Simon Reid

The quokka, Setonix brachyurus, is a vulnerable, small marsupial endemic to Western Australia. Blood samples were collected from quokkas from three different geographical locations; Two Peoples Bay, Bald Island and Rottnest Island. The overall prevalence of trypanosomes by nested PCR at the 18S ribosomal RNA gene was 57.3% (63/110) with prevalences of 91.4%, 85.3% and 4.9% respectively for Two Peoples Bay, Bald Island and Rottnest Island. Phylogenetic analysis conducted on 47 18S PCR positives identified two Trypanosomacopemani genotypes, with T. copemani genotype B, the most prevalent genotype infecting quokka populations from the three locations with an overall prevalence of 51.8% (24/47) compared to 34% for T. copemani genotype A (16/47). The overall prevalence of mixed T. copemani genotype A and B infections was 14.9% (7/47). Phylogenetic analysis of 26 quokka isolates at the glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) locus, largely supported the 18S analysis but identifie...

Angiostrongylus mackerrasae is a metastrongyloid nematode endemic to Australia, where it infects the native bush rat, Rattus fuscipes. This lungworm has an identical life cycle to that of Angiostrongylus cantonensis, a leading cause of eosinophilic meningitis in humans. The ability of A. mackerrasae to infect non-rodent hosts, specifically the black flying fox, raises concerns as to its zoonotic potential. To date, data on the taxonomy, epidemiology and population genetics of A. mackerrasae are unknown. Here, we describe the mitochondrial (mt) genome of A. mackerrasae with the aim of starting to address these knowledge gaps. The complete mitochondrial (mt) genome of A. mackerrasae was amplified from a single morphologically identified adult worm, by long-PCR in two overlapping amplicons (8 kb and 10 kb). The amplicons were sequenced using the MiSeq Illumina platform and annotated using an in-house pipeline. Amino acid sequences inferred from individual protein coding genes of the mt...

Physicians appear to find zoonotic diseases a challenge and consider that this topic belongs more to the veterinary profession. However, veterinarians have no formal role in clinical medicine. Data were collected as part of the Queensland Social Survey 2014 to determine the willingness of the public, if diagnosed with a zoonotic disease, to consult a veterinarian on the advice of a physician. Self-reported willingness to consult with a veterinarian at the respondent's own expense was 79.8% (95% CI: 81.96%-77.46%) (976/1223). If the cost was funded by Medicare, the Australian public health insurance scheme, 90.7% (95% CI: 92.18%-88.92%) (1109/1223) would be willing to consult a veterinarian. Therefore, a large majority of Australian residents would be willing to consult with a veterinarian on the advice of their physician if they had a zoonotic disease. Does this indicate a possible new role for veterinarians under Clinical One Health?

Despite the recent sporadic reports of angiostrongyliasis in humans, dogs and wildlife in eastern Australia there has been no systematic study to explore the epidemiology of Angiostrongylus spp. in definitive and intermediate hosts in the region. Little is known about the epidemiology of Angiostrongylus species in the definitive host in southeast Queensland, since the only survey conducted in this region was performed in the late 1960s. In this study, free-living populations of Rattus spp. were sampled and examined for the presence of adult and larval Angiostrongylus in the lungs, and of larvae in faeces. The prevalence of infection with Angiostrongylus spp. was 16.5% in Rattus spp. trapped in urban Brisbane and surrounds. This prevalence is much higher than estimates of earlier studies. This highlights the possible risk of zoonotic infection in children, dogs and wildlife in this region and indicates the necessity for public awareness as well as more detailed epidemiological studies on this parasite in eastern Australia.

Five captive Sumatran rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis sumatrensis) housed in a facility in Selangor Malaysia died in a biphasic epidemic that spanned 18 days. Four of the five rhinos had been wild-caught in peninsular Malaysia and translocated into captivity; one was the only offspring of a female that had been pregnant at the time of capture. Clinical signs included initial depression and anorexia followed by rapidly progressing incoordination, muscle tremors, nasal hemorrhage, recumbency and labored breathing, followed by death. Despite broad-spectrum antibiotic and supportive therapy, all five rhinos succumbed. Trypanosomes identified as Trypanosoma evansi were detected in blood smears taken just prior to death from the last two animals. Gross pathology was nonspecific; however, histopathologic examination revealed multi-systemic disease compatible with historical reports of surra in other animals. Three animals had intralesional trypanosomes and extravascular hemolysis; thr...

Despite an apparent increase in cases of angiostrongyliasis in humans and animals in Australia, the epidemiology of infection with the two species of Angiostrongylus that co-exist in this country, namely A. cantonensis and A. mackerrasae, is poorly understood. This knowledge gap is particularly important with respect to A. mackerrasae, a species evidently native to Australia, as its ability to cause disease in humans is unknown. Likewise, there is little information on the roles of native and introduced species of rodents and molluscs as hosts of Angiostrongylus species in Australia. This review focuses on the gaps in the knowledge about the two species, highlighting the need for epidemiological and pathogenesis studies on the native lungworm A. mackerrasae.

The Colonial War Memorial Hospital (CWMH) in Fiji. To determine the characteristics of patients with diabetes mellitus (DM) who underwent lower limb amputations at the CWMH from 2010 to 2012. This was a retrospective review of data contained in operating theatre registers and clinical records of DM patients who had undergone amputations during the study period. Of the 938 amputations performed at the CWMH during the study period, significantly more patients were male than female (54.1% vs. 45.9%) and more i-Taukei (indigenous Fijian) than Indo-Fijian (71% vs. 26.2%); 15.9% of patients had not previously been diagnosed as having DM when they presented with foot sepsis. The rate of smoking was highest in male i-Taukei patients. A large proportion of patients (76.8%) had poor glycaemic control. This study suggests that male i-Taukeis are most at risk, and that uncontrolled DM is a significant factor associated with amputations. There is a need to strengthen DM screening and improve glycaemic control. Foot care education needs to be implemented at diagnosis and re-enforced with regular clinic visits and complication screening sessions.

ABSTRACT Setting: Acid-fast bacilli (AFB) smear microscopy and Mycobacterium tuberculosis culture are the first-line diagnostic tests for tuberculosis (TB). The contamination of TB cultures significantly reduces the reliability of TB diagnosis. Objective: To investigate factors associated with TB culture contamination in Fiji, and the relative diagnostic performance of culture compared to microscopy. Design: All tests performed at the Daulakao Mycobacterium Reference Laboratory (DMRL) in Fiji from 2010 to 2012 were reviewed. Study variables included AFB smear and TB culture results, age and type of specimen, referring TB testing centre and patient age. Results: Of 5708 specimens reviewed, 70% had both AFB smear and culture results recorded; 421 specimens were contaminated; 2.7% of specimens were either degraded or had no result recorded. There was moderate agreement ( = 0.577) between the two tests. Culture was more likely to be positive at higher AFB smear scores. Culture contamination was associated with distance from the DMRL, sample age and operator-associated factors. Conclusion: Increases in the speed of referral from TB testing centres or the addition of preservatives to sputum specimens may results in less culture contamination. The planned introduction of liquid culture techniques in combination with culture on Ogawa media is likely to increase the sensitivity of TB diagnosis in Fiji.

In Vietnam, serological post H5N1 vaccination surveillance using the HI test is applied to assess the efficiency of the vaccination in addition to virological monitoring. In this paper we report on the evaluations of the performances of the haemagglutination inhibition (HI) test and of a H5-ELISA, using chicken and duck field samples. The evaluations were conducted by comparison with a pseudotyped-based virus neutralization test (H5pp VNT) performed in a reference laboratory and considered as a "gold standard" and also by using methods developed for imperfect reference test. Their global accuracy and best cut-offs were also estimated. Results from the HI test for several haemagglutinin subtypes and from a commercial type A influenza competition ELISA were also compared. The results showed that performance of the HI test was very good in comparison with the H5pp VNT. Data also clearly supported the cut-off of ≥4log(2) used for the HI test for chickens but, a 3log(2) positiv...

Five captive Sumatran rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis sumatrensis) housed in a facility in Selangor Malaysia died in a biphasic epidemic that spanned 18 days. Four of the five rhinos had been wild-caught in peninsular Malaysia and translocated into captivity; one was the ...

A distinctive feature of Trypanosoma evansi is the possession of a kinetoplast that contains homogeneous DNA minicircles, but lacks DNA maxicircles. Two major sequence variants of the minicircle have been described and here we have sequenced the type B variant and designed a specific PCR test to distinguish it from type A. Further a test based on maxicircles to distinguish T. brucei brucei from T. evansi was designed and evaluated. Using the designed PCR tests, we detected three type B isolates from camel blood samples collected in northern Kenya, more than 20 years after the first isolation of type B. Comparison of minicircle sequences from all four type B isolates shows >96% identity within the group, and 50–60% identity to type A minicircles. Phylogenetic analysis based on minicircle sequences reveals two clusters, one comprising isolates of type A and one of type B, while random amplification of polymorphic DNA show slight polymorphic bands within type B. Most T. evansi isolates analysed were heterozygous at a repetitive coding locus (MORF2). All type B isolates had one genotype designated 3/5 based on the alleles present. Three camel isolates, which had homogenous type A minicircles, lacked the RoTat 1.2 gene, while another five isolates were T. b. brucei, based on the heterogeneity of their minicircles and presence of maxicircles as demonstrated by PCR amplification of the gene for cytochrome oxidase subunit 1. Our results confirm the existence of T. evansi type B isolates, T. b. brucei and existence of T. evansi type A without RoTat 1.2 gene in Kenyan isolates

Between 2003 and 2007, 83 (50%) of 167 crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus) purchased as juveniles by a crocodile farm 3 or 4 years earlier from Kikori, Gulf Province, were found to be infected with Trichinella papuae. Between 2005 and 2007 infection was detected in a number of crocodiles at the farm obtained from six localities other than Kikori, as well as in a few animals born on the farm. Up to 2004, all juveniles at the farm, whether wild- or farm-born, were penned together; the practice was then stopped to prevent possible infection through cannibalism. The last infected animal from Kikori was seen in 2007, 4 years after the purchase of crocodiles from there ceased. The last non-Kikori infected crocodile was seen, also, in 2007. None of the 1,972 crocodiles (comprising wild- and farm-born animals) tested from 2008 to 2013, using the digestion method, was infected with T. papuae. This indicates that infection of non-Kikori crocodiles was the result of cannibalism within the farm dur...

Trypanosomes are blood-borne parasites that can cause severe disease in both humans and animals, yet little is known of the pathogenicity and life-cycles of trypanosomes in native Australian mammals. Trypanosoma copemani is known to be infective to a variety of Australian marsupials and has recently been shown to be potentially zoonotic as it is resistant to normal human serum. In the present study, in vivo and in vitro examination of blood and cultures from Australian marsupials was conducted using light microscopy, immunofluorescence, scanning electron microscopy and fluorescence in situ hybridization. Promastigote, sphaeromastigote and amastigote life-cycle stages were detected in vivo and in vitro. Novel trypanosome-like stages were also detected both in vivo and in vitro representing an oval stage, an extremely thin stage, an adherent stage and a tiny round stage. The tiny round and adherent stages appeared to adhere to erythrocytes causing potential haematological damage with clinical effects similar to haemolytic anaemia. The present study shows for the first time that trypomastigotes are not the only life-cycle stages circulating within the blood stream of trypanosome infected Australian native marsupials and provides insights into possible pathogenic mechanisms of this potentially zoonotic trypanosome species.

Trypanosoma copemani is known to be infective to a variety of Australian marsupials. Characterisation of this parasite revealed the presence of stercorarian-like life-cycle stages in culture, which are similar to T. rangeli and T. cruzi. The blood incubation infectivity test (BIIT) was adapted and used to determine if T. copemani, like T. cruzi and T. rangeli, has the potential to grow in the presence of human serum. To eliminate any effects of anticoagulants on the complement system and on human high density lipoprotein (HDL), only fresh whole human blood was used. Trypanosoma copemani was observed by microscopy in all human blood cultures from day 5 to day 19 post inoculation (PI). The mechanism for normal human serum (NHS) resistance in T. copemani is not known. The results of this study show that at least one native Australian trypanosome species may have the potential to be infective for humans.

Between 2003 and 2007, 83 (50%) of 167 crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus) purchased as juveniles by a crocodile farm 3 or 4 years earlier from Kikori, Gulf Province, were found to be infected with Trichinella papuae. Between 2005 and 2007 infection was detected in a number of crocodiles at the farm obtained from six localities other than Kikori, as well as in a few animals born on the farm. Up to 2004, all juveniles at the farm, whether wild- or farm-born, were penned together; the practice was then stopped to prevent possible infection through cannibalism. The last infected animal from Kikori was seen in 2007, 4 years after the purchase of crocodiles from there ceased. The last non-Kikori infected crocodile was seen, also, in 2007. None of the 1972 crocodiles (comprising wild- and farm-born animals) tested from 2008 to 2013, using the digestion method, was infected with T. papuae. This indicates that infection of non-Kikori crocodiles was the result of cannibalism within the farm during the years up to 2004 when juvenile crocodiles were kept together, and that the farm is now free of the infection.

This study aimed to synthesize available evidence on the extent of malaria and soil-transmitted intestinal helminth (STH) co-infections in people living in endemic countries and to explore the effect of interactions between malaria and STHs on anemia. We searched relevant studies in electronic databases up to March 2013. Studies comparing malaria and STH co-infected patients with those not co-infected were included and the effect estimates were pooled using a random-effects model. We identified 30 studies for meta-analyses of which 17 were cross-sectional design. The majority of included studies (80%) were carried out in African countries. Among pregnant women, those infected with hookworm were found to have higher association with malaria infection compared with those without (summary OR: 1.36; 95% CI: 1.17-1.59; I(2): 0%). Among non-pregnant adults, the summary OR of the association between anemia and the combined malaria and STH was 2.91 (1.38-6.14). The summary OR of the associa...

Little is known of the prevalence and life-cycle of trypanosomes in mammals native to Australia. Native Australian trypanosomes have previously been identified in marsupials in the eastern states of Australia, with one recent report in brush-tailed bettongs (Bettongia penicillata), or woylie in Western Australia in 2008. This study reports a novel Trypanosoma sp. identified in blood smears, from 7 critically endangered Gilbert's potoroos (Potorous gilbertii) and 3 quokkas (Setonix brachyurus) in Western Australia. Trypanosomes were successfully cultured in vitro and showed morphological characteristics similar to members of the subgenus Herpetosoma. Phylogenetic analysis of 18S rRNA gene sequences identified 2 different novel genotypes A and B that are closely related to trypanosomes previously isolated from a common wombat (Vombatus ursinus) in Victoria, Australia. The new species is proposed to be named Trypanosoma copemani n. sp.

Between 2003 and 2007, 83 (50%) of 167 crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus) purchased as juveniles by a crocodile farm 3 or 4 years earlier from Kikori, Gulf Province, were found to be infected with Trichinella papuae. Between 2005 and 2007 infection was detected in a number of crocodiles at the farm obtained from six localities other than Kikori, as well as in a few animals born on the farm. Up to 2004, all juveniles at the farm, whether wild- or farm-born, were penned together; the practice was then stopped to prevent possible infection through cannibalism. The last infected animal from Kikori was seen in 2007, 4 years after the purchase of crocodiles from there ceased. The last non-Kikori infected crocodile was seen, also, in 2007. None of the 1972 crocodiles (comprising wild- and farm-born animals) tested from 2008 to 2013, using the digestion method, was infected with T. papuae. This indicates that infection of non-Kikori crocodiles was the result of cannibalism within the farm during the years up to 2004 when juvenile crocodiles were kept together, and that the farm is now free of the infection.

As it has been 30 years since a new anthelmintic class was released, it is appropriate to review management practices aimed at slowing the development of anthelmintic resistance to all drug classes. Recommendations to delay anthelmintic resistance, provide refugia and the use of a simulation model were reviewed to find optimum treatment strategies that maintain nematode control. Simulated Australian conditions indicated that a common successful low-risk treatment program was a rapid rotation between a "triple-combination" product (benzimidazole+levamisole+abamectin) and a new high-efficacy drug (monepantel). Where Haemonchus contortus was a threat, moxidectin was required at critical times because of its persistent activity against this parasite. Leaving up to 4% of adult sheep untreated provided sufficient "refugia" for non-selected worms to reduce the risk of selecting for anthelmintic resistance without compromising nematode control. For a new anthelmintic, efficacy estimated by faecal egg count reduction (FECR) is likely to be at or close to 100%, however using current methods the 95% confidence limits (CL) for 100% are incorrectly determined as 100%. The fewer eggs counted pre-treatment, the more likely an estimate of 100% will occur, particularly if the true efficacy is >90%. A novel way to determine the lower-CL (LCL) for 100% efficacy is to reframe FECR as a binomial proportion, i.e. define: n and x as the total number of eggs counted (rather than eggs per gram of faeces) for all pre-treatment and post-treatment animals, respectively; p the proportion of resistant eggs is p = x/n and percent efficacy is 100 ×(1-p) (assuming equal treatment group sizes and detection levels, pre- and post-treatment). The LCL is approximated from the cumulative inverse beta distribution by: 95%LCL=100 ×(1-(BETAINV(0.975, x+1, n-x+1))). This method is simpler than the current method, independent of the number of animals tested, and demonstrates that for 100% efficacy at least 37 eggs (not eggs per gram) need to be counted pre-treatment before the LCL can exceed 90%. When nematode aggregation is high, this method can be usefully applied to efficacy estimates lower than 100%, and in this case the 95% upper-CL (UCL) can be estimated by: 95% UCL = 100 ×(1((BETAINV(0.025, x+1, n-x+1))), with the LCL approximated as described above. A simulation study to estimate the precision and accuracy of this method found that the more conservative 99%CL was optimum; in this case 0.975 and 0.025 are replaced by 0.995 and 0.005 to estimate the LCL and UCL, respectively.

Trypanosoma evansi, a blood-borne protozoan parasite with an extensive geographical range is the causative agent of the livestock disease known as surra. A total of 140 out of 179 T. evansi isolates collected between 2006 and 2007 from 44 villages (comprising of 16 reported surra outbreaks) in 3 provinces (Agusan del Sur (ADS), Surigao del Sur (SDS) and Agusan del Norte (ADN)) in Mindanao, Philippines were each successfully genotyped using a suite of 7 polymorphic microsatellites. The study identified 16 multi locus genotypes (MLG) within the T. evansi isolates and evidence of the spread of surra outbreaks from one village to another, most likely due to the movement of infected animals. Genotyping provided evidence of population sub-structuring with 3 populations (I, II and III (only 1 isolate)) identified. The most abundant population was II, which was the predominant population in ADS and SDS (p=0.022). In addition, buffalo mortality was statistically higher in outbreak areas associated with isolates from population I (13.6%) than with isolates from population II (6.9%) (p=0.047). The present study has highlighted the utility of microsatellite loci to improve understanding of the epidemiology of T. evansi and in tracking surra outbreaks.

Attempts were made to improve the accuracy of an antibody-detection ELISA for the detection of Trypanosoma evansi infection in cattle by improving the method of preparation of the crude antigen used. An IgG-ELISA was performed with five different antigen preparations: crude soluble antigen, soluble and insoluble fractions of crude antigen treated with 0.1% formalin and whole formalin-fixed trypanosomes treated with either trypsin or 2-mercaptoethanol. An IgM-ELISA using crude soluble antigen was also performed. Each ELISA was evaluated using serum from 44 Indonesian cattle infected with T. evansi and 262 uninfected cattle from Australia. There was no significant difference between the sensitivity or specificity of the IgG-ELISA using each of the five antigens. The IgM-ELISA using a crude untreated lysate was significantly less sensitive (p<0.05) than the IgG-ELISA using the same antigen, trypsin-treated antigen or the 0.1% formalin-treated soluble antigen (68, 64 and 64%, respectively). These results show that these modifications to the method of producing crude antigens for the Ab-ELISA does not improve the accuracy of diagnosis of T. evansi infection in cattle.

Trypanosoma evansi, the cause of the disease Surra in livestock, is the most widely geographically distributed pathogenic trypanosome occurring in Africa, South and Central America, and Asia, where it causes significant economic loss. Although many studies have described the histopathology induced in the organs of mice infected with T. evansi, few studies have been conducted on gene expression in these organs. Here we used complementary DNA microarray to analyze the gene expression profiles in the liver and spleen of mice infected with T. evansi (STIB 806) at the peak parasitemia (7 days after infection). A total of 14,000 sequences including full length and partial complementary DNAs representing novel, known, and control genes of mouse were analyzed. Results from GeneOntology annotation showed that 158 genes in the liver and 73 genes in the spleen were up-regulated in the infected mice and that 178 genes in the liver and 117 genes in the spleen of infected mice were down-regulated compared with control (non-infected) mice. Most of these genes are metabolism, transport, protein biosynthesis, transcription factors, and nucleic acid binding protein-related genes. The changes of some important genes, such as heat shock protein 70 and proliferating cell nuclear antigen, were confirmed by quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction and immunohistochemistry. TdT-mediated dUTP-digoxigenin nick end labeling analysis results revealed that extensive apoptosis occurred in the liver of infected mice at the peak of parasitemia. Our results provide a comprehensive profile of changes in gene expression in the liver and spleen of mice infected with T. evansi and may be helpful in understanding the pathogenesis of Surra at a molecular level.

A distinctive feature of Trypanosoma evansi is the possession of a kinetoplast that contains homogeneous DNA minicircles, but lacks DNA maxicircles. Two major sequence variants of the minicircle have been described and here we have sequenced the type B variant and designed a specific PCR test to distinguish it from type A. Further a test based on maxicircles to distinguish T. brucei brucei from T. evansi was designed and evaluated. Using the designed PCR tests, we detected three type B isolates from camel blood samples collected in northern Kenya, more than 20 years after the first isolation of type B. Comparison of minicircle sequences from all four type B isolates shows >96% identity within the group, and 50-60% identity to type A minicircles. Phylogenetic analysis based on minicircle sequences reveals two clusters, one comprising isolates of type A and one of type B, while random amplification of polymorphic DNA show slight polymorphic bands within type B. Most T. evansi isolates analysed were heterozygous at a repetitive coding locus (MORF2). All type B isolates had one genotype designated 3/5 based on the alleles present. Three camel isolates, which had homogenous type A minicircles, lacked the RoTat 1.2 gene, while another five isolates were T. b. brucei, based on the heterogeneity of their minicircles and presence of maxicircles as demonstrated by PCR amplification of the gene for cytochrome oxidase subunit 1. Our results confirm the existence of T. evansi type B isolates, T. b. brucei and existence of T. evansi type A without RoTat 1.2 gene in Kenyan isolates.

To confirm serological evidence that Trypanosoma evansi is present in Papua New Guinea. Three surveys were undertaken in PNG during 1997/1998. Animals were selected for sampling on the basis of convenience. Samples of blood were examined for the presence of T evansi by the haematocrit centrifugation technique (HCT) and mouse inoculation test (MI). Sera were tested in the field using the card agglutination test for trypanosomiasis/T evansi (CATT). Bovine sera were tested at James Cook University using an antibody-detection ELISA (Ab-ELISA). Results from testing bovine sera with the Ab-ELISA and sera from wallabies with the CATT were analysed using FreeCalc to determine the probability that animals in these populations were infected with T evansi. A total of 545 serum samples were collected, during the three surveys of which 39 cattle, two pig and three agile wallaby samples were positive with the CATT. All bovine sera collected were negative when tested with an Ab-ELISA. T evansi was not isolated using the HCT or the MI from any of these animals. Based on the Ab-ELISA results it was concluded that T evansi infection was not present in cattle in villages around Balimo at a minimum expected prevalence of 10% (P < 0.05) and, based on the CATT results, that infection was not present in wallabies on the Bula plain at a minimum expected prevalence of 10% (P < 0.1). These results indicate that it is unlikely that T evansi is endemic in PNG.

Little is known of the prevalence and life-cycle of trypanosomes in mammals native to Australia. Native Australian trypanosomes have previously been identified in marsupials in the eastern states of Australia, with one recent report in brush-tailed bettongs (Bettongia penicillata), or woylie in Western Australia in 2008. This study reports a novel Trypanosoma sp. identified in blood smears, from 7 critically endangered Gilbert's potoroos (Potorous gilbertii) and 3 quokkas (Setonix brachyurus) in Western Australia. Trypanosomes were successfully cultured in vitro and showed morphological characteristics similar to members of the subgenus Herpetosoma. Phylogenetic analysis of 18S rRNA gene sequences identified 2 different novel genotypes A and B that are closely related to trypanosomes previously isolated from a common wombat (Vombatus ursinus) in Victoria, Australia. The new species is proposed to be named Trypanosoma copemani n. sp.