Mariella I . Arredondo, Ph.D.

Data represent a critical component in identifying and addressing inequity, and the availability of data from schools and in school-aged populations has been crucial for civil rights advances for U.S. youth. The U.S. Department of Education's Office for Civil Rights (OCR) Civil Rights Data Collection (CRDC) has been a key component in civil rights progress for students of color and students with disabilities for nearly 50 years. The availability of data broken down by race and disability has contributed to an important shift in the last decade—from questions about whether disparities exist , to a focus on the development and testing of effective interventions for reducing those known disparities. In contrast to the availability of data on race and disability , however, Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Trans-gender (LGBT) students remain largely outside the bounds of available data on education and schooling. The high levels of bullying and harassment in schools faced by LGBT students have been well documented. 1 Emerging data show that LGBT students also experience disproportionate exclusionary school discipline compared to their heterosexual peers. 2 Yet there is insufficient national or state data that can be disaggregat-ed by sexual orientation and/or gender identity (SOGI) that would allow systematic documentation of these disparities. The absence of consistent sources of data that include SOGI and its intersections with school bullying and discipline makes it impossible to understand the extent of the problem or generate approaches for remediation. Due to the short-and long-term negative consequences of exclusionary discipline, the federal government has identified disproportionality in suspension and expulsion as a civil rights issue, potentially discriminating against certain groups. 3 We argue that a crucial civil rights agenda for LGBT youth is the development of a purposeful strategy for the expansion of data collection that includes SOGI. The purpose of this briefing paper is to identify the need for SOGI data collection, report on existing approaches for such data collection, and make recommendations to advance SOGI data collection and, in effect, the civil rights of LGBT youth. Educational Inequity for LGBT Students Bullying and harassment. LGBT youth and those perceived as LGBT experience heightened threats in school compared to their heterosexual and gender conforming peers. They are more likely to report bullying and verbal or physical harassment in school from peers and even adults, 4 and many report a lack of insti-The Discipline Disparities Research to Practice Collaborative Disparities in the use of school discipline by race, gender, and sexual orientation have been well-documented and continue to place large numbers of students at risk for short-and long-term negative outcomes. In order to improve the state of our knowledge and encourage effective interventions, the Discipline Disparities Research to Practice Collaborative, a group of 26 nationally known researchers, educators, advocates, and policy analysts, came together to address the problem of disciplinary disparities. Funded by Atlantic Philanthropies and Open Society Foundations, the Collaborative has spent nearly three years conducting a series of meetings with groups of stakeholders—advocates, educators, juvenile justice representatives, intervention agents, researchers , and policymakers—in order to increase the availability of interventions that are both practical and evidence-based, and to develop and support a policy agenda for reform to improve equity in school discipline. The project has funded 11 new research projects to expand the knowledge base, particularly in the area of intervention, and commissioned papers from noted researchers presented at the Closing the School Discipline Gap Conference. A culminating report of the Collaborative's work is the formal release of the Discipline Disparities Briefing Paper Series, three papers on policy, practice, and new research summarizing the state of our knowledge and offering practical, evidence-based recommendations for reducing disparities in discipline in our nation's schools, and a fourth on the importance of acknowledging race in addressing racial disparities.

Snapp, S., Russell, S., Arredondo, M., Skiba, R. (2016). A Right to Disclose: LGBTQ Youth Representation in Data, Science, and Policy. In Advances in Child Development and Behavior Theoretical and empirical/methodological issues associated with equity and justice. Horn, S., Ruck, M., Liben, L. (eds). lsevier Limited. Oxford

Skiba, R. Arredondo, M. Williams, N. (2016). In and of Itself a Risk Factor: Exclusionary Discipline and the School-to-Prison Pipeline. In Understanding, Dismantling, and Disrupting the Prison-to-School Pipeline. Kenneth J. Fasching-Varner; Lori Latrice Martin; Roland W. Mitchell; Karen Bennett-Haron and Arash Daneshzadeh (eds.). Rowman & Littlefied.

Skiba, R., Arredondo, M., Gray, C. Rausch, M. (2016) What do we Know about Discipline Disparities? New and Emerging Research. In Disparate Opportunity: Understanding and Addressing Inequality in School Discipline. Skiba, K., Medirratta, K., Raush, K.(eds). Palgrave/MacMillan

The term and construct "school-to-prison" pipeline has been widely used by advocates, researchers, and policymakers to describe the relationship between school disciplinary practices and increased risk of juvenile justice contact. It has been unclear whether the construct is a useful heuristic or a descriptor of empirically validated relationships that establish school disciplinary practices as a risk factor for negative developmental outcomes, including juvenile justice involvement. In this article, we examine the literature surrounding one facet of the pipeline, school exclusion as a disciplinary option, and propose a model for tracing possible pathways of effect from school suspension and expulsion to the ultimate contact point of juvenile justice involvement. Available multivariate analyses suggest that regardless of demographic, achievement, or system status, out-of-school suspension and expulsion are in and of themselves risk factors for a range of negative developmental outcomes. Recommendations are offered to assist schools in replacing disciplinary exclusion with a range of alternatives whose goal is to preserve both school order and provide all students with educational opportunities.

The American Association of Colleges and Universities embraces equity as a priority and acknowledges that safety and belonging are necessary to support student learning. Yet, little is known about the experiences of LGBTQ people of color in higher education—despite their vulnerability
to inequitable treatment and marginalization. This study uses data collected from a nationally representative sample of adults ages 18 to 40 (N=1,079) on the Access to Higher Education Survey
to provide information about the school experiences and higher education environments of LGBTQ people of color. Information about families of origin and family support is also provided.
Findings for White LGBTQ and non-LGBTQ people of color (POC) are frequently included to highlight similarities and differences in experience by both race and sexuality and gender. Notably, we find that more than twice as many LGBTQ POC as White LGBTQ adults report that unfair treatment at school due to being LGBTQ was a barrier to their academic success (10.4% vs. 4.4%), and that lifetime school- based unfair treatment, harassment, or bullying due to being LGBTQ was a barrier to getting the amount of education, training, or degrees that they wanted (14.6% vs. 6.5%). Consistent with these findings, among adults ages 25 to 40, fewer LGBTQ POC had completed a post-secondary degree or certificate compared to their White LGBTQ peers (55.5% vs. 69.5%).

DOI: 10.3102/0013189X18814191 Article reuse guidelines: sagepub.com/journals-permissions © 2018 AERA. http://er.aera.net DEcEmbER 2018 615 Sara Abercrombie, Northern Arizona University Fenaba Addo, University of Wisconsin, Madison Olusola Adesope, Washington State University Wilfried Admiraal, University of Amsterdam Anjali Adukia, University of Chicago Vonzell Agosto, University of South Florida Keisha Allen, University of Maryland, Baltimore County Terrence Allen, University of Texas, Austin Elaine Allensworth, University of Chicago Maria Álvares, University of Lisbon Sandra Alvear, Rice University Audrey Amrein-Beardsley, Arizona State University Alida Anderson, American University Daniel Anderson, University of Oregon Kaitlin Anderson, Michigan State University Melissa Anderson, University of Minnesota Subini Annamma, University of Kansas Steven Aragon, Texas State University Sarah Archibald, University of Wisconsin, Madison Tracy Arner, Kent State University Mariella Arredondo, Indiana University, Bloomington Robert Asen, University of Wisconsin, Madison Steven Athanases, University of California, Davis Allison Atteberry, University of Colorado, Boulder Shaimaa Atwa, Western Sydney University Ann Austin, Michigan State University Timothy Babulski, University of Minnesota Andrew Bacher-Hicks, Harvard University Christine Bae, Virginia Commonwealth University Soung Bae, RBC Associates Alison Bailey, University of California, Los Angeles Drew Bailey, University of California, Irvine Richard Bair, Frostburg State University Matthew Baird, RAND Corporation Dale Baker, Arizona State University Eva Baker, University of California, Los Angeles Gianina Baker, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign Deborah Ball, University of Michigan Cassie Barnhardt, University of Iowa Aaron Bartula, University of North Texas, Dallas Kevin Bastian, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill Sarah Bednarz, Texas A&M University Clive Belfield, Queens College, CUNY James Bequette, University of Minnesota Peter Bergman, Teachers College, Columbia University Marvin Berkowitz, University of Missouri Leema Berland, University of Wisconsin, Madison Kakali Bhattacharya, Kansas State University Robert Bifulco, Syracuse University Kristin Blagg, Urban Institute Margaret Blanchard, North Carolina State University Rebecca Blankenship, Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University David Blazar, University of Maryland, College Park Joshua Bleiberg, Vanderbilt University Richard Blissett, Seton Hall University Howard Bloom, MDRC Jo Boaler, Stanford University Angela Boatman, Vanderbilt University George Boggs, Florida State University Curtis Bonk, Indiana University David Boote, University of Central Florida A. Brooks Bowden, North Carolina State University Alex Bowers, Teachers College, Columbia University Nicholas Bowman, University of Iowa Norman Bradburn, NORC at the University of Chicago Debra Bragg, University of Washington Lee Branum-Martin, Georgia State University Derek Briggs, University of Colorado, Boulder Steven Brint, University of California, Riverside Travis Bristol, University of California, Berkeley Rebecca Brower, Florida State University Bradford Brown, University of Wisconsin, Madison Bryan Brown, Stanford University David Brown, University of Illinois Cory Buxton, University of Georgia Nolan Cabrera, University of Arizona Jamie Cage, Virginia Commonwealth University Carolyn Callahan, University of Virginia Wayne Camara, ACT, Inc. Shanyce Campbell, University of California, Irvine Tammy Campbell, London School of Economics and Political Science Maria Cancian, University of Wisconsin, Madison 814191 EDRXXX10.3102/0013189X18814191EDUCATIONAL RESEARCHEREducational Researcher research-article2018

Racial/ethnic stereotypes are deep rooted in our history; among these, the dangerous Black male stereotype is especially relevant to issues of differential school discipline today. Although integration in the wake of Brown v. Board of Education was intended to counteract stereotype and bias, resegregation has allowed little true integration. Thus, old patterns continue to be reinforced through the ongoing processes of implicit bias, micro-aggression, and colorblindness. Thus, to effectively address inequity, the role of race must be explicitly acknowledged in addressing racial disparities in discipline. We close with a set of recommendations for talking about and acting on racial disparities.

Skiba, Arredondo, Rausch and Gray examine the most current research on disciplinary disparities. They find that out-of-school suspension and expulsion continue to be used inequitably by race, gender, disability, and sexual orientation; that disparities cannot be explained by different rates of misbehavior or poverty; and that school disciplinary exclusion is often the first step leading to short- and long-term negative academic and social consequences. Available findings suggest that schools have the power to change their exclusion rates. Even effective school discipline reforms may need to be adapted to specifically address issues of race, difference, and disparity, however, since not all interventions that reduce use of exclusionary discipline overall also close disciplinary gaps. The authors close with recommendations based on current findings concerning disparities.

Disparities in the use of school discipline by race, gender, and sexual orientation have been well-documented and continue to place large numbers of students at risk for shortand long-term negative outcomes. In order to improve the state of our knowledge and encourage effective interventions, the Discipline Disparities Research to Practice Collaborative, a group of 26 nationally known researchers, educators, advocates, and policy analysts, came together to address the problem of disciplinary disparities. Funded by Atlantic Philanthropies and Open Society Foundations, the Collaborative has spent nearly three years conducting a series of meetings with groups of stakeholders—advocates, educators, juvenile justice representatives, intervention agents, researchers, and policymakers—in order to increase the availability of interventions that are both practical and evidence-based, and to develop and support a policy agenda for reform to improve equity in school discipline. The project has ...

Disparities in the use of school discipline by race, gender, and sexual orientation have been well-documented and continue to place large numbers of students at risk for shortand long-term negative outcomes. In order to improve the state of our knowledge and encourage effective interventions, the Discipline Disparities Research to Practice Collaborative, a group of 26 nationally known researchers, educators, advocates, and policy analysts, came together to address the problem of disciplinary disparities. Funded by Atlantic Philanthropies and Open Society Foundations, the Collaborative has spent nearly three years conducting a series of meetings with groups of stakeholders—advocates, educators, juvenile justice representatives, intervention agents, researchers, and policymakers—in order to increase the availability of interventions that are both practical and evidence-based, and to develop and support a policy agenda for reform to improve equity in school discipline. The project has ...

Suspension has been found to be associated with a number of negative short- and long-term consequences, including academic disengagement, decreased academic achievement, dropping out of school, and increased contact with the juvenile justice system.