Raymond Crozier
Cardiff University, Cardiff School of Social Sciences, Department Member
- Psychologist, Honorary Professor School of Social Sciences, Cardiff University, UKedit
The implications of variation in skin pigmentation for the blush have attracted discussion for centuries. Two long-standing positions are identified. First, the blush has been identified with shame, giving rise to claims that because... more
The implications of variation in skin pigmentation for the blush have attracted discussion for centuries. Two long-standing positions are identified. First, the blush has been identified with shame, giving rise to claims that because people with dark skin do not blush they do not have the capacity to experience shame. Second, the meaning of a visible blush can be ambiguous. A review of more recent theorizing and empirical research suggests that people blush whatever their level of pigmentation; the blush tends to be associated with embarrassment rather than shame; it serves both intraindividual and communicative functions. Nevertheless, there has been little systematic investigation into the impact of the relative discernibility of the blush on emotional experience or its functions.
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The study examined the influence of conditions of test administration upon shy children's performance on tests of vocabulary. Prior research had established that shy children differ from their peers not only in their use of language... more
The study examined the influence of conditions of test administration upon shy children's performance on tests of vocabulary. Prior research had established that shy children differ from their peers not only in their use of language in routine social encounters, but also in formal assessments of their language development, including psychometric tests of vocabulary. This has been interpreted in terms of deficits in shy children's communicative competence. An alternative hypothesis is that shy children are more anxious when tested. The two hypotheses were tested within a sample of 9-10 year-olds by examining children's performance when they undertook tests either individually with an examiner or among their peers within the familiar classroom setting. Care was taken to remedy some shortcomings in the design of previous studies, for example in the identification of shy children. Shy children performed significantly more poorly in the individual condition relative to the gr...
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ABSTRACT Shyness is a widespread reaction to social situations, characterized by inaction, self-consciousness, and heightened physiological reaction. Two explanations of this pattern have been proposed, in terms of a primary emotion... more
ABSTRACT Shyness is a widespread reaction to social situations, characterized by inaction, self-consciousness, and heightened physiological reaction. Two explanations of this pattern have been proposed, in terms of a primary emotion related to shame or as a form of social anxiety. These positions lead to different predictions, but have attracted little investigation. Explanations of individual differences in shyness have emphasized either social skill deficits or low self-esteem, but these are not supported by empirical evidence. It is argued that an explanation in terms of self-attentional processes accounts for current findings, leads to original predictions, and relates shyness more closely to social psychological principles.
We all know what it's like to feel shy: our confidence fails us and we're left tongue-tied or embarrassed. For many the problem can escalate, leaving them feeling isolated and unhappy, unable to live their lives to the full. In... more
We all know what it's like to feel shy: our confidence fails us and we're left tongue-tied or embarrassed. For many the problem can escalate, leaving them feeling isolated and unhappy, unable to live their lives to the full. In this comprehensive and practical guide, psychologists Crozier and Alden explore shyness in all its forms, helping readers understand how it begins and escalates. They also offer a range of effective, easy-to-use strategies for coping with this common problem, including advice on: • The different causes of shyness • Strategies for overcoming Social Anxiety Disorder • The range of treatment and support options available • Benefits of Cognitive Behavioural Therapy With real-life examples, and a full list of support organizations and web groups, this is essential reading for anyone trying to understand their own shyness or the social anxieties of those around them. Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy (CBT) offers practical and effective strategies for dealing w...
ABSTRACT Colour preferences have both scientific significance and relevance to manufacturers. Despite claims that these preferences are unsystematic and that saturation and brightness exert more influence on judgements than hue, a... more
ABSTRACT Colour preferences have both scientific significance and relevance to manufacturers. Despite claims that these preferences are unsystematic and that saturation and brightness exert more influence on judgements than hue, a substantial body of research suggests that the rank order of preference for hues - blue, red, green, violet, orange, yellow - emerges with some degree of consistency and, in particular, blue is regularly preferred to other hues. Five explanations of this trend are considered: preferences are simply conventional; blue is more neutral and less susceptible to extremes of judgement than other hues; preference for blue is a by-product of more general principles; blue has largely positive associations; blue has an evolutionary significance. It is proposed that further investigation of the connotations of hues will provide insight into the pattern of colour preferences.
Research Interests: Psychology and Colour
Examination of a number of major studies of personality questionnaires reveals the existence of a shyness factor which is related to but separable from both introversion and neuroticism, and which loads on items referring to feeling... more
Examination of a number of major studies of personality questionnaires reveals the existence of a shyness factor which is related to but separable from both introversion and neuroticism, and which loads on items referring to feeling uncomfortable and self-conscious, and keeping in the background in certain kinds of social situations. The fears that are generally expressed about social situations--of being negatively evaluated and of being socially inadequate--are reflected in subjects' descriptions of the causes of shyness, and these findings suggest a model of shyness in terms of individual differences in susceptibility to threat.
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ABSTRACT Questions about the relation between shame and embarrassment are often posed in discussion of emotion but have rarely been examined at length. In this study I assemble and examine distinctions that have been proposed in the... more
ABSTRACT Questions about the relation between shame and embarrassment are often posed in discussion of emotion but have rarely been examined at length. In this study I assemble and examine distinctions that have been proposed in the literature with the aim of identifying the criteria that have been used to differentiate shame and embarrassment. Relevant empirical studies are also reviewed. Despite the attention paid to the question of the difference between shame and embarrassment consensus on differentiating criteria has not been reached nor has there been consideration of what kind of question is being posed. Three positions that have been adopted are identified and critically evaluated.
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This article presents findings from a questionnaire survey of 136 male students, 62 with dyslexia and 74 without dyslexia, from 17 British higher education institutions. The students with dyslexia reported difficulties with a wide range... more
This article presents findings from a questionnaire survey of 136 male students, 62 with dyslexia and 74 without dyslexia, from 17 British higher education institutions. The students with dyslexia reported difficulties with a wide range of skills and academic tasks, notably note taking, ...
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Theories of shyness have not shown why social anxieties result in reticence and self-consciousness. Conceptualizing shyness as anxious self-preoccupation enables specific predictions to be made about the shy person's reactions to... more
Theories of shyness have not shown why social anxieties result in reticence and self-consciousness. Conceptualizing shyness as anxious self-preoccupation enables specific predictions to be made about the shy person's reactions to evaluative social situations and points to our ignorance about the role of attentional processes in social interaction.
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ABSTRACT A sample of 741 university students completed the Revised Cheek and Buss Shyness scale. Item analysis showed that the scale has sound psychometric properties. There was no gender difference in total shyness scores although there... more
ABSTRACT A sample of 741 university students completed the Revised Cheek and Buss Shyness scale. Item analysis showed that the scale has sound psychometric properties. There was no gender difference in total shyness scores although there were differences on two of the 14 items. A series of confirmatory factor analyses tested the fit of several models of the factor structure of the scale and showed that a two-factor model taking into account differences in the direction of item wording provided a satisfactory and parsimonious fit to the data. The implications of the factor structure for understanding the nature of trait shyness are discussed.
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Verbal-Performance IQ discrepancies on the WAIS have been of much interest to clinical psychologists. They have been related, amongst other things, to different types of brain damage and in studies of the mentally subnormal, to successful... more
Verbal-Performance IQ discrepancies on the WAIS have been of much interest to clinical psychologists. They have been related, amongst other things, to different types of brain damage and in studies of the mentally subnormal, to successful adjustment to the outside world. This paper looks more closely at such discrepancies obtained by patients in a hospital for the mentally subnormal. These discrepancies are found to be both frequent related to Full Scale IQ. The pattern that emerges remains constant if scaled scores are considered or if the subtests are re-arranged according to Cohen's A and B factors. It is argued that these findings imply caution in the use of the discrepancy measure as a diagnostic or predictive indicator in this population.
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Many people are extremely anxious about their blushing and regard it as the cause of their social difficulties rather than as a symptom of them. This paper addresses the belief that there is something inherently unpleasant or unattractive... more
Many people are extremely anxious about their blushing and regard it as the cause of their social difficulties rather than as a symptom of them. This paper addresses the belief that there is something inherently unpleasant or unattractive about blushing. Historical evidence shows that redness of the cheeks has long been regarded as a sign of facial beauty and youth, and transitory changes such as the blush have also been seen in a positive light as an indication of modesty and charm. The blush is an expression of shame and embarrassment and it too can be regarded in positive or negative light depending on the circumstances. What is distinctive about contemporary anxieties about blushing is that perceived personal inadequacies are in themselves reason to be ashamed and embarrassed: there is a vicious circle where a blush is both a sign of, and reason for, self-deprecation. This perception is not a necessary one but reflects current cultural values and this has implications for the treatment of blushing anxieties.
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ABSTRACT Blushing is widely regarded as an expression of embarrassment, and many psychologists argue that it serves to communicate appeasement or an apology. However, embarrassment does not invariably give rise to a blush, which can also... more
ABSTRACT Blushing is widely regarded as an expression of embarrassment, and many psychologists argue that it serves to communicate appeasement or an apology. However, embarrassment does not invariably give rise to a blush, which can also accompany shyness, shame or modesty. In addition, people blush when they are not at fault and have little to apologise for. These observations raise the question why some social predicaments elicit a blush whereas others do not. The paper seeks to identify conditions that will produce blushing and it proposes that a blush is contingent on the exposure of some topic that ought to remain hidden. The connection between a properly hidden topic and a visible reaction can create a predicament or convey information about the blusher, but it is argued that these are not the primary functions of the blush. The proposal is compared with alternative accounts and its implications are examined by means of scrutiny of descriptions of blushing taken largely from literary sources.
Research Interests: Sociology and Psychology
Research Interests: Sociology, Psychology, Emotion, Behavior, Attention, and 6 moreSelf Consciousness, Fiction, Affect, Exhibition, Gene, and Social
... Distinctive features in this sample include baldness, wearing a wig, shape of head, hairstyle, eye defect, protruding eyes, large mole on forehead, double chin, large chin, hanging jowls, arrangement of teeth ... Cartoon characters... more
... Distinctive features in this sample include baldness, wearing a wig, shape of head, hairstyle, eye defect, protruding eyes, large mole on forehead, double chin, large chin, hanging jowls, arrangement of teeth ... Cartoon characters and toys include Tintin, Penny Crayon and Barbie. ...
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ABSTRACT A sample of 220 adults responded to a questionnaire on their recollections of name-calling and nicknames while at school. Hurtful names were reported by 141 participants, who described coping with them primarily by means of... more
ABSTRACT A sample of 220 adults responded to a questionnaire on their recollections of name-calling and nicknames while at school. Hurtful names were reported by 141 participants, who described coping with them primarily by means of verbal retaliation or ignoring the names. Participants rarely told teachers and most stated that their school was unhelpful. Although the experience was regarded less negatively over time, this was not the case for those who reported finding the names most hurtful. These participants reported greater effects on all areas of school life and a stronger association of name-calling with physical bullying, and they rated their current feelings about the past experience as more negative. The most common content of names referred to physical appearance, play on the individual's own name, and animals, trends also found in studies of children and in research into teasing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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ABSTRACT Shy and withdrawn behaviours are cause for concern and have attracted contrasting perspectives. On the one hand, they are regarded as predictive of social anxiety disorder and may benefit from intervention; on the other hand,... more
ABSTRACT Shy and withdrawn behaviours are cause for concern and have attracted contrasting perspectives. On the one hand, they are regarded as predictive of social anxiety disorder and may benefit from intervention; on the other hand, there are claims that normal behaviours are being pathologised. Evidence is reviewed which suggests that while they represent a risk factor for social anxiety disorder, these patterns of behaviours are only moderately predictive, the large majority of shy children do not go on to meet diagnostic criteria for social anxiety disorder, nor have adults who meet these criteria necessarily been shy as children. A fruitful approach may be to develop effective social and emotional learning programmes to increase children’s understanding of shyness and to aid identification of children at risk.
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ABSTRACT Differences between shy and non-shy children were found on measures of speech in an assessment situation even when variation in vocabulary scores was statistically controlled. The findings have implications for understanding... more
ABSTRACT Differences between shy and non-shy children were found on measures of speech in an assessment situation even when variation in vocabulary scores was statistically controlled. The findings have implications for understanding shyness and for practice in assessing shy children.
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ABSTRACT Izard (1971) and Tomkins (1963) argue that facial displays can be used to classify the primary emotions, and they include shame as such an emotion. An investigation of responses to photographs of facial expressions showed that... more
ABSTRACT Izard (1971) and Tomkins (1963) argue that facial displays can be used to classify the primary emotions, and they include shame as such an emotion. An investigation of responses to photographs of facial expressions showed that shame had low identification rates and that subjects had little confidence in their judgements about photographs intended to express shame. The implications of these findings for such classification schemes are discussed.
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ABSTRACT This study drew on biographical and bibliographical documentary material to investigate individual differences in productivity within a large sample of 20th-century British novelists. Length of literary career predicted the... more
ABSTRACT This study drew on biographical and bibliographical documentary material to investigate individual differences in productivity within a large sample of 20th-century British novelists. Length of literary career predicted the output of both fiction and nonfiction work. Judged literary eminence and gender predicted variation in nonfiction output but not fiction output. However, a substantial proportion of the variance in output could not be explained by career length or the other variables included. Age trends in productivity were similar to those predicted by Simonton 's (1984b) information processing model, but there were differences in the trends of the least and most prolific authors. Consideration of biographical information about individual authors revealed lengthy gaps in the literary careers of the least prolific novelists. The results suggest the need to include both intra-individual factors and social support factors in explaining variation in creative productivity.
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A blushing questionnaire and the Self-Consciousness scale (SCS) were completed by 86 respondents. A measure of the tendency to blush correlated significantly with the Social Anxiety subscale of the SCS, but not with the public and private... more
A blushing questionnaire and the Self-Consciousness scale (SCS) were completed by 86 respondents. A measure of the tendency to blush correlated significantly with the Social Anxiety subscale of the SCS, but not with the public and private subscales. Self-rated tendency to blush was significantly correlated with rated likelihood of blushing in those situations where the individual had some responsibility for an embarrassing incident, but not in situations where others had instigated the incident.
Research Interests: Sociology, Psychology, Cognitive Science, Adolescent, Anxiety, and 9 moreHumans, Female, Male, Shyness, Self Concept, Adult, ANXIETY, blushing, and Personality Inventory
ABSTRACT Hypothesized that global or generalized self-esteem is related to shyness and is mediated by a heightened sensitivity to criticism. In Study 1, 100 undergraduates were administered the Self-Cathexis Scale and the Comrey Shyness... more
ABSTRACT Hypothesized that global or generalized self-esteem is related to shyness and is mediated by a heightened sensitivity to criticism. In Study 1, 100 undergraduates were administered the Self-Cathexis Scale and the Comrey Shyness Scale. In Study 2, 98 Ss completed the Fear Survey Schedule and the Stanford Shyness Survey. Results indicate that shyness was independent of both fear of criticism and aspects of the self-concept not concerned with social effectiveness. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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ABSTRACT The expected value model which includes only the objective pay-offs and probabilities correlates highly with subjects' bids for gambles but not with decision-making behaviour when other dependent variables are considered.... more
ABSTRACT The expected value model which includes only the objective pay-offs and probabilities correlates highly with subjects' bids for gambles but not with decision-making behaviour when other dependent variables are considered. The correlation is affected by changes in the task which emphasize the riskiness of the gambles. It is argued that these results can be accounted for by assuming that subjects formulate simple decision rules when confronted with a difficult, computational task.
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Research Interests: Psychology, Situated Learning, Helping Behavior, Learning, Self Efficacy, and 5 moreHumans, Child, Female, Male, and Goals
ABSTRACT The blush is a ubiquitous yet little understood phenomenon which can be triggered by a number of self-conscious emotions such as shame, embarrassment, shyness, pride and guilt. The field of psychology has seen a recent surge in... more
ABSTRACT The blush is a ubiquitous yet little understood phenomenon which can be triggered by a number of self-conscious emotions such as shame, embarrassment, shyness, pride and guilt. The field of psychology has seen a recent surge in the research of such emotions, yet blushing remains a relatively neglected area. This unique volume brings together leading researchers from a variety of disciplines to review emerging research on the blush, discussing in depth issues that have arisen and stimulating new theorizing to indicate future directions for research. Topics covered include: the psychophysiology of the blush; developmental aspects; measurement issues; its evolutionary significance and the role of similar colour signals in the social life of other species; its relation to embarrassment, shame and social anxiety; and the rationale for, and clinical trials of, interventions to help people suffering from blushing phobia.
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The relationship between shyness and self-esteem was assessed for two samples of children aged 9 to 12 years. Shyness was measured by a new self-report questionnaire based on an elicitation of children's conceptions of shyness.... more
The relationship between shyness and self-esteem was assessed for two samples of children aged 9 to 12 years. Shyness was measured by a new self-report questionnaire based on an elicitation of children's conceptions of shyness. Shyness was significantly correlated with measures of global self-esteem, with external locus of control and with perceived competence across different domains of the self. The relationship among variables were similar to those reported for adolescents and adults. Girls were more shy than boys, and there was a suggestion that 11-year-old children were more shy in secondary than in primary school.