Ron Leone

This study examined the MPAA's assertion that sexual and violent content are treated equally when rating a film. It was hypothesized that sex and violence are not treated equally based on a content analysis of 210 sequences from 13 films consisting of material present in unrated or NC-17-rated—but not in R-rated—versions of the same film. It was hypothesized that more sexual sequences than violent sequences would be removed from R-rated films. The findings supported the hypotheses.

ABSTRACT “Ratings creep” is the term used to describe the escalation of adult content over time in movies with the same rating. This study is an analysis of the language used by the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) in rating descriptions for films rated PG-13 from 2000–2003 and R from 2000, looking for mention and modification of overall adult, sexual, and violent content. For this period, PG-13-rated movie descriptions showed gains in sexual content only. When comparing descriptions from PG-13-rated films from 2003 to R-rated films from 2000, significant creep in terms of sexual and violent content was detected.

This chapter explores the complex relationship between exposure to media violence, aggression, and desensitization across various effects dimensions, from physiological and cognitive to affective and behavioral. The impact of contextual factors of media violence is explored, supported by a discussion of Leone's work on “ratings creep.” Susceptibility to media violence is also discussed, informed by Paradise's videogame research dealing with trait aggression and playing style. The authors conclude that the relationship between exposure to media violence, aggression, and desensitization is not linear. Short-term increases in responsiveness to violent media – suggesting aggression-causing effects – can cede to decreased responses – indicative of a desensitization effect – over time. It is this pattern, the authors assert, that is most likely to guide future research into these phenomena. Keywords: Media Effects; Media Violence; Aggression; Desensitization; Ratings Creep; Videogames

Abstract:Life Lessons, Martin Scorsese's contribution to 1989's New York Stories, tells the story of painter Lionel Dobie (Nick Nolte), and his young ingénue, Paulette (Rosanna Arquette). In the film, Scorsese ruminates on the life of the genius artist, whose personal relationships suffer for the sake of his art. He does this primarily through the film's soundtrack, relying on pre-recorded rock music, and to a lesser degree, sound effects, to convey the chaos that surrounds and fuels Dobie's art. Scorsese uses works from Italian composer Giacomo Puccini ('Nessun Dorma' from Turandot), British rock band Procol Harum ('Conquistador' and 'A Whiter Shade of Pale'), and, most importantly, a live version of iconic American songwriter Bob Dylan's 'Like a Rolling Stone' to speak for, and through, his characters. In doing so, the director provides viewers with his most personal work on the life of the artist and the connection between personal suffering and artistic creation. Overlooked and autobiographical, Life Lessons predicts Scorsese's use of sound and music in his masterpiece, GoodFellas.

The term “ratings creep” refers to the belief that various types of adult content escalate in films with the same rating over time. The purpose of this study was to test the ratings creep hypothesis through a quantitative analysis of films from 1988, 1997, and 2006 in the PG-13 rating category used by the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA). A quantitative content analysis of 45 films was conducted, and significant increases in violent content in the PG-13 rating category from Time 1 (1988) to Times 2 (1997) and 3 (2006) were found. However, similar increases in other types of adult content in the PG-13 rating category were not found. Results suggest a leniency toward violent content by the MPAA ratings board that parallels America's parents' greater comfort with children being exposed to violence than other types of adult content—sex, for example—in the unrestricted PG-13 rating category.

The MPAA\u27s age-based ratings inform parents about the appropriateness of movies for their children. Critics charge that film ratings are ineffective, because decisions are based on what offends adults not what harms children. A related criticism is that the MPAA treats film sex and violence inequitably. The third-person effect addresses people\u27s belief that others are more affected by media than themselves. Here, in a variation of the classic design, subjects assessed harmful effects of movies on others, and, instead of doing the same for themselves, registered personal offensiveness. Subjects also set a minimum age for viewing a movie containing what they saw. In a 2 x 2 experiment, Rhode Island College undergraduates in introductory film classes saw one of four movie clips and completed a questionnaire. Hypotheses addressed personal offensiveness to, perceived harmfulness of, and minimum age for viewing sex or violence. ANOVAS indicated that subjects were more offended by--and found more harmful--violence than sex. Also hypothesized, though not supported, was that subjects would set a higher minimum age for viewing sex than violence. It was predicted that women would be more offended by, perceive more harm from, and set a higher minimum age for viewing sex or violence than men would. Women were more offended by violence than men were, but did not perceive greater harm from or set higher minimum age limits for viewing either sex or violence. One hypothesis addressed the social distance corollary of the third-person effect. Subjects perceived greater harm on children than adults, but followed different patterns for sex and violence. Finally, it was hypothesized that personal offensiveness to sex and/or violence would have a greater effect than perceived harmfulness of either on setting a minimum age limit for viewing movies containing material of each type. This was supported. Findings suggest the importance in third-person effect research of considering people\u27s personal offensiveness as distinct from, and more germane than, how harmful they find media content. Evidence indicates that people view sex and violence differently when exhibiting a restrictive behavior, and that context is an important factor that film ratings do not address sufficiently

This study is an examination of the Motion Picture Association of America's (MPAA's) use of the PG-13 rating through a content analysis of ratings descriptions-sentences used by the MPAA to explain why PG-13 was assigned to a movie-for the years 2000 to 2002. It is ...

... dependent on salient group memberships or social identities (eg, gender identity, political identity, student identity)” (Duck, Hogg, & ... The third-person perception was found to be operating in theseyoung people's estimations of sus-ceptibility to media influence (Chapin, 1999 ...

This study is an examination of the Motion Picture Association of America's (MPAA's) use of the PG-13 rating through a content analysis of ratings descriptions-sentences used by the MPAA to explain why PG-13 was assigned to a movie-for the years 2000 to 2002. It is ...

Frank Capra and the Image of the Journalist in American Film. Joe Saltzman. Los Angeles, CA: The Norman Lear Center, Annenberg School for Communication, 2002. 204 pp. $34.95 pbk. This book is the inaugural publication in the Annenberg School's Image of the Journalist in Popular Culture (IJPC) project, written by Joe Saltzman, associate dean and professor of journalism at the Annenberg School and director of the IJPC project. The purpose of the project is to analyze portrayals of journalists in media-from movies and television to cartoons and commercialsdisplaying their impact on our perception of media professionals. Saltzman focuses on twelve Capra films spanning over two decades of the director's career, including familiar titles likeMr. Smith Goes to Washington (1939) and It Happened One Night (1934) and lesser-known ones like The Power of the Press (1928) and Forbidden (1931). The book's structure is noteworthy. It does not simply move through the twelve featured fil...

Page 1. Frank Capra and the Image of the Journalist in American Film by Joe Saltzman 'man Lear CENTER ljpc Image of the Journalist in Popular Culture Page 2. Page 3. Frank Capra and the Image of the Journalist in American Film Thi. s One XAPS-C6R-4K Page 4. ...

ABSTRACT A sample of 118 U.S. 6th and 7th graders was used to examine early adolescents’ views of whether video games negatively influence themselves, others of the same age, and younger others. Six specific games ranging in rating from E for Everyone to M for Mature were listed for the early adolescents to respond to, with questions asked about both potential influence and whether young people should be allowed to play the games. Results support a third-person perception that grew as the rating of the game became more restrictive and as the “other” group in question became younger. The presence of rules set by parents about video game use was a positive predictor of perceptions of influence on self and others.RésuméLes jeux de tir à la première personne et l‘effet de troisième personneGrâce à un échantillon de 118 élèves américains de 6e et 7e années (11-13 ans), cet article explore les opinions des jeunes adolescents quant à l’influence négative des jeux vidéo sur eux-mêmes, sur d‘autres personnes du même âge et sur des enfants plus jeunes. Les jeunes adolescents devaient réagir à six jeux spécifiques, classés de E (Everyone, pour tous) à M (Mature, adulte), répondant à des questions portant sur leur influence possible et sur le droit que devraient ou non avoir les jeunes de jouer à ces jeux. Les résultats soutiennent une perception de la troisième personne qui augmentait plus le classement du jeu devenait contraignant et plus le groupe « autre » en question rajeunissait. La présence de règles établies par les parents à propos de l’usage des jeux vidéo était une variable explicative positive des perceptions de l’influence sur soi et les autres.AbstractEgo-Shooter und der Third-Person-EffektMit einer Stichprobe von 118 US-amerikanischen 6. und 7. Klsslern wurde die Einschtzung Jugendlicher dazu untersucht, dass Videospiele sie selbst, Gleichaltrige oder Jüngere negativ beeinflussen können. Bezug nehmend auf eine Liste mit sechs spezifischen Spielen (bewertet als J für Jedermann bis E für Erwachsene) sollten die Jugendlichen Fragen zum möglichen Einfluss und die Frage, ob jungen Leuten erlaubt werden sollte, diese Spiele zu spielen, beantworten. Die Befunde stützen die Annahmen einer Third-Person-Wahrnehmung, welche zunahm, wenn die Bewertung des Spiels restriktiver und die Gruppe der anderen jünger wurde. Das Vorhandensein von elterlichen Regeln zu Videospielen war ein positiver Prdiktor für die Wahrnehmung des Einflusses auf einen selbst und auf andere.ResumenLa Persona que Dispara Primero y el Efecto de la Tercera PersonaUna muestra de 118 estudiantes Norteamericanos de sexto y séptimo grado fue usada para examinar la visión que los adolescentes jóvenes tienen sobre los video-juegos y si los video-juegos influyen negativamente sobre ellos mismos, sobre otros de su misma edad, y sobre otros niños más jóvenes. Seis juegos específicos variando en su clasificación de E, para Todos, a M, para Maduros, fueron enlistados para que los adolescentes jóvenes respondieran a las preguntas sobre la influencia potencial y si debería permitírsele a la gente joven jugar estos juegos. Los resultados apoyaron la percepción de la tercera persona, la cual creció a medida que la clasificación del juego se convirtió en más restrictiva y que el grupo en cuestión fuera más joven. La presencia de reglas puestas por los padres sobre el uso de video-juegos fue un vaticinador positivo de las percepciones de influencia sobre uno mismo y sobre otros.ZhaiYaoYo yak

... media on vulnerable others” (Hoffner et al., 1999, p. 736), a relation evident in other studies as well (Gunther, 1995; Rojas et al ... the questionnaire contained a movie plot synopsis adopted from the PG-13-rated movie Crossroads, an early 2002 release starring Britney Spears in ...