GOOD COPS? BAD
COPS?
Assessing the South
African Police
Service
David Bruce
Centre for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation
dbruce@csvr.org.za
The South African Police Service is often a target of criticism, more often than not stemming from heightened
public emotions regarding the high levels of crime in South Africa. Using the concept of democratic policing
as its basis, a recent assessment attempts to evaluate the SAPS against a set of 39 measures. Providing an
organisation-wide view of the SAPS, the assessment highlights both positive and negative aspects of the SAPS,
and provides a detailed set of recommendations. The assessment is intended to support democratic oversight
of the police by directing attention towards the main issues that should be addressed by oversight bodies.
fter examining the police reform processes
in four countries in transition (BosniaHerzegovina, El Salvador, Ukraine and
South Africa), the policing analyst David Bayley
(2006:115) observed that, when compared to the
examples of other countries, ‘South Africa is
generally considered a heartening success’.
A
to provide such a fair and balanced view. The
assessment has a long history. It dates back to a
2002 project focused on strengthening police
accountability in South Africa; jointly initiated and
funded by the Open Society Foundation for South
Africa (OSFSA) and the Open Society Justice
Initiative (OSJI).
But at home it often appears that the South African
Police Service (SAPS) is at the receiving end of a
constant stream of criticism.
One of the initial products from the ‘strengthening
police accountability’ project is a handbook titled
The police that we want (Bruce and Neild 2005),
produced by CSVR in conjunction with OSFSA and
OSJI in 2005. The handbook is built around the
concept of democratic policing and is intended to
assist oversight bodies in subjecting the SAPS to
scrutiny. Based on a review of indicators proposed
by other writers, or those used in other countries, the
handbook defines democratic policing in terms of 39
main measures distributed across five key areas.
These five areas are defined in the handbook as:
How do we account for these disparities? Should
we elevate the views of a respected analyst such as
Bayley above that of ordinary South Africans, or
should public opinion be key to any assessments of
the SAPS? And, given such significant differences in
opinion on the SAPS, is there a need for a more
balanced view?
Origins of the assessment
A recent assessment of the SAPS, undertaken by the
Centre for the Study of Violence (CSVR),1 attempts
SA CRIME QUARTERLY No 21 • SEPTEMBER 2007
1) Protecting and supporting democratic political
life itself
15
A widespread assumption is that democratic reform
is concerned with ‘de-politicising’ the police.
Arguably it is more correct to think of this process in
terms of a ‘re-politicisation’ (Gordon 2006:124) of
the police, in terms of which the police are obliged
to protect the exercise of democratic political rights,
such as rights to freedom of assembly, but have to
refrain from interfering with politics conducted
within the parameters of democratic norms.
2) Governance, accountability and transparency
The standards applied in relation to management of
the police organisation in complying with the
exercise of authority by components of government
or the courts; in relationships with the public or
other agencies; and in attending to internal
management and supervision.
3) Service delivery for safety, justice and security
The nature of the basic services that police provide
in a democracy, and how these are delivered.
4) Proper police conduct
The principles of integrity, fairness and respect for
human rights and dignity that guide the conduct of
democratic police, and how police services support
and ensure adherence by police officers to these
principles.
5) Police as citizens
The rights of police officers themselves, as part of a
democratic society, to non-discriminatory
recruitment and promotion practices, to decent
conditions of service, to collective bargaining, to fair
disciplinary procedures, and to a high level of
support in attending to issues of safety.
By applying the framework contained in the The
police that we want, the assessment aimed to
deepen the scrutiny that the SAPS is subjected to. In
so doing it aimed to improve the ability of civil
society and government to hold police in South
Africa accountable. The assessment was initiated in
2005 but mostly carried out and completed during
the course of 2006. Minor updates were undertaken
in April 2007, and the report published the
following month.
Methodology of the assessment
With a staff of 155 532 as of 31 March 2006 (and
with a total of 192 000 envisaged for 2010) the
16 BRUCE
SAPS is an extremely large organisation. In most
countries police services are organised on a
provincial or local basis, so although many countries
have a greater number of police officers, it is
relatively rare to find police organisations that are
comparable in size to the SAPS. The task of assessing
such a large organisation presents formidable
challenges, particularly if the framework for
assessment, as in this case, is a set of 39 discrete
measures.
There are various levels of detail and complexity at
which such an assessment can be carried out, but
available resources determine what is practically
possible. By some standards, therefore, the research
basis for this assessment was relatively modest. It
included:
• Use of a wide variety of documentary information
in the public domain, including SAPS annual
reports, research reports from various sources, press
reports and other documents.
• Seventeen interviews with 23 SAPS officials,
mostly at the SAPS head office in Pretoria.
• Fifteen formal interviews and two focus groups
(comprising 20 individuals in total) with roleplayers in policing and police oversight, including
representatives of national and provincial
secretariats, the Independent Complaints
Directorate at national and provincial level, police
unions, political parties and civil society
organisations.
• Informal telephonic discussions on specific issues
with a range of other people with relevant
expertise.
• A number of requests for written information
were also made directly to the SAPS.
Considering the size of the SAPS, the level of research
that formed the basis for this assessment was limited,
and the assessment cannot claim to be a meticulously
scientific assessment of the SAPS. Compensating for
the modest level of research involved, however, was
a depth of insight related to the fact that the report
was written by a team of researchers who between
them combined over 20 years of experience in the
policing field in South Africa.
Notwithstanding the limitations of the research, the
final report that emerged from the assessment process
SA CRIME QUARTERLY No 21 • SEPTEMBER 2007
may reasonably be regarded as the most rigorous
and thorough overall analysis of the state of the
SAPS and of policing in South Africa produced thus
far, and the framework of recommendations
provided can be seen as an important contribution
to the debate about the future of police reform in
South Africa.
Findings
This article highlights some of the findings of the
report, focusing on particular areas of interest.
Overall there is reason to be very positive in
relation to the progress made in the first area, that
of ‘Policing democratic political life’. This is most
notable in relation to the turnaround achieved in
public order policing since the early 1990s, the
contribution of the SAPS to the policing of
elections, the priority attention of the SAPS to
political violence in KwaZulu-Natal, and the
effectiveness of the SAPS in tackling the threat of
armed insurrection posed by the right-wing
Boeremag. However, the positive change was
tempered by some instances of heavy-handed
policing of demonstrations, allegations of
continuing partisanship among elements of the
police in KwaZulu-Natal, and abuses committed
against members of ‘social movements’ involved in
political activities opposed to the government.
With regard to the other four areas, the overall
assessment was more mixed. In relation to
‘Governance, accountability and transparency’ the
SAPS has a consistently good record in complying
with the accountability requirements imposed by
government, and in subjecting itself to the authority
of the courts. But the reluctance of the SAPS to
make crime statistics available, other than by means
of the annual report, undermined the SAPS’s own
strategy of devolving responsibility to the local level
and of strengthening local level partnerships with
communities. Participants in partnership structures
need access to crime statistics in order to interpret
the local crime situation.2
In addition, the handling of the crime statistics issue
has contributed to a climate of anxiety in the SAPS
regarding the provision of information. This is
counterproductive to such a large organisation; and
SA CRIME QUARTERLY No 21 • SEPTEMBER 2007
one that needs to place a premium on effective
communication. There are also serious questions
about internal systems of management and control,
the impression being that supervisory structures
function in a haphazard way. There have been
extensive efforts to improve cooperation with
municipal police agencies, but there have been
ongoing unresolved tensions with the Directorate of
Special Operations (Scorpions), and relationships
with private security companies are ad hoc.
Rather than service delivery being primarily good
or bad, the principal problem appears to be one of
unevenness. This is reflected in key dimensions of
police service delivery, such as the response to
emergency calls and crime investigation, with
numerous examples of dedicated high quality
police work continually off-set by incompetence or
disinterest. The SAPS suffers from a lack of clarity
about the role of policing, a problem exacerbated
by confusion about the meaning of the term ‘crime
prevention’. It may be helpful to define the
principal role of the police as one of ‘police crime
prevention’, which would generally involve crime
prevention activities that have a law enforcement
component.
Another issue that calls for attention is the need for
the SAPS to sophisticate its use of crime reduction
strategies that are targeted at specific types of
crime, possibly based on research that reveals
which police stations are having the best results in
tackling crime. On the positive side, the SAPS
appears to have taken seriously the challenge of
extending services to all sectors of the South
African population, so that access to police services
has improved overall. However, this is
unfortunately not reflected in a consistent quality of
services provided, reflecting the problem of
unevenness mentioned above.
Of the five areas that form the focus of this
assessment, the area of ‘Proper police conduct’
perhaps reveals the greatest shortcomings of the
SAPS. The SAPS has a good statement of values, but
commitment to these values is not consistently
carried through in its organisational practice. There
is evidence of a pervasive problem of corruption,
and anti-corruption measures are weak. While the
BRUCE 17
SAPS introduced a comprehensive anti-torture
policy in 1998, commitment to the policy has not
been sustained, and reports of the most serious
types of torture continue. The use of force is
addressed through training, but there is not
consistent attention to questions relating to the use
of force by police managers.
One of the issues addressed in the ‘Police as
citizens’ area is the focus on employment equity
and the strong emphasis placed by the SAPS on
issues of representivity. While employment equity
and affirmative action policies are necessary, it
appears that the SAPS has been somewhat
overzealous in adhering to them. Particularly where
implementation of these policies is combined with
other factors, such as nepotism or favouritism, it is
likely to contribute negatively to staff morale.
The last decade has seen a substantial overall
reduction in the number of police killed. While this
may partly be credited to efforts by the SAPS to
improve police safety, there is no ongoing
monitoring of the circumstances in which these
deaths take place.3 As a result, SAPS efforts to
address police safety reflect a lack of insight into the
key circumstances where police are at risk. Beyond
this, however, it is reasonable to be fairly positive
about the treatment of SAPS members, with pay and
benefits being reasonably good, while SAPS
members also enjoy rights to collective bargaining
and recognition of their rights in disciplinary
procedures.
Recommendations
Even though the assessment drew attention to the
continuation of problems such as torture, which
may be seen as partly a legacy of the widespread
human rights violations under apartheid, there can
be little doubt that the SAPS is a profoundly
different organisation from its Apartheid-era
predecessors, the South African Police (SAP) and
homeland police forces.
In fact, it appears that turbulence, related to the
level of change that the SAPS has been through, has
had a destabilising impact on the organisation. In
pursuit of transformation and increased efficiency,
the SAPS has, since 1994, gone through a number
18 BRUCE
of restructuring processes. In addition to various
processes of restructuring, the recent focus on rapid
recruitment and the vigorous implementation of
employment equity policies, there have been
various other sources of turbulence in the SAPS.
These include changes in the skills, knowledge and
values required of police officers in their work,
related to the emphasis on crime prevention,
community policing, and human rights, and
changes in the demographics of South Africa, with
a major influx of would-be immigrants into South
Africa in the post-apartheid period. Not only has
the SAPS been compelled to expand its service
delivery capacity to meet the needs of all South
Africans for policing services, but the demands for
service from its primary Apartheid-era constituency
(white South Africans) have also become more
extensive and more urgent as a result of rising
crime. It is therefore not surprising that the process
of reform has achieved mixed results.
The latest wave of restructuring, involving the
dissolution of the SAPS area level, has been
controversial, partly because of its disruptive effect
on the Family Violence, Child Abuse and Sexual
Offences Units. However, though it may be valid to
ask questions about the process by which the
restructuring is being implemented, this
restructuring may be regarded as a necessary
measure, given that the SAPS had too many levels
of management, which detracts from its ability to
put skilled personnel in operational roles on the
ground.
But while the latest round of restructuring should
be supported, it is recommended that the SAPS
avoids further restructuring in the coming period,
and focuses on building stability and consistency in
the organisation through in-service training,
strengthening the quality of promotions, and
improving management and control.
This recommendation is also informed by a
concern about the current emphasis on rapid
recruitment to expand SAPS numbers, which in
1996 alone involved training roughly 11 000 new
personnel. It is likely to be associated with a loss of
rigour and quality in both selection and training
processes.
SA CRIME QUARTERLY No 21 • SEPTEMBER 2007
Considering that new personnel are coming into an
organisation where systems of management and
control are already inconsistent, the large number of
new recruits is likely to place further strain on these
systems. In the absence of attentive management
and supervision, new recruits are unlikely to get the
support they need. Therefore, despite its potential,
the current wave of recruitment may lead to limited
gains in the quality of policing. As a result it may
frustrate efforts to strengthen the contribution of
police to fighting crime. Rapid recruitment,
combined with the absence of reliable management
systems, may be associated with a heightened risk
of abuses and other problems, such as unnecessary
use of force linked to a lack of experience. Similar
problems are also likely to occur among police
reservists, who are also being brought into the SAPS
at a rapid rate.
other. More affluent communities are not only able
to supplement their reliance on police with the
services of private security companies, but bring
specific capacities and resources to their
participation in structures such as Community
Policing Forums. By contrast, poorer communities
not only lack these capacities and resources but are
frequently also plagued by a more intractable
problem of violence, rooted within the day-to-day
relationships of many community members. A
future assessment should probably give more
attention to questions about the adaptability and
creativity of the SAPS in responding to these
challenges.5
Conclusion
The assessment confirms the view that there has
been substantial progress and numerous
achievements in the process of police reform, but
also draws attention to shortcomings of the SAPS
that need to be addressed.
Bruce, D and Neild, R 2005. The police that we want: A
handbook for oversight of police in South Africa.
Johannesburg: Centre for the Study of Violence and
Reconciliation in association with the Open Society
Foundation for South Africa and the Open Society Justice
Initiative. Available at
http://www.csvr.org.za/papers/papdbrn.pdf.
The uneven quality of policing coupled with the
disparate views on the state of policing in South
Africa (referred to in the introduction to this article),
are indeed reflected in South African opinion. For
instance, while 45% of respondents to the 2003
National Victims of Crime Survey indicated that
they thought the police were doing a bad job, a
similar, though slightly greater number (52%)
indicated that they thought police were doing a
good job (Burton et al 2004:77-78).4
Bruce, D, Newham, G and Masuku, T 2007. In Service of
the People’s Democracy – An assessment of the South
African Police Service. Johannesburg: Centre for the Study
of Violence and Reconciliation in association with the
Open Society Foundation for South Africa. Available at
http://www.csvr.org.za/papers/papsaps.htm.
One criticism of the assessment may be that it does
not adequately engage with the question of an
appropriate model for the provision of policing
services and is possibly shaped too strongly by
assumptions about the type of services
conventionally ‘expected of powerful Western
democracies in a neoliberal era’ (Gordon
2006:218).
South Africa is a country characterised by high
levels of inequality. Policing is carried out in
circumstances that are widely disparate from each
SA CRIME QUARTERLY No 21 • SEPTEMBER 2007
References
Bayley, D 2006. Changing the guard: Developing
democratic police abroad. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Burton, P, Du Plessis, A, Leggett, T, Louw, A, Mistry, D
and Van Vuuren, H 2004. “ National victims of crime
survey: South Africa 2003” . ISS Monograph 101. Pretoria:
Institute for Security Studies.
Gordon, D 2006. Transformation and trouble – Crime,
Justice and Participation in Democratic South Africa. Ann
Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Harris, M and Radaelli, S 2007. Paralysed by fear –
Perceptions of crime and violence in South Africa. SA
Crime Quarterly (20). Pretoria: Institute for Security
Studies. pp1-6.
Joubert, P 2007. ‘Granny’s on tik, but not for long’. Mail &
Guardian, 20 July: 14.
Endnotes
1 The assessment report is available on the CSVR
website. See Bruce, Newham and Masuku 2007 in the
list of references above.
BRUCE 19
2 In 2007 the SAPS amended this policy by releasing
crime statistics in July, separately from the annual report
which is released in September. Nevertheless the
situation with respect to the authority of station
commanders to provide statistics to members of
Community Policing Forums, and other local partners,
remains ambiguous.
3 Note that statistics released by the SAPS in July
indicated that the number of police killed had once
again increased, supporting the motivation by the report
for better information on the circumstances in which
these killings take place.
4 A more recent survey conducted by Markinor in early
2007 found that ‘just under half of South Africans
believed that the police are doing enough to combat
crime (Harris and Radaelli 2007).
5 For an example of what this adaptation might involve
see Joubert 2007.
20 BRUCE
SA CRIME QUARTERLY No 21 • SEPTEMBER 2007