Arun Kansal

In 1977-78, CPCB initiated a study to assess the status of pollution of Yamuna River over its 1200 km course. The study examined the topography of the drainage basin, base flow, population, land use pattern, industries, and agriculture practices and estimated the pollution load from activities in the basin. Study conducted by the CPCB indicated that the major cause of pollution is the discharge of domestic wastewater into the river which is about two-third of the pollution load. The remaining pollution is contributed by industries and agriculture. Based on the findings of this study, the Government of India (GoI) decided to take up water quality restoration measures f named as Yamuna Action Plan (YAP) under the mega project of the Ganga Action Plan (GAP) phase–II. The Government of Japan provided loan assistance for implementation of YAP in December-1990. YAP was formally launched in 1993, now called as YAP phase I (YAP I). Subsequently, the work continued with the launch of YAP pha...

Assessment of diffuse pollution is important in urban water quality management plan. However, this is difficult to quantify and varies rapidly with fast changing land-use of an urban area. One of the ways to estimate diffuse pollution is by establishing correlation with the land-use itself. This paper demonstrates the method of estimating the annual load for diffuse pollution in an urban catchment of national capital territory (NCT), India. The study has considered the land-use pattern of 2006 and quantified the diffuse pollution load. It uses event mean concentration (EMC) of rainfall runoff samples collected from two different land-use type namely urban (domestic and industrial) and agriculture. Today more than 50% of land in NCT is impervious. Rainfall runoff concentrations for different water quality parameters have been characterized and the effects of land-use are analyzed. The results show that average concentrations of the nitrogen and its compounds, phosphate and BOD are hi...

Willingness to reuse reclaimed municipal wastewater was ascertained through a questionnaire completed by 424 respondents, opinions of 17 experts, and interviews with 15 farmers. Information was collected to assess their knowledge of water scarcity and to determine the influence of demographics, correlation to perceived risk, willingness, challenges, and barriers related to the acceptance of reclaimed water. Most respondents were receptive to the idea of using it for purposes other than drinking, and ‘water conservative’ individuals were inclined towards using it even for drinking. Farmers were concerned about its quality and implications for the health of using it for irrigation. Effective communication between authorities and end-users can promote the idea of reusing greywater and reclaimed water for domestic use, and, eventually, for drinking. These findings will be useful in developing an integrated, practical, and strategic framework for treating wastewater for reuse in other ci...

Public participation in water resources management and use of information and communication technologies (ICTs) for engaging with public have both been studied extensively albeit independently by researchers. The use of ICT for managing water resources in developing nations like India has mainly been top-down and technical in nature and has not found much role in participative and deliberative decision-making processes. The objective of this study is to understand the role that ICT can play in participative river management. Based on a face-to-face questionnaire survey with 2706 respondents along the River Yamuna in India and key informants’ interviews, the study aims to explore the knowledge, readiness and willingness of the public to use ICT for participation in river water quality management projects and their perception about the technology that would be most effective for that purpose. The findings reveal the familiarity of people with television and mobile phones across differ...

Abstract The growing recognition of the potential of recovery of products from, and recycling of, wastewater is matched by a growing interest in decentralized treatment systems. Sanitation-focused policies and interventions, undertaken by many developing countries, are dominated by septic tanks for septage management. As reserves of phosphate rock continue being depleted, recovery of phosphorus (P) from the waste stream is one of the practical strategies to deal with that depletion. Partial anaerobic digestion of septic tank liquor converts organic P to soluble orthophosphate form, allowing it to be recovered. Factors that influence such recovery, namely pH, the molar ratio of magnesium (Mg) to P, velocity gradient, and mixing duration were tested and optimized for recovering P as struvite. Interactions between the above factors and their possible influence on the efficiency of P recovery were also examined. Under optimal conditions, more than 90% of P could be recovered. The maximum size of struvite crystals was 201 μm. Among the factors that influenced P recovery, pH and the Mg/P ratio affected recovery efficiency whereas the velocity gradient and mixing duration affected the size of struvite crystals. Tapering the velocity gradient not only increased the crystal size significantly, from 280 μm to 371.9 μm, but also reduced energy requirement by 62%. The study showed that new reactors designs can be based on the concept of tapered velocity gradient to improve the properties of struvite crystals.

Abstract Ensuring water and energy security and lowering the emissions of Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) are now priority areas for urban planners. However, most studies considered different components of urban wastewater infrastructure in isolation. This paper calculates the total energy and GHG footprints of wastewater infrastructure, including the energy consumption of, and GHG emissions from, the transport and treatment of wastewater, taking Delhi as a case study. The net energy consumed by wastewater infrastructure was conservatively estimated at 0.26 kWh/m3 (σ = 0.101 kWh/m3). Operating the infrastructure claimed 70% of the total energy, and electricity accounted for about 55% of the total energy. Nearly two-third of the total energy was used for treating the wastewater. The infrastructure for transporting wastewater claimed a greater share of the embodied energy of materials. Net GHG emissions from the wastewater infrastructure were estimated at 1.426 kg CO2-eq/m3 (σ = 0.41 kg CO2-eq/m3). Fugitive emissions contributed 53% of the total daily GHG emissions. The study revealed a trade-off between energy savings and environmental and GHG implications of wastewater infrastructure. Unlined open drains had lower GHG emissions and negligible energy use but an adverse impact on the environment and public health. Decentralized wastewater infrastructure is energy efficient in terms of the amount of pollutants removed but consumes more energy per unit volume of wastewater treated. Producing energy from the biogas generated in the process lowered the energy and GHG footprints of wastewater infrastructure by 0.10 kWh/m3 (σ = 0.01 kWh/m3) and 0.08 kg CO2-eq/m3 (σ = 0.01 kg CO2-eq/m3) respectively.

Urbanization is a process that involves simultaneous transitions and transformations across multiple dimensions, including demographic, economic, and physical changes in the landscape. Each of these dimensions presents different indicators and definitions of urbanization. The chapter begins with a brief discussion of the multiple dimensions and definitions of urbanization, including implications for GHG emissions accounting, and then continues with an assessment of historical, current, and future trends across different dimensions of urbanization in the context of GHG emissions (12.2). It then discusses GHG accounting approaches and challenges specific to urban areas and human settlements. In Section 12.3, the chapter assesses the drivers of urban GHG emissions in a systemic fashion, and examines the impacts of drivers on individuals sectors as well as the interaction and interdependence of drivers. In this section, the relative magnitude of each driver's impact on urban GHG emissions is discussed both qualitatively and quantitatively, and provides the context for a more detailed assessment of how urban form and infrastructure affect urban GHG emissions (12.4). Here, the section discusses the individual urban form drivers such as density, connectivity, and land use mix, as well as their interactions with each other. Section 12.4 also examines the links between infrastructure and urban form, as well as their combined and interacting effects on GHG emissions. Section 12.5 identifies spatial planning strategies and policy instruments that can affect multiple drivers, and Section 12.6 examines the institutional, governance, and financial requirements to implement such policies. Of particular importance with regard to mitigation potential at the urban or local scale is a discussion of the geographic and administrative scales for which policies are implemented, overlapping, and / or in conflict. The chapter then identifies the scale and range of mitigation actions currently planned and / or implemented by local governments, and assesses the evidence of successful implementation of the plans, as well as barriers to further implementation (12.7). Next, the chapter discusses major co-benefits and adverse side-effects of mitigation at the local scale, including opportunities for sustainable development (12.8). The chapter concludes with a discussion of the major gaps in knowledge with respect to mitigation of climate change in urban areas (12.9).

Anaerobic digestion is a crucial step with secondary treatment in wastewater treatment plants (WTPs) and sewage treatment plants (STPs). Historical evidences where the digester has encountered accumulation of struvite as phosphorus precipitate are due to high pH of anaerobic digestion hence more prone to struvite formation fouling and encrusting the sludge return lines, associated pumps, valves and increasing the maintenance cost. This study focuses on recovery of phosphorous (P) from struvite in available Indian conditions. The results lay a background for options both in terms of technique and technology for P recovery from sewage sludge. The recovered phosphorus in form of crystals has been investigated further by SEM-EDX studies for their morphology and structure. Further XRD results also confirm the intensity peaks of recovered P crystals to be similar with pure struvite crystals. The recovered phosphorous in form of magnesium aluminium phosphate (MAP) crystals can be used as fertilizer in agricultural industry.

This paper presents a solar-energy-based water treatment concept for remote village in India. Solar water still was used for water treatment. The performance of the system was studied by varying the parameters such as nitrates, fluorides and arsenic using stock solutions. Other parameters such as pH, alkalinity, hardness, chlorides and sulphates which have an influence on the solubility of various metals including were also simultaneously studied. A numbers of trials were run over a period of two years. Various controlling parameters such as depth of water in the still, input water quality, solar radiation intensity were studied to optimize the performance of a solar still.It was found that the solar still has very high treatment potential, with removal efficacy of 97% for the pollutant (arsenic). The treated water was free from pathogens. Coliforms and the other remaining parameters meet the drinking water standards set by World Health Organization (WHO). The treated water was found to be deficient in essential salts, requiring addition of fluorides and chlorides.This outcome of this study can contribute towards the global efforts in addressing the problem of heavy metal and pathogen-free clean water supply which is a major concern in many parts of the world.

The paper aims to understand how the public perceives river water quality and related risks and behaviour. Using the stratified semi-purposive sampling process, the study explores the perception of people residing along the river Yamuna in India. The method applied involved a structured questionnaire survey of 2706 respondents and four focused group discussions with people residing within two kilometres of the river bank. Non-parametric tests such as Kruskal Wallis, Mann Whitney U-test and One-Sample Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test were used to analyse the data. The findings suggest that the majority of the respondents formulate their perceptions using non-scientific methods like sensorial and heuristics. Perception on sources of pollution is shaped by personal experiences and people do not perceive diffused sources of pollution that affect river water quality. Respondents attributed the pollution in the river to anthropogenic activities and their risk perception was found to be linked to...

The motivation behind this paper is to understand the status of water resources management education provided in higher education institutions (HEIs) in India and decipher gaps between what is taught and what is needed in the field. The assessment has been carried out based on the information available on the respective websites of the HEIs using keywords. The authors have also reached out to faculty members and final-year students in universities/HEIs in India. There are a good number of HEIs in India, which offer educational programmes in water-related subjects, though their distribution is skewed and there seems to be a clear bias in favour of the technological aspects of water. Relatively fewer HEIs engage themselves in social, economic and gender-related issues. It is imperative to popularise research in the social, economic and regulatory aspects of water management. Not all HEIs have provided information about the areas of research they engage in, on their websites. Further, ...

Water is a non substitutable resource and a social good, which governments must perforce provide to its citizens in the right quantity and quality. An integrated urban metabolism model is useful in understanding the status quo of an urban water and sanitation system. By defining and measuring the values of relevant hydrological performance indicators—deliverables of the model referred to—a thorough knowledge of the present performance and the gaps, which need to be plugged en route to a sustainable urban water infrastructure, can be obtained, as demonstrated in this paper. This then forms the bedrock for decision-making and policy formulation for change to be introduced top-down as well as advice, which would enable the much needed bottom-up support to policies. The authors have chosen Delhi as the case study city, but would like to point out that this application can be reproduced for any other town/city/region of the world. The water balance within the chosen system boundaries sho...

The governance of natural resources now attracts greater participation of different stakeholders, ushering in a shift from conventional governance by the state to that by a network of stakeholders-a form of governance marked by a growing role of non-state and local actors. These changing dynamics are highlighted through a study of the governance network for springsheds in the Indian Himalayas by empirically mapping the changes in the Dhara Vikas Yojna, a plan or scheme (yojana) by the state for the development (vikas) of springs (dhara) in Sikkim, India, from policy planning to policy implementation. The study highlights the diverse existing and emerging roles of different stakeholders, the complex relationships between them, and the power dynamics that influence the management of springsheds. The study (1) identified some new but missing actors/actor groups that were critical to managing springs; (2) showed that although state governments continue to play a dominant role, decision making is shifting to non-state and local actors; and (3) highlighted the importance of exchanging knowledge and information in implementing a policy more effectively. Understanding the characteristics of the governance network helped in drawing lessons to make the plan more sustainable and replicable, which include considering the policy in the wider context of policies for other sectors such as sanitation and hydropower development, incentivising the emerging actors, and building a stronger interdisciplinary and inclusive knowledge network. Such an integrated approach to policymaking can also be adopted to analyze governance networks related to natural resources other than water.

Este trabajo examina los desafíos de la urbanización en India, así como las iniciativas tomadas para enfrentarlos. La urbanización en la India se caracteriza por un crecimiento distorsionado entre ciudades con gran inmigración de población, creando claras diferencias entre los centros urbanos y las periferias, en términos de formas urbanas y servicios. Los desafíos clave incluyen el crecimiento de cinturones de miseria, manejo inadecuado de desechos sólidos, decremento en la disponibilidad de agua per cápita, además de la calidad poco confiable de la misma, insuficiente extensión del drenaje y deterioro del aire. Estos temas no son nuevos ni exclusivos de la India, pero los que sí son nuevos son los impulsores y las presiones que se hallan detrás de estos problemas. Nuestro trabajo ilustra los desafíos a la urbanización india a la luz de la ineficiencia en la aplicación de recursos, la resistencia a adoptar nuevas tecnologías que no rindan beneficios financieros de inmediato, el esc...

s u m m a r y Over the past two decades, urban lifestyles have changed phenomenally. One aspect of this change is the increasing use of household appliances, which, in turn, influences water and electricity consumption in urban households. It is therefore necessary to revisit water supply norms in view of these behavioural changes. Increasing use of water-related appliances by the surveyed households in Delhi, India has lowered their water consumption but increased their electricity consumption (10–16 kW h a month). Also, longer working hours away from homes have shifted water demand from homes to commercial establishments and institutions. The per-capita water requirement to meet the basic needs for health and hygiene is approximately 76–78 L a day, of which bathing claims the largest share (32%). Nearly 70% of electricity consumption of a household is spent in coping with deficiencies in water supply. Strategies adopted by end users to save water were negatively correlated with those to save electricity. Household incomes have no influence on water consumption except in the case of those living in slums, who are forced to curtail their use of water even at the cost of health and hygiene; for the rest, coping with poor water supply amounts to spending nearly 50% more on electricity, defeating the purpose of subsidised water supply.

The paper presents energy and carbon footprints of sewage treatment plants (STPs) operating at different scales and using different technology options based on primary data from 50 STPs operating in India and the UK. The study used a combination of fundamental mass-balance approach for energy consumption and the methodology defined by IPCC for the carbon emissions. Small-scale institutional STPs consume twelve times the energy consumed by large-scale municipal STPs, the corresponding energy intensities being 4.87 kWh/m(3) and 0.40 kWh/m(3) respectively. Embodied energy from construction material and chemicals accounted for 46% and 33% of the total energy intensity of the municipal and institutional STPs respectively. The average carbon footprint of large-scale STPs is 0.78 kgCO2eq/m(3) and for small-scale STPs it is 3.04 kgCO2eq/m(3). However, fugitive emissions from large-scale STPs constituted 74% of the total carbon emissions whereas the figure was only 0.05% for small-scale STPs...

L'estimation de la pollution diffuse est importante en ce qui concerne la gestion urbaine de la qualité de l'eau. Cependant, elle reste difficile à quantifier et varie considérablement du fait des changements incessants dans l'utilisation des sols en zones urbaines. Une des ...