Recent Advances in Biomedical Photonic Sensors: A Focus on Optical-Fibre-Based Sensing
<p>(<b>a</b>) Articles as a function of publication year retrieved by searching for optical-fibre sensors. Some representative types of optical-fibre sensors for biomedical applications are depicted. The data were taken from 1351 articles found in Web of Science Core Collection when searching for optical-fibre sensors (23,895 records) and restricting the results applicable to the biomedical field (accessed on 17 September 2021). (<b>b</b>) Map visualization of keywords links strength network using the same 1351 articles information. Only keywords exceeding twenty occurrences are depicted. The period selected is from 1965 to 2021. Abbreviations: magnetic resonance imaging: mri; surface plasmon resonance: spr; fibre Bragg grating: fbg; optical coherence tomography: oct; photonic crystal fibre: pcf. Graph created using VOSviewer software version 1.6.17 [<a href="#B13-sensors-21-06469" class="html-bibr">13</a>]. The evolution of published articles over the years and network maps of keywords related to optical-fibre sensors in general (not restricted to the biomedical field) can be found in the <a href="#app1-sensors-21-06469" class="html-app">supporting information (Figures S1 and S2)</a>, including details on how these graphs were generated.</p> "> Figure 2
<p>Illustration of the Biomedical Photonic Sensor concept and its conceptual block diagram. The photonic sensor provides representative and faithful electrical signals of physical, chemical, biological, or physiological measurands on/in a given object or target. When a BPS is equipped with some kind of intelligence and provides actuation signals, it is transformed into a Biomedical Smart Photonic Sensor (BSPS). It is integrated into three main parts: Optical Transducer; Optical Channel and Optoelectronic Unit [<a href="#B31-sensors-21-06469" class="html-bibr">31</a>,<a href="#B32-sensors-21-06469" class="html-bibr">32</a>,<a href="#B33-sensors-21-06469" class="html-bibr">33</a>]. Courtesy of the authors.</p> "> Figure 3
<p>(<b>a</b>) Experimental setup: (<b>left</b>) schematics of the positioning of laser applicator and FBG arrays in the liver placed in a plexiglass box; (<b>top right</b>) photo of the experimental box employed for maintaining the position of the fibres; (<b>bottom right</b>) close-up of the box with labelled holes for the placement of the fibre-optic sensors (green colour, diameter of the hole equal to 1 mm) and the laser applicator (blue colour, diameter of the hole equal to 1.5 mm) inside the ex vivo liver. (<b>b</b>) Two-dimensional temperature map (time vs. distance along the controlled sensor positioned along the z-axis) for the uncontrolled ablation treatment and the temperature feedback-controlled ablations. Setpoint temperature is 40 °C, and <span class="html-italic">d</span> represents the distance between FBG array and the applicator laser tip. The black contour lines define the region of hepatic tissue at a temperature ≥ 40 °C. (<b>c</b>) RBG images of the thermal results for controlled (<b>left</b>) and uncontrolled (<b>right</b>) treatments at <span class="html-italic">d</span> = 0 mm. Images and caption adapted with permission from [<a href="#B42-sensors-21-06469" class="html-bibr">42</a>] © The Optical Society.</p> "> Figure 4
<p>(<b>a</b>) Fibre-optic respiratory rate sensor (FiRRS) system, including a laser diode (SLD), spectrometer (I-MON 512USB), optical circulator, recording laptop and fibre-optic respiratory rate sensor enclosed within a 21-gauge hypodermic needle polished at the tip. (<b>b</b>) Integration of the sensing probe into (<b>left</b>) CO<sub>2</sub> mask (with EtCO<sub>2</sub> capnometry), (<b>middle</b>) nasal cannula and (<b>right</b>) non-rebreathe trauma mask. The image and caption were adapted from their original created by Sinha et al. [<a href="#B47-sensors-21-06469" class="html-bibr">47</a>] under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unsorted license.</p> "> Figure 5
<p>Optrode fabrication and characterisation. (<b>A</b>) Bright-field image of a fibre (viewed from the side) with etched pits (~10 µm in depth). (<b>B</b>) Fluorescence image (excitation 488 nm and emission 520 nm) of the etched fibres (viewed from the side) after the pH sensors (fluorescein-based) were loaded into the pits. Note the focal plane of the image in (<b>B</b>) is different from (<b>A</b>) to highlight the loaded cores. (<b>C</b>,<b>D</b>) SEM images of an etched optical fibre before and after the addition of the microspheres. The scale bar in all the images is 50 µm. The images and caption were taken from their original created by Choudhary et al. [<a href="#B79-sensors-21-06469" class="html-bibr">79</a>] under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unsorted license.</p> "> Figure 6
<p>(<b>a</b>) Sketch of the gold-coated fibre used to detect HER2 molecules (in red) through SPR, with antibody amplification in a sandwich configuration (in green). Thiolated aptamers are immobilized on the gold surface to target HER2. (<b>b</b>) SPR-dip minimum shift as a function of time in phosphate buffer saline (PBS), HER2 proteins, and PBS after the immersion in HER2 solution. (<b>c</b>) SPR-dip minimum shift as a function of time in PBS, in antibodies (anti-HER2), and in PBS after amplification. Each curve represents one probe per test. Reprinted (adapted) with permission from [<a href="#B92-sensors-21-06469" class="html-bibr">92</a>].</p> "> Figure 6 Cont.
<p>(<b>a</b>) Sketch of the gold-coated fibre used to detect HER2 molecules (in red) through SPR, with antibody amplification in a sandwich configuration (in green). Thiolated aptamers are immobilized on the gold surface to target HER2. (<b>b</b>) SPR-dip minimum shift as a function of time in phosphate buffer saline (PBS), HER2 proteins, and PBS after the immersion in HER2 solution. (<b>c</b>) SPR-dip minimum shift as a function of time in PBS, in antibodies (anti-HER2), and in PBS after amplification. Each curve represents one probe per test. Reprinted (adapted) with permission from [<a href="#B92-sensors-21-06469" class="html-bibr">92</a>].</p> "> Figure 7
<p>Illustrations of lab-on-fibre approaches. (<b>a</b>) Reprinted (adapted) with permission from [<a href="#B97-sensors-21-06469" class="html-bibr">97</a>]; (<b>b</b>) Reprinted (adapted) with permission from [<a href="#B95-sensors-21-06469" class="html-bibr">95</a>].</p> "> Figure 8
<p>(<b>a</b>) Ultrafast laser-written Raman probe with one delivery optical fibre and six collector optical fibres. The fibre endcap (made up of two pieces) has been made utilising a combination of femtosecond laser-writing and chemical etching (image adapted from [<a href="#B129-sensors-21-06469" class="html-bibr">129</a>]). (<b>b</b>) Fs laser-ablated fibre based on a D-shape for enhanced SERS probes (adapted with permission from [<a href="#B131-sensors-21-06469" class="html-bibr">131</a>] © The Optical Society). (<b>c</b>) Probe for alveolar pH sensing. It contains a dual-core optical fibre for spatially separating the pump delivery and signal collection, gold nanoshells deposited on the end-face for SERS, and a fused silica endcap to provide robustness (adapted with permission from [<a href="#B130-sensors-21-06469" class="html-bibr">130</a>] © The Optical Society).</p> "> Figure 9
<p>(<b>a</b>) Blue light-emitting optical-fibre probe for fluorescence microscopy in endoscopically accessible tissues (This image was taken from their original created by Osman et al. [<a href="#B133-sensors-21-06469" class="html-bibr">133</a>] under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License). (<b>b</b>) High-resolution hexagonal array imaging fibre comprises 12,247 cores. This image was taken from their original created by Stone et al. [<a href="#B137-sensors-21-06469" class="html-bibr">137</a>] under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unsorted license. (<b>c</b>) Example of an epifluorescence imaging system (image courtesy of the authors). An excitation source is coupled via a dichroic mirror into the coherent fibre bundle. The fluorescence emitted by the sample is collected at the end of the fibre and propagated to a camera.</p> "> Figure 10
<p>(<b>a</b>) FBG system with centre-to-centre distance <span class="html-italic">d</span> and sensor length <span class="html-italic">l</span>. Numbers represent the different cores: here, the cores of configuration (2347) are highlighted. (<b>b</b>) The cross-section of a triplet configuration. Reprinted from [<a href="#B161-sensors-21-06469" class="html-bibr">161</a>] under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.</p> "> Figure 11
<p>Three groups of FBGs paste position. FBG1 and FBG2 are pasted on the upper and lower surfaces of the new type of elastic beam, while FBG3 is pasted in the groove on the surface of the puncture needle cylinder. Reprinted from [<a href="#B174-sensors-21-06469" class="html-bibr">174</a>] under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.</p> "> Figure 12
<p>(<b>a</b>) The two microholes were created on a borosilicate glass capillary housing by the laser cutting process. (<b>b</b>) The final design of the custom FPI based force sensor. Reprinted with permission from [<a href="#B186-sensors-21-06469" class="html-bibr">186</a>] © The Optical Society.</p> ">
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Biomedical Photonic Sensors
3. Advances in Optical-Fibre-Based Biomedical Photonic Sensors
3.1. Physical Parameters
3.1.1. Temperature
3.1.2. Vital-Sign Monitoring
3.2. Biochemical Parameters and Biosensors
3.2.1. pH
3.2.2. Oxygen
3.2.3. Cancer-Related
3.2.4. Other Biochemical Parameters
3.3. Multiparameter Sensing and Lab-on-Fibre
4. Fibre-Optical Probes for Needles, Catheters, and Endoscopy
4.1. Fibre-Optical Probes for Spectroscopy
4.1.1. Reflectance Probes
4.1.2. Fluorescence Probes
4.2. Modified Fibre-Optical Probes
4.2.1. Fibre Bragg Gratings
4.2.2. Fabry–Pérot Interferometer Sensor
5. Summary and Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Measurand | Sensing Strategy | Sensor Performance | Remarks/Highlights |
---|---|---|---|
Dissolved oxygen [82] |
|
|
|
Blood volume and oxygen saturation [85] |
| - |
|
pH |
| Optical-fibre-based (See [73] and references therein):
| - |
pH [78] |
|
|
|
pH and oxygen [79] |
|
|
|
pH [76] |
|
|
|
pH [73] |
|
|
|
Cancer biomarker (cytokeratin 17) [89] |
|
|
|
Breast cancer cells [90] |
|
|
|
Breast cancer HER2 biomarker [92] |
|
|
|
Cells and particles [93] |
|
|
|
PfHRP2 [63] |
|
|
|
Glucose [65] |
|
|
|
Calmodulin [64] |
|
|
|
Cyt c [67] |
|
|
|
E. coli O157:H7 [68] |
|
|
|
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Ochoa, M.; Algorri, J.F.; Roldán-Varona, P.; Rodríguez-Cobo, L.; López-Higuera, J.M. Recent Advances in Biomedical Photonic Sensors: A Focus on Optical-Fibre-Based Sensing. Sensors 2021, 21, 6469. https://doi.org/10.3390/s21196469
Ochoa M, Algorri JF, Roldán-Varona P, Rodríguez-Cobo L, López-Higuera JM. Recent Advances in Biomedical Photonic Sensors: A Focus on Optical-Fibre-Based Sensing. Sensors. 2021; 21(19):6469. https://doi.org/10.3390/s21196469
Chicago/Turabian StyleOchoa, Mario, José Francisco Algorri, Pablo Roldán-Varona, Luis Rodríguez-Cobo, and José Miguel López-Higuera. 2021. "Recent Advances in Biomedical Photonic Sensors: A Focus on Optical-Fibre-Based Sensing" Sensors 21, no. 19: 6469. https://doi.org/10.3390/s21196469