Building Extraction Using Orthophotos and Dense Point Cloud Derived from Visual Band Aerial Imagery Based on Machine Learning and Segmentation
"> Figure 1
<p>Location of study area.</p> "> Figure 2
<p>Example of segments on different land cover classes.</p> "> Figure 3
<p>Variables and workflow.</p> "> Figure 4
<p>Improvement of overall classification accuracy (OA) by the number of variables. Variables are ranked based on recursive feature elimination determined by 10-fold repeated cross-validation in 3 repetitions (<span style="color:#87CEFA">o</span>: selected variable sets; <span style="color:#0070C0">•</span>: best OA with 30 variables).</p> "> Figure 5
<p>Classification accuracies using different variable sets and classifiers. Boxplots represent the medians (•), interquartile ranges, minimums, maximums (whiskers), and outliers (<span style="color:#00B0F0">o</span>) based on 30 models of repeated k-fold cross-validation (RKCV).</p> "> Figure 6
<p>Classification accuracies using different variable sets and classifiers ordered by decreasing OA medians: (<b>a</b>) ranking by random forest (RF) models; (<b>b</b>) ranking by the best performing models). Boxplots represent the medians (<span style="color:#008D8A">•</span>), interquartile ranges, minimums, maximums (whiskers), and outliers (o) based on 30 models of RKCV.</p> "> Figure 7
<p>Classification accuracies on category level based on the maps generated by RF models and independent testing dataset (input variables: rgb: visible bands; i: RGB indices, t: texture information, pca: principal components, d: morphometric indices, rfe: selected variables with recursive feature elimination; dashed red line: accuracies >95%).</p> "> Figure 8
<p>F1-values based on the maps generated by RF models and the independent test dataset (input variables: rgb: visible bands; i: RGB indices, t: texture information, pca: principal components, d: morphometric indices, rfe: selected variables with recursive feature elimination; dashed red line: accuracies >95%).</p> "> Figure 9
<p>Building representations in the study area using different variable sets and random forest classifier (input variables: RGB: visible bands; RGB indices, texture: texture information, PCA: principal component analysis, DSM: DSM derivatives as morphometric indices, RFE: selected variables with recursive feature elimination).</p> "> Figure 10
<p>The orthophoto of the study area in Toronto (<b>a</b>) and the result of building extraction (<b>b</b>) of the ISPRS Benchmark Dataset (TP: true positive; FN: false negative; FP: false positive).</p> ">
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Data
2.3. Point Cloud Classification and Derivation of Morphometric Variables
2.4. RGB Indices
2.5. Texture Information
2.6. OBIA-Based Segmentation
2.7. Variable Data Sets and Data Preparation
2.8. Classification Models
2.8.1. Random Forest
2.8.2. Support Vector Machine
2.8.3. K-Nearest Neighbor
2.8.4. Multiple Adaptive Regression Splines
2.8.5. Partial Least Squares
2.8.6. Accuracy Assessment
3. Results
3.1. Results of Data Preparation
3.2. Classification Accuracies Using Different Sets of Input Variables and Classifiers
3.3. Accuracy Assessment on Category Level
3.4. Accuracy Assessment with the ISPRS Benchmark Dataset
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
- -
- Classification performance using only one group of indices (i.e., RGB bands, texture, RGB indices or morphometric indices) varied in a wide range. Texture information was the weakest, worse when only RGB bands were used. Morphometric indices performed better on class level than on overall because DSM and its derivatives added valuable information especially in case of buildings. RGB indices had a relevant contribution in the improvement but on class level it was worse than the overall accuracy.
- -
- Combination of different group of indices ensured higher accuracy both on overall and class level. Best option is to use the morphometric indices with the RGB bands, it had >90% OA, PA, and UA.
- -
- Combining three types of indices provided the most efficient models, having >95% OA, PA, and UA. The RGB bands, RGB indices, morphometric indices and the 4 bit texture information had the largest (100% UA and 98% PA). In addition, 4 bit and 8 bit texture information had small differences in these combinations, and the most important to avoid their common application (both versions decrease the accuracy).
- -
- Model evaluation should contain the UA and PA values, and having several model solutions, visualization of these metrics helps to find the trade-offs between omission and commission errors. In addition, F1 an IoU can express it with a single value which helps to create ranks of accuracy.
- -
- RFE as variable selection method provided an importance rank, and both the six and ten variable sets were efficient, providing the same accuracy as including all variables (100% UA and 98% PA). We suggest using the fewest number of variables to avoid overfitting. However, our most important variables (nDSM, RGBVI, GLI, blue band from RGB, slope, VARI) can be different in other study areas, so the methodology and the careful and customized variable selection is more important.
- -
- Efficiency of this approach can be limited in areas where high buildings have large shadows and building roofs are flat. While shadows bias the spectral profiles, flat roofs will be identical with roads, pavements, and parking lots; thus, slope and aspect cannot discriminate buildings.
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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RGB Index | Equation | Literature |
---|---|---|
Visible Atmospherically Resistant Index (VARI) | (G − R)/(G + R − B) | [74,75] |
Green Leaf Index (GLI) | (2 × G – R − B)/(2 × G + R + B) | [69,73,75] |
Normalized Green-Red Difference Index (NGRDI) | (G − R)/(G + R) | [70,75,76,77] |
Red-Green-Blue Vegetation Index (RGBVI) | (G2 − (R × B))/(G2 + (R × B)) | [69,70,75,78,79] |
Textural Features | Equation | Literature |
---|---|---|
Energy | [1,21,82,83,84,85,86,87] | |
Entropy | [1,21,82,83,84,85,86,87] | |
Correlation | [1,82,83,85,86,87] | |
Inverse Difference Moment | [1,21,84,86,87] | |
Inertia | [1,82,83,84,85,86,87] | |
Mean | [1,21,87] | |
Variance | [1,87] | |
Difference Entropy | [86] | |
Run Percentage | [88,89] | |
Grey-Level Non-Uniformity | [88,89] |
Statistic | PC1 | PC2 | PC3 | PC4 | PC5 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
SS loadings | 6.58 | 6.41 | 4.84 | 4.26 | 2.6 |
Proportion variance | 0.23 | 0.23 | 0.17 | 0.15 | 0.09 |
Cumulative variance | 0.23 | 0.46 | 0.64 | 0.79 | 0.88 |
Variable | Mean Decrease Accuracy | Mean Decrease Gini |
---|---|---|
nDSM | 409.5 | 211.7 |
Blue band | 155.9 | 160.9 |
VARI | 108.9 | 83.8 |
Slope | 98.8 | 27.4 |
GLI | 75.3 | 73.0 |
RGBVI | 54.5 | 42.4 |
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Schlosser, A.D.; Szabó, G.; Bertalan, L.; Varga, Z.; Enyedi, P.; Szabó, S. Building Extraction Using Orthophotos and Dense Point Cloud Derived from Visual Band Aerial Imagery Based on Machine Learning and Segmentation. Remote Sens. 2020, 12, 2397. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12152397
Schlosser AD, Szabó G, Bertalan L, Varga Z, Enyedi P, Szabó S. Building Extraction Using Orthophotos and Dense Point Cloud Derived from Visual Band Aerial Imagery Based on Machine Learning and Segmentation. Remote Sensing. 2020; 12(15):2397. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12152397
Chicago/Turabian StyleSchlosser, Aletta Dóra, Gergely Szabó, László Bertalan, Zsolt Varga, Péter Enyedi, and Szilárd Szabó. 2020. "Building Extraction Using Orthophotos and Dense Point Cloud Derived from Visual Band Aerial Imagery Based on Machine Learning and Segmentation" Remote Sensing 12, no. 15: 2397. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12152397