MOES and NCDC should develop a pedagogical philosophy for technical teacher and instructor training in Uganda that will create a sphere which stimulates curiosity for exploration and change in actions through an explorative process.

Abstract. There occurred in the twentieth century the most remarkable episode in the history of human thought. A number of thinkers denied the existence of something we know with certainty to exist: consciousness, conscious experience. Others held back from the Denial, as we may call it, but claimed that it might be true—a claim no less remarkable than the Denial. This paper documents some aspects of this episode, with particular reference to two things. First, the development of two views which are  forms of the Denial —philosophical behaviourism, and functionalism considered
as a doctrine in the philosophy of mind— from a view that does not in any way involve the Denial: psychological methodological behaviourism. Second, the rise of a way of understanding naturalism —materialist or physicalist naturalism— that wrongly takes naturalism to entail the Denial.

Resumen. Uno de los episodios más notables en la historia del pensamiento humano ocurrió en el siglo XX. Varios pensadores negaron la existencia de algo que sabemos con certeza que existe: la conciencia o la experiencia consciente. Otros, aunque se contuvieron de llegar al punto de la Negación —como podemos llamarlo—, afirmaron que podría ser cierta —una tesis no menos notable que la Negación.
Este texto documenta algunos aspectos de este episodio, con particular referencia a dos cosas. En primer lugar, el desarrollo de dos puntos de vista que son formas de la Negación— el conductismo filosófico y el funcionalismo en la filosofía de la mente— a partir de una perspectiva que no implica de ninguna manera la Negación: el conductismo psicológico metodológico. En segundo lugar, el surgimiento de una forma de entender el naturalismo —el naturalismo materialista o fisicalista—
que interpreta erróneamente que el naturalismo implica la Negación.

Second language acquisition/competence does not happen pronto; it gradually and steadily evolves. It is the result of painstaking, but constant language input and output processes. According to Ellis (2008), there are four theoretical perspectives of language inputs: the behaviorist, mentalist, interactionist, and socioculturalist viewpoints. All the perspectives agree that input plays a role in L2 acquisition. They differ, however, on the nature, degree of the role and its importance. This paper examines first, the role/ importance of input in L2 acquisition based on the four theoretical viewpoints. Then, it isolates Krashen's (1985) Input Hypothesis for further examination and discuss. It concludes that despite the criticisms from some quarters against it, Kreshen's Input Hypothesis may remain topical in L2 discourse for a long time in the future.

Africa is one of the world continents with a deep history of education equally to other world continents. This has offered a room for the provision of diverse educational teachings that was based on individual society's needs and perspectives. Despite the reality that there are plenty of surviving writings describing about pre-colonial African educational issues, there is still a quest of information to understand the psychological considerations of learners in pre-colonial education teachings. It is from that vein this article has devote itself in addressing the question of behaviorism psychology of learning in the pre-colonial period Africa by taking Tanzania mainland as a case study. It has been argued in this article that indigenous educational teachings were structured in frames of psychological considerations (which were not in documents) with regard to children age, knowledge level, and nature of the knowledge content to be acquired and mastered. The documentary reviews have been opted by the researcher to collect data for the study. The study has found that, the educational systems in precolonial Africa started from family to society level considering behaviorists ideas in their learning and teaching process. For example, Concepts Response Conditioning, reward and punishment and repetition formed core part in educational systems. The article concludes that unlike what is argued in many scholarly writings on pre-colonial Africa education as unsystematic, no curriculum, and no psychological consideration, this study has found and proved the vice versa of such arguments.

Comparing philosophies across time is a tricky business. Pyrrhonian Skepticism and Skinner's Radical Behaviorism are two philosophies wide apart in time and space, and, at first sight, a comparison between them does not seem promising. In this paper I propose to compare the views of these two philosophies on language and communication. Both regard all behavior, including speaking, as the product of a habituation process. Living and speaking are performed without any underlying intention or meaning. As a result, both philosophies have to defend themselves against charges of a lack of moral values.

1  Introduction                                                                       

2  Totem and Taboo                                                             

3  The Future of An Illusion                                               

4  Evaluation                                                                         

5  Contemporary Psychology of Religion – Three Ways                                                                       

6  Heinz Kohut’s Depth-Psychology                                 

7  B. F. Skinner’s Objective Behaviourism                       

8  Gordon Allport’s Humanistic Approach                                                                                               

9  Conclusion

Three points of view on the problem of the answerability of philosophical questions are developed:
a) the traditional view that the questions are perfectly genuine but just very difficult;
b) what I call the 'nonsensicalist' view, characteristic of logical positivists and Wittgensteinians, that they are largely meaningless pseudo-problems;
c) the 'mysterian' or transcendental naturalist view that they are genuine problems but ones that our intellects are unequipped, or at least very ill-equipped, to handle.

The present study investigates the combined effects of different amounts of comprehension-based and form-focused instruction on skill-based proficiency and knowledge of grammatical structures of beginner-level efl students. Specifically, the study addresses the following research questions : 1) Does a basically comprehension-based program of instruction supported by form-focused instruction help beginner-level efl learners improve/develop their listening, reading and writing abilities more than a basically form- focused program of instruction? 2) Does a basically form-focused program of instruction help beginner-level efl learners improve their knowledge of grammatical structures more than a basically comprehension-based program of instruction? One experimental and one control group, each containing 20 lycee prep level Turkish efl students, participated in the study. The subjects in the experimental and control groups were randomly selected from among lycee prep classes in two diffe...

Purpose – Many people moving into a new culture for work or study do so without prior cross-cultural training, yet successful cultural adaptation has important ramifications. The purpose of this paper is to focus on cross-cultural impression management as an element of cultural adaptation. Does cultural adaptation begin by paying strong attention to nonverbal cues in a host culture? How is that attention converted into knowledge, and how do people use such knowledge management during impression management within the new culture?

Design/methodology/approach – The method was qualitative. In total, ten international students at an English university were recruited. All originated outside the European Union and each took part in a one-hour structured interview. The transcripts were analysed through thematic analysis.

Findings – International students adopted cross-cultural impression management strategies in order to enhance successful adaptation to the new host culture. Students consciously processed knowledge about nonverbal behaviour norms through everyday interactions. They audited knowledge deficits by detecting differences between the host norms and their home culture's norms. The motives for this included desiring to maximise rewards from situations.

Research limitations/implications – The findings imply that being in a new culture makes people “high self monitors”. They are more aware than usual about their own and others' nonverbal behaviours. The findings tell us about how cultural adaptation begins.

Originality/value – This appears to be the first in-depth qualitative research examining cross-cultural impression management by international students and deducing implications for expatriates.

La nostra intelligenza può essere riproducibile? Riuscire a dare una risposta a questo quesito è una delle principali sfide per uno studioso dell'intelligenza artificiale; ma non solo, avrebbe anche implicazioni etiche non da poco, soprattutto nella misura in cui consideriamo il valore della nostra natura, la tanto cercata natura umana, nell'intelligenza e nella sua capacità di fare ragionamenti attraverso inferenze logiche, capacità preclusa alle nature non umane.
Parole Chiave: Intelligenza artificiale – natura umana – comportamento – mente – riproducibilità

C. S. Peirce is often credited as a forerunner of the verificationist theory of meaning. In his early pragmatist papers, Peirce did say that if we want to make our ideas clear(er), then we should look downstream to their actual and future effects. For many who work in philosophy of mind, this is enough to endorse functionalism and dismiss the whole topic of qualia. It complexifies matters, however, to consider that the term qualia was introduced by the founder of pragmatism himself. Peirce was adamant that only triadic relations can support language and cognition. Even so, he insisted on purely logical grounds that, when we analyze triadic signs all the way, we are left with a qualitative residue he called Firstness. Such an isolated relatum could never be studied experimentally. Yet, given that this primitive state can be confirmed by means of a formal or prescissive distinction, I believe the Peircean account can do justice to many of the intuitions that generate the so-called hard problem of consciousness. My goal, then, is to show that Peirce's semiotic commitment to qualia is compatible with his foundational statements about pragmatism.

The present study aimed at finding whether L1 Turkish caused interference errors on Turkish EFL learners' spoken English discourse. Whether English proficiency level had any effect on the number of errors learners made was further investigated. The participants were given the chance to choose one of the two alternative topics to speak about. The entire videotaped speaking session was further transcribed to analyze the spoken errors. The results indicated that prepositional, lexical, and grammatical errors were the most frequently encountered errors, in descending order. Also, independent samples t-test was applied to the data to determine whether English proficiency level had any effect on the number of errors made by two different English proficiency groups. It was found that there was no significant difference between two different English proficiency groups with regard to the number of errors they made.

The present study investigates the combined effects of different amounts of comprehension-based and form-focused instruction on skill-based proficiency and knowledge of grammatical structures of beginner-level efl students. Specifically, the study addresses the following research questions : 1) Does a basically comprehension-based program of instruction supported by form-focused instruction help beginner-level efl learners improve/develop their listening, reading and writing abilities more than a basically form- focused program of instruction? 2) Does a basically form-focused program of instruction help beginner-level efl learners improve their knowledge of grammatical structures more than a basically comprehension-based program of instruction? One experimental and one control group, each containing 20 lycee prep level Turkish efl students, participated in the study. The subjects in the experimental and control groups were randomly selected from among lycee prep classes in two diffe...

Aim: The purpose of this article is to present the implementation of the behavioural observation programme in a large manufacturing company belonging to a global concern in the household appliances industry. The purpose of the programme was to increase the awareness of the employees regarding the risks and health and safety rules. This awareness helps to minimize the number of accidents and potential accidents.

Introduction: Occupational safety includes technical, organisational and economic measures to protect employees against threats that may occur in the work environment. Popularisation of the subject of occupational health and safety and action in the field of accident prevention is one of the obligations of the employer and employees of the occupational health and safety service (OHS).

Project and methods: The research used the method of covert observation of employees’ behaviour while performing work at particular positions and moving around the plant. The research tool was a free interview.

Results: The results of the conducted research made it possible to answer the question how behavioural observation programmes improve work safety. As a result of the analysis of the collected data, it can be concluded that the implementation of the behavioural observation programme increased the level of operational safety, increased safety culture in the organisation and raised the number of safe behaviours among employees. The results of behavioural observations constitute the source of data and the basis for taking further corrective actions in the area of occupational health and safety.

Conclusions: In case of the workplace described in the article, it would be advisable to extend the programme to other locations of the factory, including laboratories, maintenance area and offices. Behaviour-based safety (BBS) could also be used in other areas of the organisation’s activities, e.g., during exercises of the factory rescue staff (fire protection and evacuation) or audits in the field of quality and environmental protection.

Stuart Hampshire in his review of Gilbert Ryle’s 'Concept of Mind' draws a distinction between two ways of using psychological terms.  The simple ‘He doesn’t believe in life after death (or the coming revolution)’ has a different use and different implications from ‘He doesn’t REALLY believe in life after death (or the coming revolution)’.  I ask whether there is any similar distinction with regard to meaning:  ‘He didn’t mean anything by what he said’ as against ‘He didn’t REALLY mean anything by what he said’.

This article investigates the development of new teaching ideologies
in the context of the technocratic ideology of the Cold War. These ideologies did
not simply vanish after 1989. The catchwords were “programmed instruction” and
“teaching machines”, accompanied by the promise that all students would make
effi cient learning progress. Although Eastern and Western states fought the Cold
War over political ideologies, their teaching ideologies (perhaps surprisingly) converged.
This may explain why neither the apparent failure of these educational
ideologies nor the end of the Cold War led to the modifi cation of the ideologies
themselves, but rather to the modifi cation of devices serving the ideologies.

An essay where I investigate aspects of individual behaviour for the construct of a true harmonious community. The word community comes from the Latin ‘commūnitās’, which mean ‘common’ so it relates to the group of people who have common goals or principles to coexist; to be together as a whole. But also, from a different perspective, the word community incorporates the words ‘com’ which in Latin means ‘with’, and the word ‘unity’ which all together signifies ‘with unity’. So it is clear that the signification of the word ‘Unity’ is inherently present to
what a community is. Further to this I comment on the terms 'acting out' and 'act of knowing' to bring light on our conducts of right and wrong.

This study examines the factors influencing tax compliance among the e-commerce taxpayers in Malaysia. Specifically, this study examines the effect of behaviourism, enforcement, and law clarity on tax compliance among the e-commerce taxpayers who are involved in the clothing and fashion business activities in Malaysia. Using questionnaire survey on e-commerce taxpayers, this study shows all factors chosen in this study positively influence tax compliance among the e-commerce taxpayers. The findings of this study provide understanding to the Inland Revenue Department on the need to increase the level of tax compliance among the e-commerce taxpayers. Therefore, it is important for the Inland Revenue Department to identify best practices that could be implemented so that the e-commerce taxpayers can become more aware and subsequently, assist them to become responsible citizens in helping the country in sustaining economic development.

In her Idea of Perfection, Ms. Murdoch criticizes what she takes to be an existentialist conception of ethics. This conception is not, however, existentialist, either in the sense in which Sartre characterized it, or any of those other existentialists from Dostoyevsky onwards. Whether her alternative ethic is better or worse than that of the existentialist, I do not know; but the one is not in contrast to the other.

Why do you teach in the way you do? How do learners learn in the way they do? Why are course books written in the way they are? Here’s a brief overview of the influence of three approaches/theories in Educational Psychology on EFL. They inform the development of effective teaching techniques and the assessment of learners’ attitudes and progress as well as investigating the process whereby skills, attitudes, knowledge and concepts are acquired, understood, applied and extended.

It is tempting to interpret Marilyn Strathern as saying that the concept of nature is a social construction, because in her essay " No nature, no culture: the Hagen case " she tells us that the Hagen people do not describe the world using this concept. However, I point out an obstacle to interpreting her in this way, an obstacle which leads me to reject this interpretation. Interpreting her in this way makes her inconsistent. The inconsistency is owing to a commitment that she shares with previous British anthropologists, a commitment which points to an incompatibility between two intellectual traditions.

Learning is the essence of behavior understanding. Since human beings model a behavior from learning, studying the basics of it helps us in knowing the reasons behind our behaviors. Discerning learning methods supports us in comprehending normal behaviors. It allows mutual communication between humans through language. The question of how a human learns a language should be explored in the views of scientists. Results from what was said indicate that the language is a social institution with its certain functions, tasks, and properties. It also maintains that language philosophy is a branch of philosophy that describes and explains general aspects of language. Using the provided principles and rules by linguists is essential in the application of training practices. Research methods: This is review research, in which the required information is extracted from existing documents. This review study aims for, (1) investigating the major theories of language learning, including behavioral and cognitive abstractions, in detail, and (2) addressing their applications in teaching language skills.

Following recent work by Don Ross (Ross, 2000; Ross & Spurrett, 2004), I contrast the influential theories of Daniel Dennett and Paul Churchland in information-theoretic terms. Dennett makes much of the fact that the morphological shorthand which emerges before a witness as she looks upon cohesive aggregates of matter commands some measure of predictive power. This, for him, speaks against eliminating recourse to an intentional vocabulary. By contrast, the eliminative materialism defended by Churchland does not gloss such informational compressibility as an explanatory desideratum, and thus regards the informational noise which accrues at higher levels of description as patently unacceptable. Yet, since it is unlikely, as Ross et al. (2007) have recently suggested, that anything remains once we subtract the appeal to patterns, I argue that the ubiquity of informational compression in scientific explanation seriously undermines the claim that talk of the mental could be eliminated.

When Covid-19 forced universities in 2020 to close the doors from face-to-face education and welcome an online hybrid approach, academics had to adjust all educational practices to ensure quality and proper education continued successfully. An introductory Academic Information Management course that deals mainly with computer literacy and has a cohort of over 9000 students had to find ways to help bridge the digital gap using online digital technology. The issues with internet connectivity, load shedding, and students not having compatible devices were just the start of the problems. Many students could cheat the online systems because assessments were not set for online learning; facilitators were not adequately prepared for this new shift to online education, and many felt stressed and overwhelmed. This study discusses the strategies implemented and the lessons learned after universities\u27 shutdown in 2020 and the new approach in 2021. Digital technology plays a critical role in...

На фоне увеличения числа интернационализированных внутренних конфликтов в последнее время в научной литературе наблюдается устойчивый рост интереса к тематике внешнего вмешательства в дела суверенных государств. Цель библиографического обзора — обобщить подходы тех ученых, главным образом зарубежных, которые фокусировались на исследовании концептуально- теоретических аспектов данной проблематики. В структурном плане обзор разделен на три части. В первой раскрыты смысловые нюансы ключевых русскоязычных и англоязычных терминов и особенности их употребления в международно- правовых документах. Вторая и третья части посвящены двум «большим спорам» в литературе о вмешательстве. Один из них касается вопроса о целесообразности и возможности разработки дефиниции вмешательства как таковой, другой — определения содержательных границ понятия «вмешательство». Первый спор представлен в виде столкновения позиций ученых, воспринимавших вмешательство как данность, убежденных сторонников разработки научно обоснованного определения вмешательства и, наконец, исследователей, наотрез отказывавшихся заниматься поисками такой дефиниции. Аргументы критиков получения «чистого» знания о феномене вмешательства, которые в большинстве своем являются приверженцами конструктивизма или постструктурализма и призывают отталкиваться от изучения дискурса, в том числе субъектов, осуществляющих интервенционистские действия, оспорены в заключении. Обоснована необходимость формулирования рабочего определения вмешательства, которое позволило бы в условиях обострения межгосударственного противоборства, возрождения идеологического соперничества и усиления различий в представлениях о границах государственного суверенитета и допустимости их нарушения вырваться из ловушки конфликта восприятий. Приведены аргументы в пользу максимально широкой трактовки вмешательства, которая, с одной стороны, в отличие от узкой, легалистской интерпретации, давала бы возможность включить как силовые, так и несиловые инструменты (оказание помощи,применение санкций, информационное воздействие), а с другой — была бы применима к различным историческим эпохам. Подчеркнуто, что принятие на вооружение какого-то отдельного определения или разработка собственной дефиниции — лишь первый шаг на пути к классификации видов вмешательства, в построении которой в то же время имеет смысл отталкиваться от изучения конкретно- эмпирического материала, а не от априорно заданных параметров.

The last decades have seen a proliferation of internationalized internal disputes and a steady growth in scholarly interest in interference in the domestic affairs of sovereign states. This bibliographic review summarizes the approaches of those scholars (predominantly from the Anglo- Saxon countries) — who focused on conceptual dimensions of the intervention problematique. The review consists of three sections. The first section examines the semantic nuances of the key terms in Russian and English languages describing interventionist behaviour and the particularities of their usage in international legal documents. The second and third sections reveal the essence of two ‘great debates’ in the literature on intervention. The first debate centers on desirability and possibility of working out a definition of intervention. The second debate focuses on delimiting semantic boundaries of the ‘intervention’ concept. The first debate is presented as a polemic between scholars who take intervention for granted, the proponents of treating it as a scientific concept and those who refuse to search for a common definition as such. The conclusion contains a critique of argumentation of those scholars — predominantly constructivists and poststructuralists — who question the possibility of obtaining a purely scientific knowledge about intervention and call for studying discourse instead, including the discourse of actors conducting interventionist actions. The author of the review justifies the need to formulate the working definition of intervention which would allow to get out of a trap conflicting perceptions in the times of an increasing interstate confrontation, revival of an ideological competition and widening divergences in conceptualisation of sovereignty, its boundaries and conditions of their violation. He also advocates for the utilization of the broadest interpretation of intervention which, on the one hand, would include both military and non-military tools (such as foreign aid, sanctions, information influence etc.), and, on the other hand, would be applicable to studying interventionist practices of different historical epochs, including the pre-Westphalian era. The review concludes with a reminder that the use of any extant definition or a development of a new one is only the first step towards a typology of interventionist actions which should be based on the study of empirical data and not on the a priori chosen parameters.
intervention in the domestic affairs, interference, noninterference, sovereignty, internationalized domestic conflict, behaviourism, English School of international relations, constructivism, post-structuralism, discourse, foreign aid, sanctions.