Aruna Chandra

Abstract: The significance and popularity of the cluster and industrial district concepts claim for a deeper reflection. The analysis of one of the European Commission's (EC) policy documents shows inconsistencies that do not impede the formulation of normative statements. That way we answer the question of why and how cluster ideas have substituted industrial district principles and the consequences derived from that phenomenon.

The business incubator is an innovative organizational entity, with origins in the United States, designed to provide a supportive environment for new ventures. This innovation was adopted by Chinese government in the late eighties as part of a plan to address market failure in innovation and to win the global game of technological competition. The successful diffusion and subsequent reinvention of this innovation in China has resulted in one of the most successful business incubation movements in Asia that is second only to the United States in the number of business incubators. Chinese incubator models initially tended to be monolithic in form due to the heavy influence of government as innovation gatekeeper guiding their creation and operation; however local demands, such as the need to attract well educated overseas Chinese students back to the homeland, have led to indigenous incubation approaches within these broad parameters as manifested in the second generation of incubatio...

In 1923, Goodyear's David Brown (Brown, 1923) advocated the use of international programme standardisation, and Bausch and Lomb's Carl Propson argued the need for 'localisation' (Propson, 1923). Since that time, international marketing managers and academics alike have actively struggled with the issue of the standardisation of advertising programmes (Onkvisit and Shaw, 1999). However, despite the burgeoning research and managerial experience related to this topic, the fundamental elements of advertising standardisation remain unclear. On the one hand, proponents of standardisation argue that in a world of increasingly homogenised markets and consumers, it is possible for a firm to standardise advertising programmes and messages across countries (Levitt, 1983; Ohmae, 1989). On the other hand, critics of standardisation have consistently argued their case for adaptation, citing cultural, economic and political barriers that mandate adaptation of marketing programmes and processes for products marketed on a global basis (Sorenson and Weichmann, 197 5; Quelch and Hoff, 1986; Wind, 1986). Between the bipolar extremes of absolute standardisation and adaptation, a third middle-ground contingency approach has gained

INTRODUCTION Business incubators are viewed by many country governments as dynamic tools for fostering new ventures with the macro objective of economic development and job creation. Small businesses are engines of growth in many dynamic economies. The research in areas related to business incubators is still in its nascent stages, primarily due to the fact that business incubation as a form of support did not gain currency until the late 1980's and 1990's in many parts of the world. Incubation is a vital component of an entrepreneurial infrastructure and this concept is moving mainstream with increased interest and awareness of the power of this support mechanism. As business incubators gain ubiquity in various parts of the developed and developing world, incubator models have evolved in sophistication, variety and complexity. The services that are offered and the configurations they take vary widely, since they are highly sensitive to local environmental conditions and to the unique entrepreneurial ecosystem in that country (Lalkaka, 2002). While incubators have been in existence in the United States since the 1960's, business incubators in developing countries have really only been in evidence in any significant way in the last decade (Scaramuzzi, 2002). Incubator growth in China and Brazil started in the late 1980s to early 1990s. The purpose of this paper is to describe and compare key elements of the incubation landscape in the United States, China and Brazil to provide an understanding of the similarities and differences in incubation systems across the three countries, as well as the opportunities and challenges inherent in the macro-environmental and institutional environments for new business creation with special emphasis on incubator funding approaches and financial services provided by incubators to client firms in each country context. For instance, compared to the United States and Brazil, Chinese incubators tended to be relatively more monolithic in terms of business models, due to their high level of dependence on the government for direction and support. At the macro-level incubation systems in the three countries were compared to discuss institutional / environmental / contextual influences on incubator models. Incubation approaches were then described and compared along key dimensions which include strategic objectives, incubator financing / incubator sponsorship, the incubator's service mix with an emphasis on financial services provided by incubators to client firms. The role of government and its impact on incubator strategy as well as its role in supporting the environment for new business creation is discussed. BACKGROUND Incubators in the United States, China and Brazil were selected for this study (N = 30) and interview and archival data were collected by the author from the incubators through semi-structured interviews over a two year period from 2004-2006. The United States has the oldest and largest incubation system with approximately 1000 incubators, which has evolved into an incubation ecosystem with a plethora of incubator models ranging from public to private incubators. Interestingly, a majority of U.S. incubators operate as non-profit entities and many are university- affiliated. China and Brazil were chosen for this comparative study because these are fast growing emerging markets with the third and fourth ranking business incubation markets in the world. Both China and Brazil have experienced extensive changes in their economic, institutional and financial infrastructures, especially in terms of market development by opening up to global competition, and deregulating their markets to reduce the predominant role of the State. Although China has only promoted the creation of small business through the incubation model since the late 1980's, it is the world's largest emerging market and has had an average growth rate annually of over 10 percent for the last decade (Konana, Doggett & Balasubramanian, 2005); it is second only to the U. …

Abstract: For well over forty years, academics have debated the effectiveness of the standardization/adaptation of international advertising, with practitioners beginning four decades earlier. As the debate has progressed, a critical distinction in the literature has developed related to this issue, that of process and program standardization. In this study, we examine the association of process and program standardization, inclusive of consumer market and environmental similarity, within a sample of US multinationals operating in ...

... processes are globalized and are applicable in India as well. Based on that we have marketing strate-gies that are developed, segments that we focus on which are cho-sen and prioritized, then we execute our plan to market. In the exe-cution phase, we use a mix of tactics ...

Explores the natural channel phenomena, i.e. the local or national channel which has evolved to serve producer and consumer alike. Further, provides a descriptive construct which identifies the forces (or elements) which influence channel design. Contends that a thorough understanding (and use) of the natural channel would enable a firm to enhance its strategic competitiveness. Proposes a series of strategic managerial considerations which refocus channel design attention on the natural channel concept.

PurposeThis study seeks to examine the impact of owner's knowledge of information technology (IT) on business and IT strategic alignment, as well as on IT use in the small firm context, using the resource‐based view as a theoretical foundation.Design/methodology/approachA random sample of 217 small manufacturers and financial services firms in the USA answered a two‐page survey containing questions pertaining to the company's business strategies, the extent IT supported each business strategy, types of IT used, and the level of owner's IT knowledge.FindingsOwner's knowledge of IT was found to be a significant predictor of IT strategic alignment, as well as adoption of traditional IT and internet technologies, while controlling for differences in firm attributes (size, age, industry affiliation, and strategic focus).Practical implicationsSmall firm owners are well advised to seek ways of improving their knowledge of IT, integrating IT use in firm‐level business planni...

Standardization of promotional elements in an international context is an important issue faced by multinational managers and has been the subject of debate for several decades. However, to date, few empirical studies have examined the intricacies of this issue, and thus there is little guidance for academics or practitioners. This study empirically examines the influence of four factors—market similarity, process standardization, environmental similarity, and mode of entry—on two elements of promotion standardization: advertising message and packaging. The authors test the hypotheses with both quantitative and qualitative data from U.S. multinational corporations conducting business in the emerging market of India. Results indicate that the four antecedent factors have different effects on advertising message and packaging standardization. The authors present several academic and managerial implications.

Drawing on interview and archival data collected from three business incubators in China, we conducted an in depth study of Chinese business incubators to assess the impact of varying levels of government involvement on the nature of financial services provided by the incubator to its incubatee clients. Financial services were classified on a spectrum of low to medium to high intensity based on the depth of incubator involvement and level of risk. We found an inverse relationship between the two key variables – the lower the government involvement the greater the financial service intensity and vice versa. Managerial and policy implications of the findings are discussed.

Business incubators in China were deployed by the Chinese Government solely as a critical instrument to develop and industrialize its technological advancements and are only open to technology-based ventures. This article reviews the development of Chinese business incubators over the past two decades, addressing such key issues as the Chinese business incubators’ founding and funding, service offerings and tenant selection criteria, and discusses the future development of the technology business incubation industry in China. The role and funding by government is very important, though recent efforts are being made to diversify ownership and funding. Incubator specialisms, relating to the industrial areas they are located, are increasing. Selection criteria, based on technology focus, commercial potential and management team, are seen as important. It appears that business incubators in China have been a booster for the transformation of the Chinese economy from the ‘Made in China’ model to a new ‘Created...

The IT industry, particularly IT enabled services (ITES), in India has shown remarkable growth over the past decade and continues to show resilience even in the face of a global downturn in the sector. While India has not been able to match China in manufacturing prowess, it ...

... Some notable differences between the incubator experience in the United States and China are worth ... recent entry into the WTO is expected to serve as a major catalyst for reform in ... or rural regions should be expanded to include a broader range of industries beyond high–tech. ...

In a critical evaluation of international research, Sullivan (1998) suggests that the advancement of international business research has been constrained in its ability to develop due to its reliance on a single methodological approach. Reliance on a single methodological approach ignores metatheoretical implications thus hindering theoretical advancement (Deshpande 1983). In those cases where multiple methods are employed, researchers typically use qualitative research methods for theory construction and ...