- School of History and Heritage
University of Lincoln
Brayford Pool
Lincoln
LN6 7TS
United Kingdom
Mark Gardiner
University of Lincoln, School Of History And Heritage, Faculty Member
- Medieval History and Architecture, Medieval Archaeology, Late Medieval Archaeology, Stone Buildings and Stone Masons, Carpentry and Carpenters, Medieval Handicrafts, and 9 moreEcclesiastical Furnishings, Forms and Handicraft, North Atlantic archaeology, Archaeology of Iceland, Medieval Scandinavia, Early Medieval And Medieval Settlement (Archaeology), Pastoralism (Archaeology), Historical Archaeology, Shetland, Hanseatic Trade, and Hanseatic Leagueedit
- Professor of Medieval Archaeology at the University of Lincoln.edit
This paper examines the nature of the built landscape in sixteenth-century Ulster and considers why so little of it remains. It is necessary to deploy a range of evidence to try to identify surviving remains. Perhaps the most striking... more
This paper examines the nature of the built landscape in sixteenth-century Ulster and considers why so little of it remains. It is necessary to deploy a range of evidence to try to identify surviving remains. Perhaps the most striking feature about the landscape of Gaelic Ulster was the lack of substantial investment in the construction of physical structures. That included not only houses, other buildings and fields, but also the construction of material boundaries of all sorts, including those of the farms and townlands. As a results it is difficult to find remains because human intervention was comparatively light.
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The nature and operation of medieval trade in Iceland over seven centuries is examined in this paper. Three phases of trade can be distinguished. The first, from c. 900 was marked by the growing dominance of Nor- wegian traders who came... more
The nature and operation of medieval trade in Iceland over seven centuries is examined in this paper. Three phases of trade can be distinguished. The first, from c. 900 was marked by the growing dominance of Nor- wegian traders who came to dominate overseas commerce and culminated with the union with Norway. The second from c. 1250 is marked by the growing importance of dried cod (stockfish) which superseded coarse cloth (vaðmál) as the major export from Iceland. The third phase in the 15th and 16th centuries was marked by the capture of the stockfish trade by the English and German merchants. The modest level of trade prevented the emergence of a merchant class in Iceland, but the demand for vaðmál and stockfish had a profound effect on Icelandic society and in the measures of value used. Coins were not employed, and trade was carried out by barter. The units for the measurement of value were successively silver, cloth and then stockfish. As the items of trade changed, so did the units of value.
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Transhumance, or booleyig as it is widely termed in Ireland, is often considered as a particular folk practice, rather than a common response to the utilization of larger areas of poor-quality land. It is a usage which persisted over many... more
Transhumance, or booleyig as it is widely termed in Ireland, is often considered as a particular folk practice, rather than a common response to the utilization of larger areas of poor-quality land. It is a usage which persisted over many centuries, but should not be treated an an unchanging tradition.
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During the 15th century the population of Romney Marsh, using the term in the broad sense, declined to a fraction of its former size. A study of Dengemarsh manor shows a remarkable stability of settlement and land-holding in the first... more
During the 15th century the population of Romney Marsh, using the term in the broad sense, declined to a fraction of its former size. A study of Dengemarsh manor shows a remarkable stability of settlement and land-holding in the first three decades of the century. There were numerous small tenements comprising farmsteads with adjoining fields. The pattern probably remained relatively unchanged until the 1480s when land was engrossed to produce much larger holdings. The village of Old Romney contracted in the early 16th century having changed little in size since the late 14th century. By contrast, there is no evidence for a decrease in size in the nearby town of Lydd. The main period of engrossment and probably also of settlement abandonment is identified as the late 15th and early 16th centuries. Some of the reasons for these changes were the demand for wool from the local Wealden cloth industry and the absence of by-employment on the marsh to support smallholders.
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Trade from 1400 onwards had an impact upon the North Atlantic region quite out of proportion to its volume. e opening of a ready market for dried sh, in particular, but also cloth, train oil and sulphur encouraged the production for... more
Trade from 1400 onwards had an impact upon the North Atlantic region quite out of proportion to its volume. e opening of a ready market for dried sh, in particular, but also cloth, train oil and sulphur encouraged the production for export on a much larger scale than before. In return, a greater range of nished goods and raw materials was supplied by German mer- chants. Initially, trade was channelled through Bergen, but this system broke down, largely because English merchants sailed to Iceland. From the 1470s onwards, the number of German ships travelling to Iceland and Shetland increased. e Danish government struggled to control the trade in their North Atlantic territories, but rst in the Faroes and later in Iceland, they sought to impose greater restrictions on foreign merchants. e Danes licensed ships to trade at certain ports and from 1601 attempted to restrict the trade to their own merchants. e introduction summarizes the history of German trade in the North Atlantic, and outlines its economic and cultural impacts.
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The character of the late medieval rural landscape of Ireland has been difficult to identify.A survey of the uplands in counties Antrim and Derry examined areas on the periphery of and beyond Anglo-Norman lordship. It recognised a number... more
The character of the late medieval rural landscape of Ireland has been difficult to identify.A survey of the uplands in counties Antrim and Derry examined areas on the periphery of and beyond Anglo-Norman lordship. It recognised a number of areas where the earthworks of fields and associated buildings still survive.These are identified as the remains of a system of infield-outfield agriculture. Evidence for booley (transhumance) huts was surprisingly infrequent. It is suggested that either livestock were grazed closer to the lowland settlements or the upland communities took charge of the animals sent up in the summer months from the lowland sites.The pattern of townlands recorded in the seventeenth century suggests that the upland was systematically divided between communities in the valley, emphasising the role of the lands at higher elevations for grazing. Infield-outfield agriculture and oval buildings are likely to have been found not only in the uplands but also more widely over the north of Ireland in the late Middle Ages.
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This summary of work draws attention to the richness of archaeological remains in one part of the Antrim plateau. Late Bronze Age and later medieval remains were found and recorded.
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A number of the ruined, late medieval buildings at Ardglass, Co Down, are discussed to consider the way in which commerce took place. It is argued that one building provided both lodgings and shops on the ground floor from where the... more
A number of the ruined, late medieval buildings at Ardglass, Co Down, are discussed to consider the way in which commerce took place. It is argued that one building provided both lodgings and shops on the ground floor from where the merchants’ goods might be sold, and another served as a dining room for the visiting traders. The pattern of lodgings and shops can be compared to the booths occupied by merchants elsewhere in the North Atlantic operating a form of trade distinctive of that region.
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Survey work at Diskert Farm in Glenariff recorded the remains of seven buildings, an enclosure and a boundary bank on a area of level ground on the side of the glen. These are likely to be of a number of dates, but the oval-shaped... more
Survey work at Diskert Farm in Glenariff recorded the remains of seven buildings, an enclosure and a boundary bank on a area of level ground on the side of the glen. These are likely to be of a number of dates, but the oval-shaped buildings are probably late medieval. Others may belong to the early modern period. Some cultivation ridges were also recorded.
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A trench was cut across a hut circle in Cloghcor Townland to locate and sample the buried soil. It identified a deposit below the hut wall which contained numerous fragments of charcoal and burnt clay. Samples were submitted for... more
A trench was cut across a hut circle in Cloghcor Townland to locate and sample the buried soil. It identified a deposit below the hut wall which contained numerous fragments of charcoal and burnt clay. Samples were submitted for radiocarbon dating and indicated that the building was dated to or was later than the Late Bronze Age.
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Three early Anglo-Saxon sunken-featured buildings dating to the late fifth or early sixth century were discovered during excavation. Finds suggest that stamp-decorated and grass-tempered pottery was made in the settlement. Burnt daub with... more
Three early Anglo-Saxon sunken-featured buildings dating to the late fifth or early sixth century were discovered during excavation. Finds suggest that stamp-decorated and grass-tempered pottery was made in the settlement. Burnt daub with a lime-washed surface was found, possibly from other, larger buildings. In the late tenth or early eleventh century the site was reoccupied. Traces of five timber buildings from this second phase of activity were recorded to the south of the parish church, which was built (or rebuilt) during this period. Other structures including a well and fence-line were excavated. During the later medieval period the area examined was probably part of the glebe of the parish of Botolphs. A ditch and rubbish pits of the later thirteenth and fourteenth centuries found here are to be associated with the nearby vicarage.
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Three points are argued in this paper. The firrst is that for the English the businesses of fishing and trade in the North Atlantic were inseparable. This mixed approach stands in sharp contrast to that of the Hanseatic merchants, who... more
Three points are argued in this paper. The firrst is that for the English the businesses of fishing and trade in the North Atlantic were inseparable. This mixed approach stands in sharp contrast to that of the Hanseatic merchants, who were solely traders. The second point is that the participants in fishing operations were working according to different strategies, which become comprehensible once we understand the cultural context in which their decisions were made. The final aspect is that the study of the fishing by the English and an understanding of the trading operations by the Hanse has helped to clarify the emerging concept of second-stage commercialisation of the fishing industry.
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About 10% of the total National Roads Authority-funded excavations in the Republic of Ireland produced evidence for activity of this period. Sites investigated include manorial centres, moated sites, farmsteads, nucleated settlements,... more
About 10% of the total National Roads Authority-funded excavations in the Republic of Ireland produced evidence for activity of this period. Sites investigated include manorial centres, moated sites, farmsteads, nucleated settlements, cemeteries, fields, ringforts, corn-drying kilns, refuse pits, iron- and charcoal-working sites and lime kilns. The majority of these excavations took place in the parts of Ireland that were under the control of the Anglo-Normans in the period from the late 12th century until the 14th century and by their descendents after that date. The area examined and the scale of excavations allows for the first time clearer statements to be made about the rural archaeology of the period from 1100 to 1600. In particular, it was possible to reinterpret the remains of later medieval houses to understand the character of their construction.
It is argued that this evidence from this review of road-scheme excavations suggest that a class of prosperous peasants existed in the countryside of Anglo-Norman Ireland. This indicates that not all wealth was concentrated in the hands of the landowning elite and that ordinary people were permitted, even encouraged, to prosper during this time. The evidence from the four moated sites excavated in advance of the road schemes hints strongly that Anglo-Norman Ireland was at its wealthiest in the second half of the 13th century. Overall, these excavations have greatly added to our understanding of the later medieval period in Ireland, particularly of rural lifeways during Anglo-Norman times.
It is argued that this evidence from this review of road-scheme excavations suggest that a class of prosperous peasants existed in the countryside of Anglo-Norman Ireland. This indicates that not all wealth was concentrated in the hands of the landowning elite and that ordinary people were permitted, even encouraged, to prosper during this time. The evidence from the four moated sites excavated in advance of the road schemes hints strongly that Anglo-Norman Ireland was at its wealthiest in the second half of the 13th century. Overall, these excavations have greatly added to our understanding of the later medieval period in Ireland, particularly of rural lifeways during Anglo-Norman times.
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M. F. Gardiner. 2007. The origins and persistence of manor houses in England, in M. F. Gardiner and S. Rippon (eds), Medieval Landscapes (Landscape History after Hoskins, 2), 170-82. Macclesfield: Windgather Press
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The plan of the late medieval hall in England is well known from the evidence of buildings of the thirteenth century and later. However, examination of excavated timber buildings suggests that the main elements of the hall plan can be... more
The plan of the late medieval hall in England is well known from the evidence of buildings of the thirteenth century and later. However, examination of excavated timber buildings suggests that the main elements of the hall plan can be identified from at least the late tenth century. The persistence of the plan over a period of at least 600 years may obscure the fact that the conception of the hall and details of its form were in a state of continuous change. Instead of beginning with an examination of the form of the hall, the study starts by considering what the room represented in social terms. An appreciation of the changing conceptions of lordship, community and honour allows a more subtle analysis of the development of the hall in the period before 1200. A combination of written sources with excavated remains to elucidate complex problems is one of the distinguishing features of medieval archaeology.
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This collective monograph presents the current state of research regarding contemporary methods of dealing with historic timber structures in Scandinavia, the United Kingdom, Central Europe and Northwest Russia. The chapters are dedicated... more
This collective monograph presents the current state of research regarding contemporary methods of dealing with historic timber structures in Scandinavia, the United Kingdom, Central Europe and Northwest Russia. The chapters are dedicated to the main aspects of the research and deal with archaeological evidence, written sources, the extant buildings themselves as evidence, as well as repair and maintenance. Researchers from four countries examine centuries-old timber structures that include churches, bell towers and dwellings in Europe and Russia. Based on the conclusions of these studies, they demonstrate various methods of archaeological, archival and empirical research and discuss appropriate measures of restoring and maintaining wooden structures. Historical and contemporary photographs along with new drawings richly document the buildings.
Research Interests: Russian Studies, Art History, Architecture, Medieval History, Czech History, and 13 moreArchitectural History, Medieval Archaeology, Medieval Scandinavia, Russian Orthodoxy, Early medieval Britain (Archaeology), Scandinavian Studies, Medieval Art, Russia, History of architecture, Wooden Architecture, Scandinavian Archaeology, Norway, and Wood Engineering
There is little evidence for the practice of whaling in Anglo-Saxon or later medieval England, even though whales were caught on the opposite side of the English Channel in Normandy and Flanders. Stranded whales were exploited by coastal... more
There is little evidence for the practice of whaling in Anglo-Saxon or later medieval England, even though whales were caught on the opposite side of the English Channel in Normandy and Flanders. Stranded whales were exploited by coastal communities, but from the 11th century whales and other cetaceans were claimed by the king as ‘royal fish’. The difficulties of enforcing this claim against, on the one hand the holders of coastal lordships, and on the other against local inhabitants, led to recognition by the king of seigneurial claims. Whales and porpoises were a high-status food, though by the end of the Middle Ages whales may have been declining in popularity. It is argued that social aspirations and tensions were expressed in the possession and consumption of cetaceans. The finds of cetacean bone on archaeological sites are interpreted against the changes in their social value. Between about AD 1000 and 1300 bones are mainly discovered on high-status sites.
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A section excavated across the ditch of an oval-shaped enclosure at Tottingworth, Heathfield recovered medieval pottery dated to the 13th or 14th century, and squared pieces of stone apparently from a building. The documentary evidence... more
A section excavated across the ditch of an oval-shaped enclosure at Tottingworth, Heathfield recovered medieval pottery dated to the 13th or 14th century, and squared pieces of stone apparently from a building. The documentary evidence for the sites does not allow the identification of a tenant sufficiently wealthy to have constructed the earthwork and masonry buildings. The enclosure can best be categorized as a poorly defended ringwork.
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The medieval eastern Sussex Weald contained many contrasting areas, including river valleys, upland heath and woodland. By the 14th century the areas was divided into meadow, farmland, upland grazing, common and park. The main crops grown... more
The medieval eastern Sussex Weald contained many contrasting areas, including river valleys, upland heath and woodland. By the 14th century the areas was divided into meadow, farmland, upland grazing, common and park. The main crops grown in the region was oats which was sown on between half and two-thirds of the demesne acreage, and perhaps a smaller proportion of the lands of the peasants. The heavy soils of the areas were improved by marling. Cattle were grazed on the upland ridges and sheep were kept on the lowland pastures. Woodland near to rivers or to the sea was cut and transported to the Continent or to London. The region was generally too far from the capital city to fall within its hinterland. Industry and craftwork formed a minor part of the economy, and production methods seem to have remained underdeveloped
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The medieval site of Ivenden was located through documentary work and fieldwalking. It appears to have been occupi8ed between about 1150 and 1300. An excavation of sample areas sought to examine the quantity and distribution of artefacts... more
The medieval site of Ivenden was located through documentary work and fieldwalking. It appears to have been occupi8ed between about 1150 and 1300. An excavation of sample areas sought to examine the quantity and distribution of artefacts within and below the ploughsoil. The excavation was intended to charactertize the archaeology of medieval farmsteads in the High Weald. Roman metal-working had taken place in the same site and the distribution of finds of that period suggested that materials within the ploughsoil had not been widely dispersed by ploughing or colluviation. The distribtuion of medieval finds was complex, but it was found that the pottery in the ploughsoil was correlated with the distribution of phosohates. The fragmented nature of the pottery recovered seems to have resulted from activities on the sites during the period of occupation.
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The titles of six Anglo-Saxon charters are listed in a volume of the chartulary of the bishop of Chichester. Three of these can be related to an extant, but corrupt charter concerning the foundation of subsequent endowment of Bexhill... more
The titles of six Anglo-Saxon charters are listed in a volume of the chartulary of the bishop of Chichester. Three of these can be related to an extant, but corrupt charter concerning the foundation of subsequent endowment of Bexhill minster church. The origins of the other lands forming the endowmnet of the prebends of the college are considered
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... GARDINER M. ; McQUITTY A. ; Résumé / Abstract. Durant une prospection dans le Wadi el-Arab six moulins à eau ruinés furent découverts| l'un d'eux sur le site 017 est ici étudié en détail. Il est construit à la fois en blocs... more
... GARDINER M. ; McQUITTY A. ; Résumé / Abstract. Durant une prospection dans le Wadi el-Arab six moulins à eau ruinés furent découverts| l'un d'eux sur le site 017 est ici étudié en détail. Il est construit à la fois en blocs de basalte et de calcaire, liés par un mortier. ...
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... that the Bronze Age custom of depositing white quartz stones on the burial place is ... Unconsidered attitudes and perceptions of Ireland's historic past, therefore, continue to be embedded in ... affect the... more
... that the Bronze Age custom of depositing white quartz stones on the burial place is ... Unconsidered attitudes and perceptions of Ireland's historic past, therefore, continue to be embedded in ... affect the interpretation of the archaeology of one particular aspect of medieval and later ...
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Historical sources suggest that booths were established at Fiblister in Northmavine during the sixteenth century for trade with German merchants. They may have only been used for a few decades. A possible site of the booths was identified... more
Historical sources suggest that booths were established at Fiblister in Northmavine during the sixteenth century for trade with German merchants. They may have only been used for a few decades. A possible site of the booths was identified from field survey and in June 2010 excavations were undertaken on the site of a ruined building. The finds indicate that the earthworks were from a building in use in the second half of the nineteenth century. This is identified as a farm building associated with fishing or a shop. No evidence was found for earlier activity. It remains an open question whether the site of the German böd was located there or elsewhere.
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Report on initial fieldwork carried out in Iceland to identify and evaluate english and hanseatic trading sites.
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It has long been recognized that the byre-house or longhouse, in which animals and humans lived in the same building and with direct contact, was a distinctive building plan. Earlier interpretations have seen it as a ubiquitous house type... more
It has long been recognized that the byre-house or longhouse, in which animals and humans lived in the same building and with direct contact, was a distinctive building plan. Earlier interpretations have seen it as a ubiquitous house type found throughout Britain, but gradually replaced by separate buildings for keeping animals and accommodating humans. More recent work has suggested that it was a regional variant of the common late medieval domestic plan. It is argued that the introduction of the byre-house occurs mainly in the thirteenth century as part of a wider trend to provide accommodation for livestock during the winter months.
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Between the end of the Roman period and the late 11th century, when Domesday Book was compiled, the population of England dropped considerably. The decline in population was marked by a retreat of settlement and agriculture from the... more
Between the end of the Roman period and the late 11th century, when Domesday Book was compiled, the population of England dropped considerably. The decline in population was marked by a retreat of settlement and agriculture from the slopes of the South Downs to the valleys. Fields cultivated in the Roman period reverted to pasture. Two periods of economic activity are identified. During the first from 450-900, settlements were largely self-sufficient drawing on resources from different regions of Sussex. From 900 onwards agriculture was increasingly commercialized. Markets developed to trade agricultural and industrial goods. Sussex failed to develop one central town, but by 1100 had a multiplicity urban centres. It is argued that this was the result of the fragmentation of power, a feature which affected Sussex throughout the whole of the
period examined.
period examined.
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Excavations in advance of a housing development revealed a 10th-century enclosure, two buildings and associated pits. A sequence of ditches marked the boundary of the enclosure and an entrance way was indicated by two post-settings and a... more
Excavations in advance of a housing development revealed a 10th-century enclosure, two buildings and associated pits. A sequence of ditches marked the boundary of the enclosure and an entrance way was indicated by two post-settings and a central stake-hole. The entrance is similar to those from other Late Anglo-Saxon sites. One of the buildings was constructed with planks set on end, the other with squared timbers and a central line of round posts. Three types of pits were identified and these seem to have sewed as wells, and for the disposal of rubbish and cess. Sealed groups of pottery were recovered from the pits suggesting that some activity on the site may date from the 9th century, though the main period of activity was in the following century. A notable find was an inscribed gold ring bearing the name of the owner discovered in a rubbish pit.
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As President of the RURALIA assossiation I like to present the Program, Abstract Book and Excursion Guide. For further information and the published conference papers see: ruralia.cz
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As President of the international RURALIA association for the archaeology of medieval settlement and rural life I would like to annouce the call for papers for our next conference in Stirling, Scotland in September 2019. The topic is:... more
As President of the international RURALIA association for the archaeology of medieval settlement and rural life I would like to annouce the call for papers for our next conference in Stirling, Scotland in September 2019. The topic is: “Seasonal Settlement in the Medieval and Early Modern Countryside”
