Earthquake Engineering Assignment.
Submitted by : Sheikh Mutahar Ajaz
Roll no. : 93
Sec : B
Semester : 5th
To be submitted To: Er Naveed iqbal
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INDEX.
1. Introduction To Earthquakes.
2. Terminology.
3. Classification Of Earthquakes
4. Causes Of Earthquake.
5. Distribution Of Seismicity.
6. Seismic Zones In India.
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Introduction To Earthquakes
E arthquakes are naturally occurring broad-banded vibratory ground motions,
caused by a number of phenomena including tectonic ground motions,
volcanism, landslides, rock bursts, and human made explosions. Of these
various causes, tectonic-related earthquakes are the largest and most
important. These are caused by the fracture and sliding of rock along faults within the
Earth’s crust. A fault is a zone of the earth’s crust within which the two sides have moved
—faults may be hundreds of miles long, from 1 to over 100 miles deep, and not readily
apparent on the ground surface. Earthquakes initiate a number of phenomena or agents,
termed seismic hazards, which can cause significant damage to the built environment—
these include fault rupture, vibratory ground motion(i.e. shaking), inundation (e.g.
tsunami, seiche, dam failure), various kinds of permanent ground failure (e.g.
liquefaction), fire or hazardous materials release. For a given earthquake, any particular
hazard can dominate, and historically each has caused major damage and great loss of
life in specific earthquakes. The expected damage given a specified value of a hazard
parameter is termed vulnerability, and the product of the hazard and the vulnerability
(i.e., the expected damage) is termed the seismic risk. This is often formulated as
E (D) = ∫H E(D|H)p(H) dH
where
H = hazard.
P (·) = refers to probability.
D= damage.
E (D|H) = vulnerability.
E (·) = the Expected value operator.
Note that damage can refer to various parameters of interest, such as casualties,
economic loss, or temporal duration of disruption. It is the goal of the earthquake
specialist to reduce seismic risk. The probability of having a specific level of damage (i.e.,
p(D)= d) is termed the fragility. For most earthquakes, shaking is the dominant and most
widespread agent of damage. Shaking near the actual earthquake rupture lasts only
during the time when the fault ruptures, a process that takes seconds or at most a few
minutes. The seismic waves generated by the rupture propagate long after the
movement on the fault has stopped, however, spanning the globe in about 20 minutes.
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Terminology
Hypocenter: The location of initial radiation of seismic waves (i.e., the first location of
dynamic rupture) is termed the hypocenter.
Epicenter or focus: The projection on the surface of the earth directly above the
hypocenter is termed the epicenter.
Near-field: within one source dimension of the epicenter, where source dimension refers
to the length or width of faulting, whichever is less.
Far-field: Field beyond near-field also termed teleseismic.
Meizoseismal: the area of strong shaking and damage.
Seismic waves: During each earthquake, elastic waves are generated at the focus. These
are called seismic waves and they travel in all the direction with their characteristic
velocities. It is now a well established fact that seismic waves are of two main types :
1. Body waves
2. Surface waves
Body waves: Body waves travel through the interior of the Earth along paths
controlled by the material properties in terms of density and modulus (stiffness).
The density and modulus, in turn, vary according to temperature, composition,
and material phase. This effect resembles the refraction of light waves. Two types
of particle motion result in two types of body waves: Primary and Secondary
waves.
a) The P waves: These are also called primary waves, they are high frequency, short-
wavelength, longitudinal waves which can pass through both solids and liquids. P
waves are pressure waves that travel faster than other waves through the earth to
arrive at seismograph stations first, hence the name "Primary". This produces
relatively small displacements of the ground. P Waves can be reflected and
refracted, and under certain circumstances can change into S-Waves. These are
the fastest of the seismic waves and their velocity, is governed by the relationship :
√ ( λ+ 2 μ )
Vp =
ρ
Where λ and μ are elastic constants related to the rigidity of the medium and ρ is its
density. It is obvious that P waves would travel faster in rigid rocks.
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b) The S waves: These are also called secondary waves, the shear waves, the
transverse waves. These waves are transverse in character, like the light waves, i.e.
Particles vibrate at right angles to the direction of propagation. On the surface of
the Earth, S-Waves are responsible for the sideways displacement. Depending on
the propagational direction, the wave can take on different surface characteristics;
for example, in the case of horizontally polarized S waves, the ground moves
alternately to one side and then the other. S-waves can travel only through solids,
as fluids (liquids and gases) do not support shear stresses. S-waves are slower than
P-waves, and speeds are typically around 60% of that of P-waves in any given
material. Their velocity, is governed by the relationship :
√μ
Vs = ϱ
This is a proven fact with S-waves has helped geologists a lot in understanding the
nature of the core of the earth.
The L-Waves: These are also called long waves, or surface waves because their jolting is
confined mainly to the near surface layers of the earth. These waves are comparatively
sluggish and recorded only after the arrival of the P and the S-waves. They are
responsible for the majority of the building damage caused by earthquakes. The ground
is made to move in a circular motion, causing it to rise and fall as visible waves move
across the ground. Together with secondary effects such as landslides, fires and tsunami
these waves account for the loss of approximately 10,000 lives and over $100 million per
year. In character, the surface waves are of two main types:
a) The Rayleigh Waves Rayleigh waves, also called ground roll, are surface waves
that travel as ripples with motions that are similar to those of waves on the
surface of water (note, however, that the associated particle motion at shallow
depths is retrograde, and that the restoring force in Rayleigh and in other seismic
waves is elastic, not gravitational as for water waves).
b) The love waves Love waves are horizontally polarized shear waves (SH waves),
existing only in the presence of a semi-infinite medium overlain by an upper layer of
finite thickness. They usually travel slightly faster than Rayleigh waves, about 90% of
the S wave velocity, and have the largest amplitude.
In terms of their effects on solid material of crust of the earth, the Rayleigh waves
tend to disturb the horizontal surface into a wavy, zig-zag shape. The love waves,
however, tend to create shearing ruptures.
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Magnitude: It is the term expressing the rating of an earthquake on the basis of
amplitude of the seismic waves recorded as seismograms. In precise terms and as
understood today, the Richter Magnitude is the logarithm to the base 10 of the
maximum seismic wave amplitude recorded on a seismograph at a distance of 100 Km
from the epicenter of a particular earthquake.
Isoseismals: These are hypothetical lines passing through values of same intensity in a
particular earthquake record.
Classification of earthquakes
Earthquakes are classified on a number of basis such as depth of the focus, the cause of
origin, the intensity and the magnitude.
a)Depth of focus as basis. Three classes of earthquakes are recognized on the basis
of depth of focus: shallow, intermediate and deep seated.
In the shallow earthquakes, depth of the focus lies anywhere upto 60 km below
the surface. A great majority of the earthquakes in the past had been of this type.
The intermediate earthquakes originate between 60 and 300 km below the
surface. These are rare in occurrence but their effects are felt over large areas.
The deep seated earthquakes originate between 300 and 700 km, and are very
rare phenomena.
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b) Magnitude as basis. It is customary to mention an earthquake by its
magnitude on Richter scale, such as 7.2 6.3 8.2 and so on. Sometimes earthquakes
are grouped into five classes on the basis of magnitude as follows :
Class Magnitude Class Magnitude
A 7.8 and above D 5.3-6
B 7 – 7.7 E Less than 5.3
C 6-7
Earthquakes of class A are highly destructive whereas those of class E are not of any
significance to engineering structures.
c) Cause of origin as basis. On this basis there are four different types of
earthquakes: Tectonic, volcanic, collapse and explosion.
A tectonic earthquake is one that occurs when the earth's crust breaks due to
geological forces on rocks and adjoining plates that cause physical and chemical
changes.
A volcanic earthquake is any earthquake that results from tectonic forces which
occur in conjunction with volcanic activity.
Collapse earthquakes are small earthquakes in underground caverns and mines
that are caused by seismic waves produced from the explosion of rock on the
surface.
An explosion earthquake is an earthquake that is the result of the detonation of a
nuclear and/or chemical device.
d) Plate Movements as basis. On this there are three main forms and they could
occur on a Convergent Boundary, Divergent Boundary or a Transform Fault.
Convergent boundary: Here, one plate is forced over another plate during
movement creating a thrust fault.
Divergent boundary: Here, plates are forced apart each other, usually forming a
Rift Zone. This kind is common in ocean floors where new floors are created. An
example is the Mid Atlantic Ridge.
Transform fault: Unlike divergent and convergent, the plates here slip by each
other. This is also called Strike-Slip.
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CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKE
The causes that lead to origin and propagation of shock waves through the ground
during an earthquake may be non-tectonic or tectonic in character. Among the non-
tectonic causes, viz induces due to volcanic eruptions, atomic explosions and collapse of
ground need no detailed discussions as these could be easily observed and confirmed.
Thus it is a well-established fact that areas around active volcanoes actually shudder
during the forceful eruption of lava from the volcano in fact in some cases, the volcanic
eruption itself may be of an explosive, blasting nature. Huge quantity of lava are thrown
out suddenly under great pressure and with a big bang, causing tremors all around
volcanic earthquakes, as these are called, are rarely felt outside the regions of active
volcanoes.
The collapse earthquakes are invariably of a local nature, and rare occurrence. These
are caused when a portion of ground collapses suddenly because of removal of support
from below to natural processes of rock wastage. Similarly quite severe local tremors
may be caused by landslides or rock bursts, especially in hilly terrain.
The tectonic earthquakes are the most common and often the most destructive events
the exact cause of origin is as yet not fully established. It is broadly agreed that these are
caused due to displacement of blocks along fractures called faults and that the focus of
an earthquake indicates the depth at which this displacement originates many theories
have been put forward from time to time to explain rupture and consequent generation
of earthquake vibrations. The Elastic Rebound Theory is widely accepted for explaining
the cause of earthquakes.
According to this theory, tectonic earthquakes result from motion between a number of
large plates comprising the earth’s crust or lithosphere (about 15 in total). These plates
are driven by the convective motion of the material in the earth’s mantle, which in turn
is driven by heat generated at the earth’s core. Relative plate motion at the fault
interface is constrained by friction and/or asperities (areas of interlocking due to
protrusions in the fault surfaces). However, strain energy accumulates in the plates,
eventually overcomes any resistance when it crosses its elastic limit, and causes slip
between the two sides of the fault. This sudden slip is termed elastic rebound.
In accordance with the elastic rebound theory earthquake mechanism may be
summarized into three phases viz:
First, the preparatory phase, in which a non-hydrostatic stress field is created in a
certain region around a fault: the duration of the preparatory phase is to ultimately
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define the size of the actual earthquake. A number of foreshocks are often recorded
during this phase.
Second, the rupture phase, during which rupture takes place along the fault and all of
the stored elastic energy is released as seismic waves and also transformed into heat or
strain energy. Main shock is the characteristic of this phase.
Third, the post failure adjustment, during which the medium is restored to a state of
equilibrium involving series of aftershocks which are simply manifestation of release of
residual strain from the rocks. These aftershocks are often recorded for many months
from the time of occurrence of the main shock. In fact the relationship between the
behavior of ground during foreshock and main shock, and also between main shock and
aftershock as reflected in seismic records presents interesting clues about the
mechanism of earthquakes.
Reservoir Associated Earthquakes.
When a dam is built and the reservoir filled with water, the amount of pressure exerted
on the earth in that area changes dramatically. When the water level of a reservoir is
raised, pressure on the underlying ground increases; when the water level is lowered,
the pressure decreases. This fluctuation can stress the delicate balance between tectonic
plates beneath the surface, possibly causing them to shift.
Another factor is the water itself. When the water pressure increases, more of it is forced
into the ground, filling cracks and crevices. All of this water pressure can expand those
cracks and even create new, tiny ones in the rock, causing greater instability below
ground. What's more dangerous, as the water sinks deeper, it can act as sort of a
lubricant for rock plates that are being held in place by friction alone. The lubrication can
cause those plates to slip.
Distribution of Seismicity.
According to a moderate estimate about 30,000 earthquakes occur every year. But
most of these are so slight that we cannot feel them. There is no visible damage from
them. But every year there are some earthquakes of great intensity and magnitude.
If one of these occurs in a densely populated region, there is damage and
destruction enough to draw people's attention all the world over.
Every year hundreds of earthquakes pass unnoticed because they occur in areas
where there is no possibility of any loss of human life and damage to property.
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Earthquakes have a definite distribution pattern. There are three major belts in
the world which are frequented by earthquakes of varying intensities. These belts are
as under:
1. The Circum-Pacific Belt
2. The Mid-Atlantic Belt
3. The Mid-Continental Belt
1. The Circum-Pacific Belt:
This belt is located around the coast of the Pacific Ocean. In this belt the
earthquakes originate mostly beneath the ocean floor near the coast. The Circum-
Pacific Belt represents the convergent plate boundaries where the most widespread
and intense earthquakes occur.
This belt runs from Alaska to Kurile, Japan, Mariana and the Philippine trenches.
Beyond this, it bifurcates into two branches. One branch going towards the
Indonesian trench and the other towards the Kermac-Tonga trench to the northwest
of New Zealand.
This belt is located on the western side of the Pacific Ocean. On the eastern side
of the Pacific Ocean, the earthquake belt runs parallel to the west coast of North
America and moves on towards the South along the Peru and Chile trench lying on
the west coast of South America.
This belt has about 66 percent of the total earthquake that are recorded in the
world. Most of the earthquakes occurring in this belt are shallow ones with their
focus about 25 km deep.
It may be pointed out that these belts being the zones of convergent plate
boundaries (the subduction zones) are isostatically very unstable. Japan alone
experiences about 1500 earthquakes per year.
2. The Mid-Atlantic Belt:
This belt is characterized by the sea floor spreading which is the main cause of the
occurrence of earthquakes in it. This earthquake belt runs along the mid- oceanic
ridges and the other ridges in the Atlantic Ocean.
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In this belt most of the earthquakes are of moderate to mild intensity. Their foci
are generally less than 70 km deep. Since the divergent plates in this belt move in
opposite directions and there is splitting as well, transform faults and fractures are
created.
All this becomes the causative factor for the occurrence of shallow focus
earthquakes of moderate intensity. The sea floor spreading is the main cause for the
occurrence of earthquakes in this belt.
3. The Mid-Continental Belt:
This belt extends along the young folded Alpine mountain system of Europe,
North Africa, through Asia Minor, Caucasia, Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan to the
Himalayan mountain system. This belt continues further to include Tibet, the Pamirs
and the mountains of Tien Shan etc.
The young folded mountain systems of Myanmar, China and eastern Siberia fall in
this belt. This belt happens to be the subduction zone of continental plates. It is in this
belt that the African as well as Indian plates sub-duct below the Eurasian plate.
This Mid- Continental belt is characterized by experiencing about 20 per cent of
the earthquakes in the world. This belt records earthquakes of shallow and
intermediate origin. However, it is true that sometimes earthquakes of great violence
occur in this belt.
This belt forms a great circle approximately east and west around the earth,
through the Mediterranean, Southern Asia, Indonesia and the East Indies, where the
great majority of recorded shocks occur.
It may be pointed out that more than 50 percent of all earthquakes are associated
with the young folded mountains which are said to be still growing.
The Andes, Himalayas and Coast Ranges of the United States are the specific
examples. It is worthwhile to remember that this girdle of young fold mountains has
no correspondence with the line of active volcanoes like the Circum-Pacific
earthquake zone.
There are some regions on the earth's surface which are relatively immune from
violent and vigorous earthquakes. This is so because diastrophism and volcanism are
either absent or only moderately active. But the infrequent occurrence of minor
shocks in such regions is not ruled out. Such shocks may occur due to local causes like
the subterranean movement of imprisoned gases or liquids.
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The most glaring example of the occurrence of minor earthquakes in quite
unexpected places is the Koyna earthquake which shook Koynanagar on September
13 and 14, 1967.
It is believed that the earthquake in this stable area was caused due to the
building of a 103 m-high concrete dam across the Koyna River which impounded a
huge volume of water to form an artificial lake.
The magnitude of the earthquake was 6.5 on the Richter scale. Then again on
December 11, 1967, the most disastrous earthquake occurred in the same area which
affected the whole of western Maharashtra. The zone of maximum intensity of the
shock and its epicenter was in the vicinity of Koynanagar.
The death toll rose to 1000 people, and a large number of people were injured. Its
impact was felt as far north as Ujjain and as far South as Bangalore. Other towns like
Surat, Ahmadabad, Broach and Hyderabad also felt the shock.
Since there was no record of earthquakes in this particular region before 1962, it
was thought that Konya earthquake was caused due to the hydrostatic pressure
exerted by the reservoir. But the recent investigation does not support this view.
Now, the geologists are of the opinion that the shock in this region was the result
of tectonic movement along a north-south axis of weakness in the underlying rocks
buried below the Deccan trap.
Seismic zones in India.
A brief study of the geological history of India would reveal that a great part of this
country has remained unstable and experienced some of the devastating earthquakes.
At the same time some other parts have remained stable since ancient times yielding
no records of earthquakes of any importance. It is possible to divide India on seismic
basis into following zones:
a) Zone of maximum intensity which comprises the northernmost region extending
east to west, all along and inclusive of the chain of Himalayas. Geographically this
zone covers Assam, all the north-eastern states, northern Bihar, upper strips of
Uttar Pradesh, Uttranchal, Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, full regions of Himachal
Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir including Leh, Ladakh. Earthquake frequency
and intensity as also magnitude of earthquakes recorded during past hundred
years in these areas have always been highly damaging involving invariably
considerable loss to life.
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b) Zone of intermediate intensity which covers the regions of Indo-Gigantic basin
and bears the records of moderate earthquake intensity, ranging between VI and
VIII in MM scale. Geographically this zone includes southern flat lands of
Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Bengal,
Orissa, Northern parts of Gujrat and Maharastra. Records show occurrence of
few earthquakes of mild intensity and generally of low damage magnitude.
c) Zone of minimum intensity. The triangular part of India surrounded on the sides
by Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean, has been considered a
stable land since times immemorial, with respect to earthquake incidence. The
only exception that created a sort of seismic puzzle, was the Koya Earthquake
that occurred in the uppermost part of Peninsular India and caused considerable
could be considered an example of seismic activity triggered by reservoir filling
rather than a truly tectonic earthquake.
The above classification makes it evident that every care is required to
introduce additional lateral stiffness in the design of new structures to be situated in
the areas falling in first two zones, more particularly in the northern Himalayan belt
of the country. During the last four decades much attention has been paid in this
direction and eminent scientists and engineers have been busy in evolving well
defined codes for quake resistant construction. Based on these studies and on the
experience of countries facing the some problem, some general precautions are
always are always suggested to be taken in the new construction in seismic regions.
Designers for construction of buildings, dams tunnels, factories and plants, power
stations, storage tanks etc. in these regions are required to take lateral seismic loads
into consideration as per the recommended coefficient values which stand at 0.1 to
0.15 for the zone of the maximum seismic intensity, 0.05 for the zone of
intermediate intensity and 0.01 for the zone of maximum intensity.
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