GS 1 Geography Unit 4

Important geographical phenomena

• Orogenesis (mountain formation)
• Earthquakes
• Tsunami
• Volcanic activity

Rf Ralte
Mountains
Nearly 27% of the world’s land surface is covered by mountains.
It is from the mountains that up to 80% of the planet’s fresh surface
water come from.
According to the UN’s Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), about
12% of the world’s population lives in the mountains, but over 50% are
directly or indirectly dependent on mountain resources.
Classification of mountains
Fold Mountains
Block Mountains
Volcanic Mountains
Fold Mountains
Formation- convergent plate boundary
The Himalayas in Asia, the Alps in Europe, the Rockies in North
America, and the Andes in South America are the most prominent fold
mountains of the world.
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Block Mountains

Block Mountains are also formed by the internal or endogenic earth

movements which cause the force of tension and faulting.
The down-lifting or uplifting of land in between two parallel faults
results in the formation of Block Mountains.
A block mountain is also called as Horst and the rift valley formed as a
result of faulting is called Graben.
Examples: The Sierra Nevada in North America, Black Forest Mountains
in Germany etc are typical examples of Block Mountains.
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Volcanic Mountains
The mountains formed by the accumulation of volcanic materials are
called as Volcanic Mountains or Mountains of accumulation.
Examples: Mount Mauna Loa in Hawaii Island, Mount Popa in
Myanmar, Fuji Yama in Japan etc are some examples.
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Significance of Mountains
A storehouse of resources: Mountains are the storehouse of natural resources. Large
resources of minerals like petroleum, coal, limestone are found in mountains. The
mountains are the main source of timber, lac, medical herbs, etc.
Generation of hydro-electricity: Hydro-electricity is mainly generated from the waters of
perennial rivers in the mountains.
An abundant source of water: Perennial rivers arising in the snow-fed or heavily rain-fed
mountains are one of the important sources of water. They help in promoting the irrigation
and provide water for many other purposes.
Formation of fertile plains: The rivers that originate from the high mountain ranges bring
silt along with water to the lower valleys. This helps in the formation of fertile plains and
further the expansion of agriculture and related activities.
Natural political frontiers: The mountains can also act as natural boundaries between the
two countries. They have a prominent role in protecting the country from external threats.
Effects on climate: They serve as a climatic divide between two adjoining regions. The
mountains cause orogenic rainfalls, diversion, and blocking of cold winds, etc.
Tourist centres: The pleasant climate and beautiful sceneries of the mountains have led to
their development as centres of tourist attraction.
Earthquakes
An earthquake is shaking or trembling of the earth’s surface,
caused by the seismic waves or earthquake waves that are
generated due to a sudden movement (sudden release of
energy) in the earth’s crust (shallow-focus earthquakes) or
upper mantle (some shallow-focus and all intermediate and
deep-focus earthquakes).
A seismograph, or seismometer, is an instrument used to
detect and record earthquakes.
Focus and epicentre
The point where the energy is released is called the focus or the
hypocentre of an earthquake.
The point on the surface directly above the focus is called epicentre
(first surface point to experience the earthquake waves).
A line connecting all points on the surface where the intensity is the
same is called an isoseismic line
Mechanism

The abrupt release of energy along a fault (sharp break in the crustal
layer) causes earthquake waves.
Rock layers along a fault tend to move in opposite directions due to the
force excreted on them but are held in place by counteracting frictional
force exerted by the overlying rock strata.
The pressure on the rock layers builds up over a period and overcomes
the frictional force resulting in a sudden movement generating
shockwaves (seismic waves) that travel in all directions.
The point where the energy is released is called the focus or the
hypocentre of an earthquake.
The point on the surface directly above the focus is called epicentre.
An instrument called ‘seismograph’ records the waves reaching the
surface.
Types of Seismic waves or earthquake waves
Primary Waves (P-waves)
Primary waves are called so because they are the fastest among the
seismic waves and hence are recorded first on the seismograph.
P-waves are also called as the
longitudinal waves because the displacement of the medium is in the
same direction as, or the opposite direction to, (parallel to) the
direction of propagation of the wave; or
compressional waves because they produce compression and
rarefaction when travelling through a medium; or
pressure waves because they produce increases and decreases in
pressure in the medium.
P-waves creates density differences in the material leading to stretching
(rarefaction) and squeezing (compression) of the material.
These waves are of relatively high frequency and are the least
destructive among the earthquake waves.
The trembling on the earth’s surface caused due to these waves is in
the up-down direction (vertical).
They can travel in all mediums, and their velocity depends on shear
strength (elasticity) of the medium.
Hence, the velocity of the P-waves in Solids > Liquids > Gases.
P-wave velocity in earthquakes is in the range 5 to 8 km/s.
The precise speed varies according to the region of the Earth’s interior,
from less than 6 km/s in the Earth’s crust to 13.5 km/s in the lower
mantle, and 11 km/s through the inner core.
Why do P-waves travel faster than S-waves?
P-waves are about 1.7 times faster than the S-waves.
P-waves are compression waves that apply a force in the direction of
propagation and hence transmit their energy quite easily through the
medium and thus travel quickly.
On the other hand, S-waves are transverse waves or shear waves
(motion of the medium is perpendicular to the direction of propagation
of the wave) and are hence less easily transmitted through the
medium.
P-waves as an earthquake warning
Advance earthquake warning is possible by detecting the non-
destructive primary waves that travel more quickly through the Earth’s
crust than do the destructive secondary and surface waves.
Depending on the depth of focus of the earthquake, the delay between
the arrival of the P-wave and other destructive waves could be up to
about 60 to 90 seconds (depends of the depth of the focus).
Secondary Waves (S-waves)
Secondary waves (secondary they are recorded second on the
seismograph) or S-waves are also called as transverse waves or shear
waves or distortional waves.
They are analogous to water ripples or light waves.
Transverse waves or shear waves mean that the direction of vibrations
of the particles in the medium is perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of the wave. Hence, they create troughs and crests in the
material through which they pass (they distort the medium).
S-waves arrive at the surface after the P-waves.
S-waves arrive at the surface after the P-waves.
These waves are of high frequency and possess slightly higher
destructive power compared to P-waves.
The trembling on the earth’s surface caused due to these waves is from
side to side (horizontal).
S-waves cannot pass through fluids (liquids and gases) as fluids do not
support shear stresses.
They travel at varying velocities (proportional to shear strength)
through the solid part of the Earth.
Love waves
It’s the fastest surface wave and moves the ground from side-to-side.
Rayleigh waves
Rayleigh wave rolls along the ground just like a wave rolls across a lake
or an ocean.
Because it rolls, it moves the ground up and down and side-to-side in
the same direction that the wave is moving.
Most of the shaking and damage from an earthquake is due to the
Rayleigh wave.
The emergence of Shadow Zone of P-waves
and S-waves
S-waves do not travel through liquids (they are attenuated).
The entire zone beyond 103° does not receive S-waves, and hence this
zone is identified as the shadow zone of S-waves. This observation led
to the discovery of the liquid outer core.
The shadow zone of P-waves appears as a band around the earth
between 103° and 142° away from the epicentre.
This is because P-waves are refracted when they pass through the
transition between the semisolid mantle and the liquid outer core.
However, the seismographs located beyond 142° from the epicentre,
record the arrival of P-waves, but not that of S-waves. This gives clues
about the solid inner core.
Thus, a zone between 103° and 142° from epicentre was identified as
the shadow zone for both the types of waves.
The seismographs located at any distance within 103° from the
epicentre, recorded the arrival of both P and S-waves.
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Causes of Earthquakes
Fault Zones
Plate tectonics
Volcanic activity
Human Induced Earthquakes
Fault Zones
The immediate cause of most shallow earthquakes is the sudden
release of stress along a fault rupture (crack) in the earth’s crust.
Sudden slipping of rock formations along fault rupture in the earth’s
crust happens due to the constant change in volume and density of
rocks due to intense temperature and pressure in the earth’s interior.
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Plate tectonics
Slipping of land along the faultline along convergent, divergent and
transform boundaries cause earthquakes.
Human Induced Earthquakes

Human Induced Earthquakes refers to typically minor earthquakes and

tremors that are caused by human activity like mining, large scale
petroleum extraction, artificial lakes (reservoirs), nuclear tests etc.
Reservoir-induced seismicity
The pressure offered by a column of water in a large and deep artificial
lake alter stresses along an existing fault or fracture. Also, the
percolation of water weakens the soil structure and lubricates the
faults.
Loading and unloading of water can significantly change the stress.
This significant change in stress can lead to a sudden movement along
the fault or fracture, resulting in an earthquake.
The 6.3 magnitude 1967 Koynanagar earthquake occurred near the
Koyna Dam reservoir in Maharashtra and claimed more than 150 lives.
There have been several earthquakes of smaller magnitude since then.
Some geologists believe that the earthquake was due to reservoir-
triggered seismic activity.
The 2008 Sichuan earthquake, which caused approximately 68,000
deaths, is another possible example. It is believed that the
construction and filling of the Zipingpu Dam may have triggered the
earthquake.
Wadati–Benioff zone: Earthquakes along the
Convergent boundary
Wadati–Benioff zone: Earthquakes along the Convergent boundary
Wadati Benioff zone is a zone of subduction along which earthquakes
are common. The most powerful earthquakes occur along this zone
(most powerful earthquakes occur along the convergent boundary).
Differential motion along the zone produces numerous earthquakes,
the foci of which may be as deep as about 700 kilometres.
Wadati–Benioff zones can be produced by slip along the subduction
thrust fault
Distribution of Earthquakes
Earth’s major earthquakes occur mainly in belts coinciding with the
margins of tectonic plates.
The most important earthquake belt is the Circum-Pacific Belt which
affects many populated coastal regions around the Pacific Ocean—for
example, those of New Zealand, New Guinea, Japan, the Aleutian
Islands, Alaska, and the western coasts of North and South America.
Because at many places the Circum-Pacific Belt is associated with
volcanic activity, it has been popularly dubbed the “Pacific Ring of Fire.”
The Pacific Ring of Fire accounts for about 68 per cent of all
earthquakes.
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Tsunamis
A tsunami is a series of massive waves produced by an underwater
disturbance typically linked to earthquakes that happen beneath or
close to the ocean. The Japanese words "tsu" (which means harbour)
and "nami" (which means wave) make up the word "tsunami".
Unlike normal waves, which are caused by the wind and have short
wavelengths, tsunamis are caused by geological events, such as
earthquakes, underwater volcanic eruptions, landslides, or even
asteroid impacts. They have extremely long wavelengths and can travel
at high speeds across ocean basins.
How Does a Tsunami Occur?
A sudden geological event, such as an earthquake or volcanic eruption,
displaces a large amount of water and sets off a series of waves. In the
open ocean, these waves spread rapidly across vast distances. Due to
their long wavelengths, they may go unnoticed, even by ships.
As the waves reach shallow coastal waters, they slow down due to
friction with the seafloor. This compression causes the wave height to
increase dramatically.
The powerful waves crash onto the shore, often causing massive
flooding. The water eventually withdraws, only for subsequent waves
to strike, causing repeated surges and destruction.
Tsunami Causes
• Earthquakes

Tsunamis are caused by movements along fault zones at plate

boundaries—areas where tectonic plates interact. Subduction zones,
where one plate slides beneath another, produce the strongest
earthquakes. For a tsunami, an earthquake must be under the ocean,
shallow (under 70 km deep), have a magnitude above 6.5, and trigger
vertical seafloor movement.
Landslides
• A landslide near the coast can push a lot of water into the water,
disturb it, and cause a tsunami. When the material loosened by the
landslide moves violently and pushes the water in front of it,
underwater landslides can also cause tsunamis.
• Volcanic Eruption
• Violent eruptions caused by volcanoes, though rare, can trigger
destructive tsunamis by displacing large volumes of water. The 1883
Krakatoa eruption caused massive waves up to 135 feet high,
devastating Java and Sumatra, destroying coastal towns, and
claiming 36,417 lives in one of history’s deadliest tsunamis.
Extraterrestrial Collision
Tsunamis caused by asteroid or meteor impacts are extremely rare but
catastrophic. A large asteroid striking an ocean, like the Atlantic, could
displace immense water, creating massive waves capable of destroying
coastal cities and impacting regions as far as the Appalachian
Mountains.
Tsunami Risk Zones
All oceanic regions of the world can experience tsunamis, but the
Pacific Ocean and its marginal seas experience much more frequent
large, destructive tsunamis because of the many large earthquakes
along its margins.
Tsunami Effects
• Loss of Life and Property: The intense force of tsunami waves can
obliterate entire communities, causing significant loss of life and
property. The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami killed over 230,000 people
across multiple countries.
• Disease: In tsunami-affected areas, flooding and contaminated
drinking water can spread disease. Whenever water is stagnant and
contaminated, diseases like malaria can develop. Because it is
difficult for people to maintain good health and treat illnesses,
infections and illnesses can spread quickly, increasing the number of
fatalities.
• Environmental Impacts: Tsunamis not only cause human deaths but
also significantly reduce the number of insects, animals, plants, and
natural resources. They alter the landscape, destroy animal habitats,
and release harmful chemicals into the sea, causing land animals to
drown and aquatic animals to die.
• Cost: The reconstruction and clean-up after a tsunami is a significant
financial burden, involving the replacement of infrastructure,
demolition of unsafe buildings, and clearing of rubbish. The financial
cost of a tsunami could be millions or billions of dollars,
representing a significant portion of a nation's GDP.
Psychological Effects: Psychological issues that affect tsunami victims
frequently last for days, years, or even their entire lives. WHO found
that survivors of the Sri Lankan tsunami in December 2004 had post-
traumatic stress disorder (PTSD); 14% to 39% of these were children.
Volcanoes
Volcanoes are the geological structures that form when magma from
within the Earth’s upper mantle works its way to the surface.

The molten rock, called lava when it reaches the Earth’s surface, along
with ash, gases, and rock fragments, can erupt through the vent of the
volcano.
This entire process is known as volcanism.
The type of eruption, whether explosive or effusive, is largely
dependent on the composition of the magma, the amount of gas
contained within it, and the structure of the volcano.
CAUSES OF VOLCANISM
PLATE TECTONICS- The temperature differences and convection
currents in the Earth’s mantle are indeed responsible for the movement
of tectonic plates.
At divergent boundaries, where plates move apart, magma from the
mantle can rise to the surface, creating volcanic activity. This often
results in fissure-type volcanoes or mid-ocean ridges.
At convergent boundaries, where plates move toward each other, one
plate can be forced beneath the other in a process called subduction.
This subduction can create intense pressure and heat, causing the
subducted plate to partially melt and form magma. This magma can
eventually make its way to the surface, leading to explosive volcanic
eruptions, often associated with volcanic arcs.
The relationship between plate tectonics and volcanic activity is a
fundamental concept in earth sciences and helps us understand the
distribution of volcanoes and earthquakes around the world.
DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANOES
The majority of volcanic activity and earthquakes are concentrated
along converging plate margins and mid-oceanic ridges.
Approximately 70 percent of earthquakes take place within the Circum-
Pacific belt.
Types of volcanoes on bases of nature of
eruption
Shield volcanoes: These volcanoes have broad, gently sloping sides and
are formed by repeated lava flows. They have a low viscosity lava that
spreads easily and covers large areas. Shield volcanoes are typically not
very explosive and can grow to be quite large.
Composite or stratovolcanoes: These volcanoes have steep sides and
are built up by alternating layers of lava flows and ash deposits. They
are known for their explosive eruptions and can release pyroclastic
material (hot ash, rocks, and gas) during eruptions. Composite
volcanoes often have a conical shape and can be very tall.
Cinder cone volcanoes: These are small, steep-sided volcanoes that are
formed from the accumulation of volcanic fragments called cinders or
scoria. They have a simple cone shape and are usually the result of
short, explosive eruptions. Cinder cone volcanoes are typically not very
large in size.
Lava domes: These are created when thick lava erupts and accumulates
near the volcanic vent, forming a steep-sided mound. These domes are
a result of slow eruptions with highly viscous lava. They can be found
within the crater of a previous volcanic eruption. While they can have
explosive eruptions like composite volcanoes, the lava from lava domes
usually does not travel far from the vent.
Volcanic Landforms
• Volcanic Cones: Volcanic cones are the most recognizable landforms
associated with volcanoes. They are cone-shaped mountains formed
by the accumulation of erupted materials, such as lava flows, ash,
and pyroclastic deposits. The shape and size of volcanic cones can
vary depending on the eruption style and the type of volcano.

• Craters: Craters are bowl-shaped depressions found at the summit

of many volcanoes. They are formed by explosive eruptions that
remove material from the volcano's summit and create a large,
circular opening. Craters can be relatively small or large, and they
often contain a central vent or a lava dome.
• Calderas: Calderas are enormous volcanic depressions that form when
a volcano collapses after a massive eruption or when the magma
chamber is emptied. Calderas can have diameters ranging from a few
kilometres to tens of kilometres. They often exhibit steep walls and
may contain smaller volcanic cones or lakes within their boundaries.
• Lava Domes: Lava domes are formed when highly viscous lava
accumulates near the volcanic vent. They are characterised by their
steep-sided mounds and can grow slowly over time as successive
eruptions add more lava. Lava domes are commonly associated with
explosive eruptions and can be found within craters or on the flanks of
volcanoes.
Volcanic Islands: Volcanic islands are landforms that emerge from the
ocean floor as a result of volcanic activity. They are formed by a series
of volcanic eruptions that build up layers of lava and volcanic materials.
Over time, these eruptions create an island that may continue to grow
or erode depending on the volcanic activity and erosional forces.
Role of volcanoes in Intrusive rock formations
Intrusive rocks are formed when molten magma rises from deep within
the Earth's crust and solidifies underground. As the magma cools and
crystallises, it forms intrusive rock formations known as intrusions.
These intrusions can take on various shapes and sizes and are classified
into different types based on their specific characteristics.
Batholiths: Batholiths are the largest intrusive rock formations, often
covering vast areas of several hundred square kilometres. They are
composed of coarse-grained igneous rocks, such as granite, and are
typically formed at great depths within the Earth's crust. Batholiths are
often exposed through erosion, creating impressive mountainous
landscapes.
Dikes: Dikes are narrow, vertical or near-vertical intrusions that cut
across pre-existing rock layers. They are usually composed of fine-
grained igneous rocks, such as basalt or diabase. Dikes are formed
when magma is injected into fractures or cracks in the surrounding
rocks and solidifies, creating a wall-like feature
Sills: Sills are horizontal or near-horizontal intrusions that occur
between existing rock layers. They are parallel to the surrounding rock
layers and are often found as tabular bodies. Sills are typically
composed of fine-grained rocks, such as basalt or dolerite, and are
formed when magma is injected along the bedding planes of the host
rock and solidifies.
Laccoliths: Laccoliths are lens-shaped intrusions that cause the
overlying rocks to bulge upwards. They are formed when magma is
injected between layers of sedimentary rock and spreads laterally,
creating a mushroom-like shape. Laccoliths are typically composed of
intermediate to felsic igneous rocks, such as granite or diorite.