Mahsheed Ansari

The nineteenth and twentieth centuries saw a rapid depletion of Islamic society, government, theology and culture. This caused a great disconnect with the long theological and historical traditions of the Islamic faith. Many Muslim scholars and theologians were highly influenced by the decline of the Muslim world and deeply troubled by it (Kuru 2007, 568–578). Moreover, in a context of oppression, many adopted novel responses and reformulated their theologies with emphasis on rejection, reformation and revolution of Islam from its established traditions and institutions (Kerr 1966). The result of such thought was Islamic movements were mostly Islamist in their outlook and approach with a political agenda. This chapter argues the modernist influence and its shift away from the Islamic tradition paved the path for the re-emergence of the neo-Kharijite sect in Islam. A good exception to this was the Kurdish scholar Said Nursi’s (1877-1960) revivalist work, the Risale-i Nur, which retained the rich theological, historical and cultural traditions of Islam and called for a social activism rooted in non-violence as well as an apolitical attitude. This chapter critically examines the Risale-i Nur and discusses the historical context within which Said Nursi worked. It describes the theological arguments and methodology that refuted the prevailing discourses of his contemporaries, particularly the emerging Salafism and neo-Kharijite. It does so to distinguish Nursi’s theology based apolitical non-violent activism from theological arguments that endorse activism rooted in political Islam. A comparative analysis of these theological arguments in light of their historical contexts provides a good framework to analyse contemporary Islamic movements and their political and civic responses to the world, ranging from non-violence to social and political activism and finally to violent extremism.

In the post-enlightenment period where God is long considered to be dead and we are the ones claimed to have killed him , mankind is still left unfulfilled in his battle with mortality. The search for meaning and purpose in life continues in Generation Y . Even the killing of death has not resolved the battle with mortality . In an era where his contemporaries were killing God, religion and even death itself, Bediuzzaman Said Nursi (1877-1960) emerged inimitably and in an almost solo battle to defend belief, faith, religion and God.
This paper closely examines the works of Said Nursi as a case study, and also as an example, to understand the practical, as well as philosophical, dilemma that faces human kind: Mortality and death. The human patterns of thought and behaviour in the modern world will be examined in comparison with Nursi’s understanding of human nature and behaviour as evidenced in his exegetical interpretation called the Risale-i Nur Collection. Nursi’s unique methodology is evident in the Risale-i Nur as he uses both ontological reasoning, as well as his observances of the world and human life, to solve the dilemma of mortality. Unlike his predecessors, St. Anselm of Canterbury in the 11th century A.D and René Descartes of the 17th century who sought to prove the existence of God ontologically , for Nursi proving the existence of God was vital, as he believed that God is the answer to mortality. Nursi’s ontological explanations of the existence of God are examined in this paper with a particular emphasis on the 11 aspects of Divine Unity from the 20th Letter. This paper will thus attempt to resolve this ‘battle with mortality’ that faces modern man, with a specific study of Generation Y.
In the following discussions, I will first outline the definitional understanding of Generation Y to delineate contemporary man’s nature, essence and self. I will then discuss the relevant behaviourist theories that outline the essential needs and nature of humans in order to search for the current “prognosis” of the dilemma of mortality that faces man.  The final section of the paper uses the methodology of behaviourist theorists as the basis of examining the 11 Aspects of Divine Unity in order to outline Nursi’s ontological discussions of God – the Eternal Al-Baqi that he claims fills the existing gap in human nature.
In the post enlightenment period where God is long considered to be dead and we are the ones claimed to have killed him , mankind is still left unfulfilled in his battle with mortality. The search for meaning and purpose in life continues in Generation Y . Even the killing of death has not resolved the battle with mortality . In an era where his contemporaries were killing God, religion and even death itself, Bediuzzaman Said Nursi (1877-1960) emerged inimitably and in an almost solo battle to defend belief, faith, religion and God.
This paper closely examines the works of Said Nursi as a case study, and also as an example, to understand the practical, as well as philosophical, dilemma that faces human kind: Mortality and death. The human patterns of thought and behaviour in the modern world will be examined in comparison with Nursi’s understanding of human nature and behaviour as evidenced in his exegetical interpretation called the Risale-i Nur Collection. Nursi’s unique methodology is evident in the Risale-i Nur as he uses both ontological reasoning, as well as his observances of the world and human life, to solve the dilemma of mortality. Unlike his predecessors, St. Anselm of Canterbury in the 11th century A.D and René Descartes of the 17th century who sought to prove the existence of God ontologically , for Nursi proving the existence of God was vital, as he believed that God is the answer to mortality. Nursi’s ontological explanations of the existence of God are examined in this paper with a particular emphasis on the 11 aspects of Divine Unity from the 20th Letter. This paper will thus attempt to resolve this ‘battle with mortality’ that faces modern man, with a specific study of Generation Y.
In the following discussions, I will first outline the definitional understanding of Generation Y to delineate contemporary man’s nature, essence and self. I will then discuss the relevant behaviourist theories that outline the essential needs and nature of humans in order to search for the current “prognosis” of the dilemma of mortality that faces man.  The final section of the paper uses the methodology of behaviourist theorists as the basis of examining the 11 Aspects of Divine Unity in order to outline Nursi’s ontological discussions of God – the Eternal Al-Baqi that he claims fills the existing gap in human nature.

... 'Bediuzzaman Said Nursi and the Risale-I Nur' in Zafar Ishaq Ansari Khurshid Ahmad (ed.). Islamic Perspectives: Studies in Honour of Mawlana Sayyid Abul A`la Mawdudi (1979). ... Epitomes of Light [Mathnawi al-Nuriya]: The Essentials of The Risale-i Nur (Izmir: Kaynak, 1999). ...

The language of trauma has been used by many to explain what happens to individuals and to the collectivities to which they belong. Some of these traumatic experiences stem from interpersonal violence, such as sexual and physical abuse or domestic violence. Others may stem from witnessing interpersonal violence and victimisation, such as witnessing or being a victim of a serious accident, war, a terror attack, or experiencing the loss of a loved one. Regardless of its cause, trauma, whether individualistic or collective, arises from the experience of pain and suffering post ‘an extraordinary event’ so disruptive that it triggers an emotional response and public attention. This chapter will situate the experiences of trauma felt by the surviving Muslim women victims of the Christchurch terror attack that occurred on March 15, 2019, within the scope of collective trauma theory. We do this by examining two types of collective trauma unique to the Christchurch experience: collective trauma through personal experience and collective trauma through empathy. Although our focus is on the Muslim women victims and survivors of the attack, we also show how ‘meaning-making’ processes such as the media and the New Zealand government helped define the type of pain and suffering felt by the victims. We discuss how this was translated into a broader form of collective suffering whereby the Muslim community, the community of New Zealand, and those abroad felt victimised by the event on a traumatic level.

The theological notion of Prophethood (nubuwwa) and the Prophet Muḥammad has been subjected to an intense theoretical enquiry since the Enlightenment. The emphasis on rational thought and reason (ʿaql) was prevalent in this period. While some scholars focused on tradition (naql), a number of others focused on reason (ʿaql). Said Nursi and Muhammad Iqbal engaged both ʿaql and naql in their prophetologies, orientating more towards reason (‘aql). This thesis argues that the prophetologies of the modernist Muslims were lacking the balance of the metaphysical with that of the rational. In contrast, Said Nursi and Muhammad Iqbal retained this balance in their prophetologies by including the metaphysical aspects of prophethood. Through a textual analysis of the major writings of Said Nursi and Muhammad Iqbal, this thesis explores two unique responses to this theological dilemma in the modern era, and highlights the similarities and differences of their prophetologies in contrast to their m...

The Muslim world in the colonial era experienced rapid changes in all aspects of life; the development of Muslim modernist thought as a form of Salafism in this era had a profound impact on how approaches to Islam influenced the course of socio-political life in the decades that followed. This modernist influence and its shift from Islamic tradition paved the path for the re-emergence of the neo-Kharijite sect in Islam. One of the exceptions to this mode was the response of Kurdish scholar Said Nursi (1877–1960), who called for social activism rooted in non-violence as well as an absolute apolitical attitude. This chapter critically examines his revivalist work, the Risale-i Nur, and discusses the historical context within which he worked. It contrasts the variation in Nursi’s theological arguments, methodologies, and discourses and his contemporaries, which resulted in either apolitical activism or political Islam-based activism. This significant distinction can provide a workable framework to critically analyse contemporary Islamic movements.

Since the advent of Islam, Islamic history has witnessed numerous educators of both the heart and mind. Yet, the educational philosophy and curriculum of both madrassas and the scholars were fragmented. Teachers and scholars resorted to instructing separately in the key areas of the rational sciences (aqliyat and mantiq) as well as the spiritual sciences (mana’wiyat and tassawuf). Students were taught these key lessons of the mind, heart and spirit separately. In two different epochs of Muslim history a shift occurred in the educational paradigm of the leading Muslim scholars. In response to a context of war, oppression, socio-political and economic unrest, due to Mongol invasions and later the Western Colonial invasion – two fine specimen created a new educational paradigm in the 12th and 19th centuries respectively. The marriage of the heart and mind in theirs and other educational curriculums emerged. The creative works of Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Rumi (1207-1273) and Muhammad Iqbal (1877-1938) show a shift and demarcation from traditional educational methods to a new educational paradigm for their respective communities.

The two great thinkers of Western Asia/Anatolia and South Asia, Said Nursi (CE 1877-1960) and Muhammad Iqbal (CE1877-1938) revisited the role and function of prophethood in the last century. In fact, it was in the agenda of the reform movement of their predecessors Muhammad Abduh (CE 1849-1905) and Rashid Ridda (CE 1838-1897). In a rapid world of change and emergence of modernity, ideologies of secularism, materialist thought and the essential nature and role of religion in society were in question. According to Islamic tradition, at the heart of any ‘change’ lies a great leader or champion of change – prophets of God. Therefore, after the Qur’an and God’s Oneness (tawhid) prophethood (nubuwwa) was sought to be re-affirmed by Muslim theologians as ‘agents of change’ or ‘role models’ that would be the ‘agency’ for change or the ‘pillar’ of continuity in society. To this effect the various aspects of prophethood and the Prophet Muhammad became important in the 21st century, in particular, the prophetology of Nursi and Iqbal. For this reason a comparative study of their views of prophethood, due to their subjective relatedness - as an important concept at the heart of theological reform in the 20th century, as well as the primacy each gave in their respective works, addresses, sermons, articles and personal letters, is significant.

Said Nursi (1877-1960) and Muḥammad Iqbal (1877-1938) constructed their prophetologies in light of ‘aql (reason), but they also considered the mystical and metaphysical sides of prophethood and Prophet Muḥammad as a major component of their prophetologies. Nursi’s and Iqbal’s approaches depict a thought-provoking modus towards nubuwwa (prophethood) in a highly rationalised climate. This paper critically examines Nursi’s and Iqbal’s discussions of the metaphysical dimension of Prophet Muḥammad’s ascension, known as the mi‘rāj. Nursi and Iqbal respond to the rationalists using ‘aql and kashf (spiritual unveiling) without compromising spirituality. Their choice of genre, methods and arguments in defending the spiritual dimensions of mi‘rāj, as a second aspect, of nubuwwa will be examined. This paper highlights the creative use and interplay of rational and metaphysics in Nursi’s and Iqbal’s works (particularly Ayat al-Kubra and Javidnama) as a way to respond to a rationalised climate, ...

Said Nursi (1877-1960) and Muḥammad Iqbal (1877-1938) constructed their prophetologies in light of ‘aql (reason), but they also considered the mystical and metaphysical sides of prophethood and Prophet Muḥammad as a major component of their prophetologies. Nursi’s and Iqbal’s approaches depict a thought-provoking modus towards nubuwwa (prophethood) in a highly rationalised climate. This paper critically examines Nursi’s and Iqbal’s discussions of the metaphysical dimension of Prophet Muḥammad’s ascension, known as the mi‘rāj. Nursi and Iqbal respond to the rationalists using ‘aql and kashf (spiritual unveiling) without compromising spirituality. Their choice of genre, methods and arguments in defending the spiritual dimensions of mi‘rāj, as a second aspect, of nubuwwa will be examined. This paper highlights the creative use and interplay of rational and metaphysics in Nursi’s and Iqbal’s works (particularly Ayat al-Kubra and Javidnama) as a way to respond to a rationalised climate, ...

In the current world context, a complex series of questions and dilemmas have been left forthe scholars of the great Islamic discipline of Shari‘a – Islamic law. Many scholarlydebates centre upon the issue of Shari‘a and its place within the modern secular state.Since the gradual decline of the last Islamic empires in the 19th and 20th century and theadvent of modernisation, many institutions, practices and key structures within the worldof Islam were largely destroyed and damaged. One such institution was that of the Shari‘a.Ever since its demise, one way or another, the Islamic world has been trying to reconstructitself and its institutions.

The language of trauma has been used by many to explain what happens to individuals and to the collectivities to which they belong. Some of these traumatic experiences stem from interpersonal violence, such as sexual and physical abuse or domestic violence. Others may stem from witnessing interpersonal violence and victimisation, such as witnessing or being a victim of a serious accident, war, a terror attack, or experiencing the loss of a loved one. Regardless of its cause, trauma, whether individualistic or collective, arises from the experience of pain and suffering post ‘an extraordinary event’ so disruptive that it triggers an emotional response and public attention. This chapter will situate the experiences of trauma felt by the surviving Muslim women victims of the Christchurch terror attack that occurred on March 15, 2019, within the scope of collective trauma theory. We do this by examining two types of collective trauma unique to the Christchurch experience: collective tra...

The evolution of Australian immigration policies led to the development of two key phases in the 20th century that changed the entry and settlement of Muslim migrants to Australia. Besides the phasing out of the White Australia Policy, the overlooked impact of the Colombo Plan and its correlation with the Muslim Youth Movement of Australia has not yet been considered. Moreover, the role of international students in universities led to the formation of Muslim student associations across Australian campuses from the 1960s. These associations and societies provided ground-breaking opportunities and safe spaces for the upward mobility, activism and communal development of their members. While the newly arrived Muslims were trying to find means to settle and lay the foundations of their communal life, the university associations were advancing into amalgamated national bodies, which through their activities soon became a referential establishment in national and international relations. ...

The evolution of Australian immigration policies led to the development of two key phases in the 20th century that changed the entry and settlement of Muslim migrants to Australia. Besides the phasing out of the White Australia Policy, the overlooked impact of the Colombo Plan and its correlation with the Muslim Youth Movement of Australia has not yet been considered. Moreover, the role of international students in universities led to the formation of Muslim student associations across Australian campuses from the 1960s. These associations and societies provided ground-breaking opportunities and safe spaces for the upward mobility, activism and communal development of their members. While the newly arrived Muslims were trying to find means to settle and lay the foundations of their communal life, the university associations were advancing into amalgamated national bodies, which through their activities soon became a referential establishment in national and international relations. This article traces the foundations and development of Muslim student associations in Australia, which shed light onto the Islamic revival euphoria that was prevalent at the time. This subsequently encouraged the Islamisation of the student associations as they became more focused on Islamic activism that contributed to the creation of the Australian ummah.

Said Nursi (1877-1960) and Muḥammad Iqbal (1877-1938) constructed their prophetologies in light of 'aql (reason), but they also considered the mystical and metaphysical sides of prophethood and Prophet Muḥammad as a major component of their prophetologies. Nursi's and Iqbal's approaches depict a thought-provoking modus towards nubuwwa (prophethood) in a highly rationalised climate. This paper critically examines Nursi's and Iqbal's discussions of the metaphysical dimension of Prophet Muḥammad's ascension, known as the mi'rāj. Nursi and Iqbal respond to the rationalists using 'aql and kashf (spiritual unveiling) without compromising spirituality. Their choice of genre, methods and arguments in defending the spiritual dimensions of mi'rāj, as a second aspect, of nubuwwa will be examined. This paper highlights the creative use and interplay of rational and metaphysics in Nursi's and Iqbal's works (particularly Ayat al-Kubra and Javidnama) as a way to respond to a rationalised climate, but also to retain the spiritual aspects of their faith and mi'rāj in their writings. Both saw the limitations of 'aql and therefore relied on the kashf of the literature and poetry to communicate their thoughts. Nursi's and Iqbal's discussions on the mi'rāj not only depict their contribution to the metaphysical aspects of prophethood, but also illustrate the variance of Muslim scholars' responses to rationalism and prophethood in the 20 th century. The effect of Nursi's and Iqbal's contributions to the continuation of a belief and tradition of Islamic faith is staggering proof of their intellectual and spiritual capacity to defend an aspect of faith with 'aql and kashf, and appeal to the heart and spirit.

The two great thinkers of Western Asia/Anatolia and South Asia, Said Nursi (CE 1877-1960) and Muhammad Iqbal (CE1877-1938) revisited the role and function of prophethood in the last century. In fact, it was in the agenda of the reform movement of their predecessors Muhammad Abduh (CE 1849-1905) and Rashid Ridda (CE 1838-1897). In a rapid world of change and emergence of modernity, ideologies of secularism, materialist thought and the essential nature and role of religion in society were in question. According to Islamic tradition, at the heart of any ‘change’ lies a great leader or champion of change – prophets of God. Therefore, after the Qur’an and God’s Oneness (tawhid) prophethood (nubuwwa) was sought to be re-affirmed by Muslim theologians as ‘agents of change’ or ‘role models’ that would be the ‘agency’ for change or the ‘pillar’ of continuity in society. To this effect the various aspects of prophethood and the Prophet Muhammad became important in the 21st century, in particular, the prophetology of Nursi and Iqbal. For this reason a comparative study of their views of prophethood, due to their subjective relatedness - as an important concept at the heart of theological reform in the 20th century, as well as the primacy each gave in their respective works, addresses, sermons, articles and personal letters, is significant.

In the current world context, a complex series of questions and dilemmas have been left for the scholars of the great Islamic discipline of Shari‘a – Islamic law. Many scholarly debates centre upon the issue of Shari‘a and its place within the modern secular state.
Since the gradual decline of the last Islamic empires in the 19th and 20th century and the advent of modernisation, many institutions, practices and key structures within the world of Islam were largely destroyed and damaged. One such institution was that of the Shari‘a. Ever since its demise, one way or another, the Islamic world has been trying to reconstruct itself and its institutions. 
Shari‘a is also a ‘hot topic’ for many Islamic states, Muslims and Islamists around the world . Due to the poor socio-political, as well as economical, state of many Muslim nation states, together with widespread bigotry and a decline in basic understanding and knowledge of the essentials of Islam within those states around the globe today , many people are unaware of the parameters and horizons within the Islamic tradition. Therefore, the masses are easily swayed and influenced by social engineers who care little for the actual Shari‘a and its great methodology and rich tradition within the world of Islam and merely use it to achieve their desired ranks within the political structures of their countries .
Furthermore, the Shari‘a card has been used and abused in Muslim majority countries, such as Turkey, by the ruling ‘oligarchy’ to ensure resistance to every positive change and even fundamental freedoms by claiming that these changes will pave the way for a Shari‘a regime . Thus, Turkey’s “McCarthyist oligarchy” has been using the pretext of a Shari‘a regime threat and accuse every dissident to their regime of being either members of secret Shari‘a gangs or their supporters .
Amidst this convoluted understanding and projection of Shari‘a today, within its reductionist form that has even subjected scholarly debates and discussions to Hudud based Shari‘a , it is evident that neither the Muslim nor non-Muslim understanding of Shari‘a is balanced. The balance in the understanding and projection of Shari‘a as an external machination to govern Muslim society deemed ‘Divine’ is often misconstrued and does not take into account the ‘rich’ and ‘spiritual’ understandings of Shari‘a . The current discussions on Shari‘a are often too simplistic and do not project a comprehensive understanding of Shari‘a consistent with the rich tradition of Islam, therefore it requires a broader reading of the concept.
Additionally, in contemporary times Muslims have a problem with the concept of Shari‘a: the religious see Shari‘a of the Quran only and think that this conflicts with the laws of nature. This has resulted in the Muslims being reductionist in many ways and not delving into other areas of knowledge as they did in the past. Therefore, it is imperative to explore the ontological and theological understanding of Shari‘a as expounded by a traditional Muslim scholar in the twentieth century  to create a balanced awareness and comprehension of the topic both within academic circles as well as the Muslim world.

ABSTRACT
The theological notion of Prophethood (nubuwwa) and the Prophet Muḥammad has been subjected to an intense theoretical enquiry since the Enlightenment. The emphasis on rational thought and reason (ʿaql) was prevalent in this period. While some scholars focused on tradition (naql), a number of others focused on reason (ʿaql). Said Nursi and
Muhammad Iqbal engaged both ʿaql and naql in their prophetologies, orientating more towards reason (‘aql). This thesis argues that the prophetologies of the modernist Muslims were lacking the balance of the metaphysical with that of the rational. In contrast, Said Nursi and Muhammad Iqbal retained this balance in their prophetologies by including the metaphysical aspects of prophethood. Through a textual analysis of the major writings of Said Nursi and Muhammad Iqbal, this thesis explores two unique responses to this theological dilemma in the modern era, and highlights the similarities and differences of their prophetologies in contrast to their modernist contemporaries.