Valentina Milano

ESPAÑOL: El examen de las solicitudes de protección internacional se lleva a cabo generalmente en el marco de un procedimiento que permite al solicitante entrar en el territorio. Sin embargo, la UE está promoviendo un uso cada vez más amplio de los procedimientos fronterizos que permiten a los estados retener a los solicitantes en frontera para que se examine su solicitud en esta misma zona. A través del análisis de la normativa aplicable y de la práctica de los estados de la UE, en particular de los países del Mediterráneo, la presente contribución pone de relieve los problemas que plantean estos procedimientos en términos de protección de los derechos humanos. Se abordan cuestiones clave como la denegación de entrada, la detención de los solicitantes, los recortes en las garantías procedimentales y la situación de las personas vulnerables. Asimismo, se señala como las propuestas de reforma de la Comisión de 2016 y 2020 no resuelven estos problemas, sino que, en muchos casos, no hacen más que agudizarlos. ENGLISH: INTERNATIONAL PROTECTION CLAIMS ARE GENERALLY EXAMINED IN THE FRAMEWORK OF A PROCEDURE THAT ALLOWS THE APPLICANT TO ENTER THE TERRITORY. HOWEVER, THE EU IS PROMOTING AN INCREASING USE OF BORDER PROCEDURES THAT ALLOW STATES TO DETAIN APPLICANTS AT THE BORDER TO HAVE THEIR APPLICATION EXAMINED THERE. THROUGH THE ANALYSIS OF THE APPLICABLE REGULATIONS AND THE PRACTICE OF EU STATES, IN PARTICULAR OF MEDITERRANEAN COUNTRIES, THIS CONTRIBUTION HIGHLIGHTS THE PROBLEMS THAT THESE PROCEDURES POSE IN TERMS OF HUMAN RIGHTS PROTECTION. KEY ISSUES SUCH AS REFUSAL OF ENTRY, DETENTION OF APPLICANTS, THE CURTAILMENT OF PROCEDURAL GUARANTEES AND THE SITUATION OF VULNERABLE PEOPLE, INCLUDING MINORS, ARE ADDRESSED. LIKEWISE, IT ANALYZES HOW THE COMMISSION’S REFORM PROPOSALS OF 2016 AND 2020 DO NOT SOLVE THESE PROBLEMS, BUT RATHER, IN MANY CASES, EXACERBATE THEM.

A diferencia de diversos países de su entorno, España carece de una ley contra la trata de seres humanos, un fenómeno que afecta mayoritariamente –aunque no exclusivamente– a mujeres y niñas explotadas en la prostitución. La fragmentación de la normativa aplicable así como la existencia de vacíos legales en relación con aspectos tan importantes como lo prevención, protección y asistencia a las víctimas hacen necesaria la adopción de una ley sobre la trata que aborde este fenómeno de forma integral. Esta contribución se centra en examinar los elementos más destacados que esta ley debería abarcar, para que tanto al Estado como las organizaciones no-gubernamentales especializadas dispongan de las herramientas necesarias para enfrentarse a esta lacra de acuerdo con la normativa internacional en materia de respuesta integral basada en los derechos humanos. Las sugerencias alcanzan cuestiones de contenido, como las relativas a la asistencia y reinserción de las víctimas, a la persecución del delito o a la cooperación internacional, pero también de enfoque metodológico, subrayando la importancia de integrar el enfoque de género y otros requerimientos que derivan de los principios de participación, transparencia y rendición de cuentas.
Unlike several countries with a similar profile, Spain lacks a law on trafficking in human beings, a phenomenon that mostly affects – although not exclusively – women and girls exploited in prostitution. The fragmentation of the applicable legal framework as well as the existence of gaps in the legislation in relation to important aspects such as prevention, protection and assistance to victims makes it necessary to adopt a law on trafficking that addresses this phenomenon comprehensively. This paper focuses on examining the most important elements that this law should contemplate, so that both the State and specialized non-governmental organizations have the necessary tools to deal with this scourge in accordance with applicable international standards on a holistic human rights-based approach. The suggestions deal with substantive issues, such as the assistance and reintegration of victims, the prosecution of the crime or international cooperation, but also methodological ones, in relation to the integration of a gender perspective and of the participation, transparency and accountability principles.

La trata de mujeres y niñas con fines de explotación sexual es hoy en día uno de los negocios criminales más lucrativos a nivel mundial: como tal, generaría alrededor de 31.700 billones de euros anuales. A pesar de que el marco jurídico internacional aplicable a España obligue a adoptar un enfoque de derechos humanos en la lucha contra este fenómeno que ponga la protección de sus víctimas en el centro de todos los esfuerzos, esta protección no se ve garantizada de manera apropiada ni en la ley ni en la práctica. El derecho de las mujeres que son captadas, trasladadas y explotadas en la prostitución a no ser devueltas al país donde su proceso de explotación y violencia comenzó es uno de los eslabones más débiles del sistema de protección. En efecto, a pesar de unas decisiones recientes que apuntan a una inversión de tendencia, mientras algunos países de nuestro entorno han ido consolidando marcos normativos y/o prácticas administrativas y judiciales en materia de asilo que permiten dar respuesta a las necesidades de protección internacional de estas mujeres conforme a los estándares internacionales, España no se encuentra entre los que han dado pasos más decididos en esta dirección. Este estudio examina las mayores lagunas del sistema español de protección internacional aplicado a las víctimas de trata, lo compara con las normativas y prácticas más avanzadas de otros países, y formula recomendaciones para su mejora.

Hacienda Brasil Verde Workers v Brazil is the Inter-American Court of Human Rights’ (IACHR) first ruling on human trafficking and slavery. In this landmark case, the Court provides important guidance on the scope of the exploitative conducts prohibited under Article 6 of the American Convention on Human Rights and of the positive obligations this prohibition entails. After referring to the circumstances that have hindered the adjudication of slavery and human trafficking cases internationally, this study provides an overview of the developing international case law on these forms of exploitation, focusing on the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR). It then analyzes in detail the reasoning followed by the IACHR in Hacienda Brasil Verde, highlighting its main contributions but also some of its weaknesses. Finally, the study presents conclusions on the extent to which the IACHR’s ruling addresses some of the gaps and weaknesses identified in the ECtHR’s case law, in particular by providing greater clarity on the relationship between slavery and trafficking in international law as well as by putting more emphasis on States’ positive obligation to prevent these practices.

For the first time, the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) qualified two labour exploitation cases as human trafficking. In examining these two latest judgments in the light of the Court’s earlier trafficking case law, this study highlights that, despite some positive contributions, a regressive trend prevails. The Court fails to establish a clear distinction between the concepts of human trafficking and forced labour – the very existence of the latter being threatened by its conflation with trafficking – and substantially lowers standards with respect to states’ positive obligations, mainly in relation to the establishment of an adequate normative framework and to judicial cooperation in cross-border trafficking cases. Worryingly, while confusion persists around the understanding of the international definition of trafficking and its relevance under Article 4 ECHR, the holistic approach to positive obligations initially taken by the Court in Rantsev is progressively being eroded, in full contradiction with its positive obligations doctrine and European anti-trafficking law.

The 2010 Rantsev judgment placed the European Court of Human Rights at the forefront of international judicial efforts to scrutinize States’ obligations in the area of human trafficking. Expectations were high after this first-ever judgment against a State for failing to implement a human right-based approach to trafficking. Six years later, the Court’s second ruling on this issue, L.E. v Greece, comes as a disappointment. In order to put this judgment into perspective, this study starts with an overview of how the Court came to address the issue of trafficking under Article 4 of the Convention. It then analyses in detail the reasoning developed by the Court in L.E., highlighting a number of inconsistencies with the thinking followed in Rantsev, in particular in relation to the scope of States’ positive obligations in the area of prevention and victim protection. The author concludes that the weaknesses identified in this ruling raise serious concerns about the Court’s willingness, or capacity, to engage in a holistic human rights-based approach to trafficking.

CASTELLANO: La trata de mujeres y niñas con fines de explotación sexual es hoy en día el segundo negocio criminal más lucrativo a nivel mundial. ¿Qué elementos han determinado la incapacidad del Derecho internacional para contrarrestar este fenómeno? Tradicionalmente, la trata se ha considerado como un asunto exclusivamente criminal y se ha abordado con estrategias de tipo penal o migratorio centradas en la criminalización y el castigo, sin abordar los aspectos relacionados con la protección de los derechos humanos de sus víctimas. Los efectos de este enfoque han sido nefastos tanto en términos de vulneración de derechos como de ineficacia de la persecución del delito. Instrumentos más recientes marcan, sin embargo, un cambio de rumbo hacia un enfoque integral basado en los derechos humanos. Después de examinar las consecuencias perjudiciales de la adopción de un abordaje de tipo exclusivamente penal y la persistencia de este enfoque en la actualidad, el presente estudio profundiza en el análisis del llamado “enfoque de derechos humanos” en materia de trata, examinando los elementos que conforman este abordaje a la luz de los instrumentos universales y regionales pertinentes y de las interpretaciones más recientes de los tribunales y órganos internacionales de protección de los derechos humanos. Finalmente, se concluye el análisis con el estudio de la aplicación de este marco normativo en el ámbito nacional: ¿cumple España con sus compromisos internacionales relativos a la asunción de un enfoque de derechos humanos en materia de trata? ¿Cuáles son los mayores retos a los que se enfrenta en este contexto?

ENGLISH: Trafficking in women and girls for sexual exploitation is today the second most lucrative criminal business worldwide. Why has international law proved ineffective in curbing this phenomenon? Traditionally, trafficking has been exclusively categorized as a crime and tackled with law enforcement and immigration control strategies focused solely on criminalization and punishment, without addressing the aspects related to the protection of victims’ rights. The consequences of this approach have been disastrous both in terms of human rights violations and ineffectiveness of traffickers’ prosecution. More recent instruments mark, however, a change of course towards a comprehensive human rights-based approach. After examining the persistent harmful consequences of the adoption of an exclusively criminal law approach, this study delves into the analysis of the “human rights-based approach” to trafficking, examining its constituent elements in light of relevant universal and regional instruments and of recent interpretations by international human rights courts and bodies. Finally, the study carries out a thorough examination of the implementation of this normative framework at the national level: does Spain comply with its international commitments on the adoption of a human rights-based approach to trafficking? What are the major challenges Spain is facing in this regard?

This is the proposal I submitted to the 5th Thematic Session of the UN negotiations on a Global Compact on Migration, which took place in Vienna on 4-5 September 2017, on behalf of the Law Faculty of the University of the Balearic Islands (Spain). I participated as the representative of the Law Faculty, which was granted observer status in the negotiations as an academic institutions. The paper includes concrete proposals on human rights guarantees to be included in the Global Compact on Migration in order to prevent and combat human trafficking and protect its victims, where human trafficking is one of the most devastating consequences of the current mostly repressive and/or unregulated international migratory framework.

As opposed to the traditional law enforcement and immigration control perspective, the «human rights-based approach» (HRBA) to human trafficking puts the rights of trafficked persons at the centre of anti-trafficking strategies. What does this approach effectively mean and require? Is it sufficiently reflected in the current international law regime? Do international judicial and non-judicial bodies effectively contribute to its development? After identifying the constitutive elements of this approach as initially developed within the UN in the context of development cooperation and then applied to trafficking, this book examines whether the HRBA is properly reflected in the key elements of the victim protection regime: identification, protection, assistance, right to remain and repatriation. It provides a detailed analysis of the extent to which international instruments and international bodies’ pronouncements truly integrate this approach. The author highlights the good practices but also the existing dysfunctions in universal and regional instruments and case law and in States’ practice, which often result not only in the lack of adequate protection for victims, but also in the ineffectiveness of anti-trafficking policies. She also highlights the major contributions of a HRBA, which include how this approach broadens and clarifies the scope States’ obligations in this area, and its key role as a cross cutting paradigm of international law that contributes to the convergence of separate international law regimes.

Acknowledging the existing debate on the negative role of the military, this chapter seeks to turn the discourse on its head and look at how the military can be part of the solution in contributing to the identification and protection of trafficking victims. Indeed, as a frontline actor in times of conflict, the military is ideally placed to contribute to national efforts to identify traffickers and their victims. But is such a role for the military actually provided for under international law? To what extent have international bodies expressly referred to it?

Is human trafficking foremost a heinous crime, requiring concerted action against organized criminal networks? Or is it primarily a grave human rights violation, where the protection of victims must be the utmost priority? Human trafficking is about one person appropriating the labour, freedom and dignity of another person, it is about slavery, forced labour, debt bondage, forced marriage, organ removal and the commercial sexual exploitation of mostly women and children. Traditionally, trafficking activities have been exclusively categorized as crimes and tackled with law enforcement strategies focused on criminalization and punishment. Now that agreement seems to have been reached that trafficking is also a human rights issue and that a certain degree of complementarity between a criminal and a human rights law approach is utterly needed, important divergences persist on the degree of convergence required and on whether and how this complementarity should be translated into clear and coherent international law commitments. In the meantime, trafficking continues to flourish as a low-risk, high-profit activity for criminals, where millions of women, men and children continue to be exploited all around the word.

La trata de mujeres y niñas con fines de explotación sexual es hoy en día uno de los negocios criminales más lucrativos a nivel mundial: como tal, generaría alrededor de 31.700 millones de euros anuales. A pesar de que el marco jurídico internacional aplicable a España obligue a adoptar un enfoque de derechos humanos en la lucha contra este fenómeno que ponga la protección de sus víctimas en el centro de todos los esfuerzos, esta protección no se ve garantizada de manera apropiada ni en la ley ni en la práctica. El derecho de las mujeres que son captadas, trasladadas y explotadas en la prostitución a no ser devueltas al país donde su proceso de explotación y violencia comenzó es uno de los eslabones más débiles del sistema de protección. En efecto, a pesar de unas decisiones recientes que apuntan a una inversión de tendencia, mientras algunos países de nuestro entorno han ido consolidando marcos normativos y/o prácticas administrativas y judiciales en materia de asilo que permiten dar respuesta a las necesidades de protección internacional de estas mujeres conforme a los estándares internacionales, España no se encuentra entre los que han dado pasos más decididos en esta dirección. Este estudio examina las mayores lagunas del sistema español de protección internacional aplicado a las víctimas de trata, lo compara con las normativas y prácticas más avanzadas de otros países, y formula recomendaciones para su mejora.