CAREER CHOICE AND

COUNSELLING

CHAPTER 3
 Chapter 3: Career choice and
counselling
Learning outcomes
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• Differentiate between theories of vocational guidance, career
development and life design
• Discuss the trait-and-factor or person-environment-fit approaches
• Discuss various principles of Holland's theory and the RIASEC model
• Describe the psychological processes that constitute types in Jung's
theory and indicate their relevance to occupational choice
• Explain Dawis and Lofquist's view of how the fit between the individual
and work contributes to work adjustment
• Explain Super's views on self-concepts, career maturity, career
adjustment and life stages
• Discuss the cognitive-behavioural approaches to career decision-making
• Describe the determinants and outcomes of the decision-making process
in Krumboltz's theory
• Explain Lent and Brown's social cognitive model of career self-
management as a theory of adaptive career behaviour.
 Chapter 3: Career choice and counselling

Learning outcomes (continued)

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• Explain how self-efficacy expectations are involved in the differential
career development of men and women in Hackett and Betz's model
• Discuss the life-career theory of Tiedeman, O'Hara and Miller-Tiedeman
• Explain the influence of childhood experiences on career choice and
decision-making as discussed in Bordin's theory
• Explain the role of needs and parent-child relations in Roe's theory
• Discuss the person-in-environment perspective of Cook, Heppner and
O'Brien
• Describe Brown's view of values in career choice
• Describe the contribution of Savickas's career construction theory and
logotherapy to career development counselling in the modern workplace
• Discuss the career diagnostics framework of career services
• Discuss ethical considerations in career counselling.
 Chapter 3: Core Themes
3.2 Trait-and-factor or ❱Parsons’s trait-and-factor Parson’s theory
person-environment-fit theory https://www.careers.govt.nz/resources/career-practice/c
theories: ❱ Holland’s theory of areer-theory-models/parsons-theory/
View the self as personality and occupational Holland's Personality Types
corresponding types https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NI9tVEKXQdQ
to the personality. The ❱ Dawis and Lofquist’s Holland's Person-Environment Theory
purpose of vocational theory of person– https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kSFX0nFm7Cw
guidance is identifying the environment correspondence Theory of Work Adjustment
personality traits ❱ Jung’s theory of https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qjgcQRqPgts
of clients in order to achieve personality types
an optimal fit between clients Carl Jung: Personality Theory
and the work environment https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bP37RUJOzxI

Myers Briggs Personality Types Explained - Which One

Are You?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NXcWZnQPUXw

3.3 Lifespan development ❱ Super’s career Super's theory 001

theories: The self is seen to development theory https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EPG7fa3QqXo
develop and evolve over time
(chronological aging) with Super's Career Theory
the active management of https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WwPjFz8W65o
changing worker and other
life roles across the lifespan SUPER'S THEORY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=izSrqo6Ov3g
 Chapter 4: Core Themes (continued)
4.4 Cognitive–behavioural ❱ Krumboltz’s career Krumboltz
theories and approaches: decision-making theory https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2vYZqXks9OE
Emphasise a change-focused ❱ Lent and Brown’s social
problem-solving approach cognitive theory of career Krumboltz Career Counseling
and the cognitive processes selfmanagement https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x29orv8Q9bU
through which people ❱ Mitchel, Levin and
monitor their career Krumboltz’s Career Development - Social Cognitive Career Theory
behaviour happenstance approach https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ha8eNKPeNAw
theory
❱ Hackett and Betz’s Social Cognitive Career Theory
theory of self-efficacy https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rbvIn5phaGY

Krumboltz Learning & Happenstance Theories

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MZVTMDNn5Fo

Self Efficacy: Its Role and Sources

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wrzzbaomLmc

4.5 Psychodynamic ❱ Bordin’s theory of Personality Development and Change

approaches: Focus on personality development https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nx9HicVPSSk
issues of ego identity, life ❱ Tiedeman, O’Hara and
scripts and life themes Miller-Tiedeman’s life- Career Decision-Making Process
career decision-making https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y6-OHYG0wb8
theory
TIEDEMAN AND O'HARAS CAREER DEVELOPMENT
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0pjzU7n2lH8
 Chapter 3: Core Themes (continued)
3.6 Relational approaches to career ❱ Roe’s theory of Career theory: Ann Roe, needs theory
development: Attend to the parent–child relations https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8JzGHQGQx1c
involvement of parents and families
in the career decision-making of
children, adolescents and adults

3.7 Person-in-environment ❱ Cook, Heppner and Ecological Systems Theory

perspectives: View career and O’Brien’s race/gender https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sKjYDC-3HYY
career development as embedded ecological
in the larger context of social and theory https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aSfPSLBw-Nc
environmental interchange and ❱ Brown’s theory of
relationship values Career Alignment | Why are Values Important to your Career
Choice
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0QKze3yibJY

The Psychology of Career Decisions

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3e6KSaCxcHs

3.8 Postmodern perspectives: ❱ Savickas’s career Career Counseling Episode 3: Career Construction
Believe that individuals construct or construction theory https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jhMiIMYMUt0
perceive their own reality or truth, ❱ Existential career
and that there is no fixed truth. counselling based on What is Logotherapy?
Frankl’s logotherapy https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wEiDM0r7o48

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2aEFXOeupkc

3.9 Career theories in practice Module 1 - Career Theories

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OLz7UJO3Z3U

Career Theories
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=geJlpmAg6wg

3.1 Application of the diagnostic framework for career services

0
Career Counselling: p. 112

• Kidd (2006) defines career counselling as:

A one-to-one interaction between
practitioner(or counsellor) and client, usually
ongoing, involves the application of
psychological theory and a recognised set of
communication skills. The primary focus is
on helping the client make career-related
decisions and deal with career-related
issues.
Core competencies for CDPs in
SA: p. 112-116
• Effective Communication
• Managing stakeholders’
relationships
• Demonstrating ethical behaviour
• Demonstrating professional
behaviour
• Managing diversity
• Using career information effectively
• Delivering an effective career
development service
• Advancing the employability of
clients
• Understanding career developments
• Conducting career assessments
Career • Specialised competencies for CDPs in South Africa:

developme  Career Counselling

 Psychometric Assessment
nt support  Research
services:  Career Development Education

p. 116-119  Recruitment, Selection and Placement

OVERVIEW OF MAJOR CAREER THEORIES

Career theories Example

Trait-and-factor/person- Parson’s trait-and-factor

environment-fit-theories theory
Holland’s theory of
personality and occupational
types
Dawis and Lofquist’s
theory of person-
environment
Life-span development correspondence
theories Jung’s theory of
personality types
Super’s career
development theory
Overview continue-Career theories

Career theories Examples

Cognitive-behavioural Krumboltz’s career

theories and approaches decision-making theory
Lent and Brown’s social
cognitive theory of career
self-management
Hackett and Betz’s theory
of self-efficacy
Mitchel, Levin and
Krumboltz’s happenstance
approach theory
Psychodynamic approaches
Bordin’s theory of
personality development
Tiedeman, O’Hara and
Miller-Tiedeman’s life career
decision-making theory
Overview continue-Theories

Relational-approaches to Roe’s theory of parent-child

career development relations

Cook, Heppner and O’Brien’s

Person-in-environment race/gender ecological theory
perspectives Brown’s theory of values

Savickas’s career construction

theory
Post-modern
Existential career counselling
perspectives based on Frankl’s Logotherapy
Contemporary Paradigms
• Vocational guidance paradigm: Career
counselling generally helps categorise
individual traits and matches them to fitting
occupational settings for optimal congruence.
What occupation should I choose?
• Career development paradigm: Career
counselling generally helps clients develop a
concern about their career futures, control of
the career decision-making process, curiosity
to explore educational and vocational options,
and confidence to make decisions and deal
with career development hurdles. How do I
adapt to life tasks and manage career
transitions through various life-career stages?
• Life design paradigm: Career counselling
generally helps clients reflect on, retell and
grasp the meaningfulness of their life stories
and co-design and innovate their life careers;
clients are coached to construe their lives
holistically and comprehend how they can best
use work to be themselves more completely.
What meaning do I give to work in my life?
 These theories developed from the
1. Trait-and- measurement movement as they focus
on the assessment of the characteristics

factor/perso of both the person and the job.

Trait- refer to characteristics typical of

n-
the individual. Over time, relative
stable, consistent in situations and
provide a basis for measuring,

environmen describing and predicting behavior.

Factor- refer to a construct which

t-fit
represents a group of traits that
correlate with each other or refers to
characteristics required for successful

theories: p. job performance.

The underpinning assumption is that

119-122
individuals have unique patterns of
ability and/or traits that can be
objectively measured and matched with
the requirements of the various types of
jobs.
 Theories underpinned by the Trait-and-
factor/person-environment-fit paradigm

Dawis and
Holland’s
Lofquist’s
theory of
Parson’s trait theory of Jung’s theory
personality
and factor person- of personality
and
theory environment- types
occupational
corresponden
types
ce
Parson’s trait-and
–factor theory
• The approach is aimed at helping young people to make
wise decisions and become employed.
• Consists of a three-pronged approach

Obtaining Integrating
Self-knowledge knowledge about individuals’ traits to
the job the job
Parson’s trait-and –factor theory
(cont’d)
There are some limitations in
The characteristics measured using the instruments
for career guidance are developed around this
approach, namely;
• mental abilities; • reliability and validity of the
• personality characteristics; test;
• interests; and • professional expertise and
• values. orientation of the individual
administering the instrument;
• prevents interaction between
the client and the counsellor;
• instruments underpinned by
this approach are mechanistic
in the sense that man is
reduced to a mere variable;
and
• instruments are viewed as
more static rather than
developmental.
 Holland’s theory of personality and
occupational types (RIASEC model): p.
122-133
• Main assumptions:
• individuals choose situations and environments that
satisfy their personality orientations;
• people search for environments that will help them use
their skills and abilities, express their attitude and values,
and take on agreeable challenges and roles.
• The theory classifies people into six personality types,
namely;
• Realistic (R);
• Investigative (I);
• Artistic(A);
• social(S);
• enterprising (E); and
• conventional (C).
• There are also six modal-occupational orientations in
line with the six-modal-personal orientations.
 Person-Environment Matching
(John Holland)

Conventional Realistic

Enterprising Investigative

Social Artistic
Holland’s Hexagonal model
• The four basic constructs used to provide a holistic
picture of the interaction between an individual's
personality type and the occupational
environment, namely;
• Congruence refers to the compatibility
between a personality type and environment
match;
• Consistency refers to the similarity between
types or environments;
• Differentiation refers to the degree to which
a person or environment is clearly defined;
• Identity refers to the extent to which a person
has a clear and stable perception of their
characteristics, career goals, interests and
talents and the degree of clarity and stability
that an occupational environment provides.
• Coherence of vocational interest profiles
refers to the degree of similarity between
parallel RIASEC profiles in terms of work
activities, competencies and occupational
environments of the individual’s RIASEC score
profiles.
Holland’s Theory
Limitations of the theory

• Notable limitations of the theory are :

• although the theory presents a complex approach to
identifying interactions between individual’s personality and
environments , the results may be misused due to the
simplicity of its application;
• less experienced counsellors may use the results to
recommend clients to a limited number of career choices; and
• personality-environment-fit approaches may not always be
applicable to the availability of jobs in the job market.
Dawis and Lofquist’s Theory of
Person-Environment-Correspondence: p.
134-136
• Main assumption:
• Career development process
is the unfolding of the
individual’s abilities and
requirements, in the
interaction with the
individual’s various
environments;
• Focuses on the “fit” of a
person for a particular work
environment;
• Optimal correspondence
between the person and the
environment will lead to
success and satisfaction.
Central points of the work
adjustment/person-environment
correspondence

Work involves Once both

The two criteria of work
interaction between the requirements of the
adjustment, namely
individual and the work individual and the work
satisfaction and
environment are there environment are met,
satisfactoriness are
are requirements from there is
observed
both parties. correspondence

Structure describes the To predict work

skill and ability of the e adjustment , the
Both satisfaction and
individual, while style individual’s work
satisfactoriness are
refers to the personality and the
essential for tenure of
requirements for work environment must
the individual
celerity, pace, rhythm be described in
and endurance corresponding terms
 Dawis &
Lofquist’s Theory

• In addition to skills, abilities, needs and

values- people have a personality style
and various adjustment behaviours
• Personality style: celerity(speed of
initiating environmental interaction;
pace(activity level of interaction);
rhythm(pattern of interaction) and
endurance(sustainability of interaction).
• Adjustment behaviour: levels of
flexibility (tolerance for non-
correspondence); activeness (actions to
change); reactiveness (activities to
change) and perseverance (tolerance for
non-correspondence before leaving the
situation).
• Satisfaction(the individual with
environment)
• Satisfactoriness(environment with the
individual)
Strengths of the
theory
• The strengths of the theory is that:
1. It is based on empirical
studies;
2. It can be applied in many
issues regarding work
adjustment;
3. The model on which the
theory is based can be used
to assess resistance to
change, flexibility and
perseverance on both the
individual and the
organisation;
4. It can indicate how difficult an
adjustment problem is and
how much adjustment can be
expected.
Jung’s Theory of Personality
Types: p. 136-140

• Use psychological types as a

construct to understand
personality
• Two attitudes: extroversion and
introversion
• Four functions: sensing, intuition,
thinking and feeling
• Psychological processes not equal
in strength and can vary at
different times in live
• Help with certain roles and
situations
 Preference
Dichotomies
Extraversion ENERGY Introv
ersion

Sensing INFORMATION I Ntuition

Thinking DECISIONS Feeling

Judging LIFESTYLE Perceiving

Jung’s Theory and MBTI
Contributions of the measuring
instruments
• Both instruments are useful in the context of vocational
guidance.
• Myers-Briggs Type Indicator :
• is helpful in the 21st-century world of work as it assumes a
developmental component;
• individuals can adapt to new situations using all parts of their
personalities.
• Jung’s personality Questionnaire:
• is useful in selecting a suitable occupation in accordance with
the personality type measured.
 2. Life-Span Development Theories:
p. 141
• Choosing a career or managing career development
involves a continuous process that carries on through life.
• Theories use concepts from developmental psychology
(developmental stages and career maturity).
• The self is seen to develop and evolve over time
(chronological ageing) with the active management of
changing worker and other life roles across the lifespan.
• Theory by Donald Super is most associated with the
developmental approach to careers.
Super’s Career Development
Theory: p. 142-148
• Career development comprises the formation and
implementation of self-concepts in the workplace. There
needs to be synthesis or compromise between the
individuals’ own self-concept and aspects of reality.
• Self-concepts are the individuals’ own view of their personal
characteristics through their interaction with the
environment.
• Synthesis is a learning process where role-playing plays a
part.
• Adjustment refers to the outcomes of behaviour in career
development. Self-concepts can be modified in the process
of adjustment.
• Career maturity refers to a readiness to make career
decisions and to cope with developmental tasks of
particular life stages.
Super’s Career Life Stages
Growth Birth to age -children develop concepts of themselves through
+/- 12-14 contact with adults. Fantasy influences the
development of interests, which through
experience become more realistic.

Exploration Adolescence, age -adolescents try out tentative career choices

+/-14-25 through part-time or holiday work in-order to
explore the chosen field in more depth.

Establishment Early adulthood, -involves a period or trial (changing jobs until a

age +/- 25- 45 final choice is made)and stabilisation (where
advancement and security become a priority)

Maintenance Middle adulthood, -continuation along the established lines in one’s

Age+/- 45- 65 work. This may take the form of either stagnation
or continued education.

Decline Old age, from -as people age, they tend to disengage from their
+/-65 work, selectively changing work roles and seeking
less responsibility.
Life Career Rainbow
 Advancements and Strengths of the
Theory
• There have been various additions to
the theory hence the following two
models:
• The Life-Career Rainbow; and
• The Segmental Model.
• Strengths of the theory include:
• its flexibility in incorporating
cultural variables;
• its acceptability of constructs in
the African context; and
• its emphasis on career
adaptability, where the individual
is ready to cope with the changing
world and changing workplace.
 A segmental model of career development

o le SELF Role
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en
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se epts once f- De
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D ev

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Employment
Achievement practices
Personality Social
policy

Interests

groups
Peer
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Special

market
Labour
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Family
School
Aptitude

Society
Values

nity
Commu
Intellige

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Biographical * Geographical

permission from Super, DE in D Brown, L Brooks and Associates p.200. Copyright 1996, 2001 Jossey-Bass Inc. Publishers, San Frans
3. Cognitive-Behavioural Theories
and Approaches: p. 148

Theories are Theories emphasise: Theories include:

developed from a
behavioural
psychology
perspective. a change-focused Krumboltz’s career
problem-solving decision-making
approach; and theory;
the cognitive Lent and Brown’s
processes through social cognitive theory
which people monitor of career self-
their career behaviour. management
Mitchell, Levin and
Krumboltz’s
happenstance
approach theory; and
Hackett and Betz’s
theory of self-efficacy.
 Krumboltz’s Career Decision-Making
Theory: p. 148-151
• Theory is an application of social learning theory.
• The assumption is that:
• Learning (both instrumental – reinforcements
influence choice and associative – involves
classical conditioning), together with genetic
factors, environmental factors and abilities (task
approach skills), are determinants of the
decision-making process.
• The interaction of these determinants results in
certain outcomes, including actions regarding
career decisions.
• Decision-making determinants:
• genetic endowment; and
• special abilities
• Decision-making outcomes:
• self-observations generalisations (self-efficacy,
interest, likes and dislikes);
• world-view generalisations (observations in
certain environments and
• task approach skills – (refer to any skill or ability
used to cope with the environment).
 • Focuses on the processes
Lent And underlying the adaptive career
behaviour people employ to adjust
Brown’s and thrive in diverse contexts
Social across the lifespan.
• Career self-management is a form
Cognitive of self-regulatory adaptive career
Theory of behaviour and a mechanism of
Career personal agency in that it allows
individuals to take part in their own
Self- career development, adaptation
managem and renewal.
• The model assumes that people are
ent: p. able to assert some measure of
151-153 personal control and agency in
their career development.
Lent and Brown (continued)

• The model outlines proximal and distal mechanisms of

adaptive career behaviours encapsulated in the career
self-management process.
• Proximal mechanisms refer to current cognitive-
personal factors and contextual and personality factors
that serve as input to career self-management.
• Distal mechanisms that influence individuals’ career
self-management capability include people’s gender,
sociocultural background, personality, abilities and
health status, and personal experiences in cumulative
life events or achievements.
Lent and Brown (Continued)

 Proximal antecedents of adaptive career behaviours:

1) Cognitive-person factors involve individuals’ self-efficacy
and their outcome expectations. Career self-management is
supported by two forms of self-regulatory self-efficacy
Coping efficacy (i.e., beliefs about one’s ability to negotiate
specific obstacles)
Process efficacy (describes an individual’s perceived ability to
manage specific tasks necessary for career preparation,
entry, adaptation or change across diverse occupational
paths)

Outcomes expectations (i.e., beliefs about the consequences of

engaging in particular behaviours and courses of action)
influence the willingness of the individuals to attempt and
sustain behaviours.
Lent and Brown (Continued)

2) Contextual and personality factors involve environmental

support conditions, such as social, technological and financial
resources, that enable people to engage in adaptive
behaviours and achieve career goals.
• Distal antecedents and experiential sources of adaptive
career behaviours.
• Distal antecedents of adaptive career self-management
behaviours include person-centred characteristics such as
people’s gender, sociocultural background, personality,
abilities and health status.
• Contextual affordance (eg quality of education and
socioeconomic resources) co-vary with the distal person
characteristics in their influence on cognitive-person adaptive
career behaviours.
 Mitchell, Levin and
Krumboltz’s
Happenstance Approach
Theory: p. 153-154
• The primary assumption is that unpredictable
social factors, environmental conditions and
chance events over the life span must be
recognised as important influences in the clients’
life.
• This approach, therefore, suggests that the
career counsellor assist the client in dealing with
unplanned events in a positive manner.
• There are five critical client skills, namely,
1. Curiosity (exploring learning
opportunities and taking advantage of
options );
2. Persistence (a way of dealing with
obstacles);
3. Flexibility (learning to address a variety
of circumstances and events by adapting
and adjusting as events unfold);
4. Optimism (adapting a positive attitude);
and
5. risk-taking (realising that risk-taking can
result in positive outcomes).
 Hackett and Betz’s Theory of Self-
Efficacy: p. 154-157
• The theory is based on the work of Bandura and Krumboltz, Mitchell
and Jones.
• The importance of self-efficacy is highlighted as the key to career
decisions, focusing on the career development of women.
• Self-efficacy refers to an individuals’ sense of control over events
that affect their lives.
• Women and men differ with regard to their expectations of self-
efficacy.
• Women have low expectations of self-efficacy, resulting in them not
fully realising their potential; assuming lower-paying and lower-
status jobs, low representation in professional fields like engineering
and law, and low representation in management and administration
positions.
 Hackett and Betz’s
Theory of Self-
Efficacy (cont’d)
• The following must be considered in understanding
women’s development of personal efficacy:
• Performance accomplishments- successful performance
in a role increases expectations of efficacy in that
particular role;
• Vicarious learning- refers to learning by observing other
people’s behaviour;
• Emotional arousal- involves anxiety and susceptibility to
stress, which can negatively influence self-efficacy
expectations and performance and
• Verbal persuasion- involves encouragement or lack
thereof from others to engage in career pursuits.
Encouragement may either increase self-efficacy
expectations or decrease self-efficacy expectations.
4. Psychodynamic
Approaches: p. 158

• Theories focus on issues of ego-identity,

life scripts and life themes.
• The approaches are based on internal
structures of motivation and the
constructs of identity, lifestyle, the self
and family systems.
• Theories include:
• Bordin’s theory of personality
development;
• Tiedeman, O’Hara and Miller-Tiedeman’s
lifecareer decision-making theory.
Bordin’s Theory of Personality
Development: p. 158-160
• Childhood experiences are seen as basic to the relation between personality
and work;
• Play is an intrinsically satisfying activity that gives the individual a sense of
wholeness and joy, while in work, play involves the search for a self-satisfying
career;
• In childhood, play is initially spontaneous, but it becomes linked with effort,
making it more intense and complex;
• An individual's experience of compulsion and effort determines the degree to
which play and effort fuse.
• This fusion is influenced by external pressures exerted by parents and other
caretakers.
• If these pressures are coupled with love, the child internalises them as
concepts of conscience, duty and expectations that society has of the
individual.
• Compulsions thus involve the individuals coming to terms with the wishes and
expectations of others.
• However, compulsions may become extreme to the extent that effort
becomes compulsion.
 Bordin’s Theory of Personality Development (2)
 NB to find a match between the person's intrinsic motives determining your lifestyle and
character style and then incorporate with development aspects. (Forms of satisfaction that
individuals seek)
 In earlier references of Bordin _Talk about Freud (3 stages –oral, anal and genital)
 In later assumptions, this is recognized but is more associated with ego development rather
than psychosexual stages.
 The terms indicate the intrinsic motives that influence your lifestyle and character style, which
are incorporated into the individual's work life.
 The intrinsic motives include:
 Curiosity –aspects of law, psychiatry, clinical psychology, medical dentistry and general science
 Precision - aspects of law, as well as in accounting, engineering, or the work of a machinist,
clerk or academic scholar,
 Power – aspects of law, in writing, management, being an athlete, engineer or tractor operator,
 Expressiveness – aspects of law, teaching, the ministry and being an actor, artist or musician,
 Concern about right and wrong – aspects of law, the ministry and the work of a police officer
and
 Nurturance – in the work of a teacher, cook, gardener, paediatrician and other occupations that
involve intimacy (caring for a person)
 The intrinsic motives influence career choice because they form part of the individual's personal
identity. Each person is building a personal identity.
 At some point, aspects of our father/mother are incorporated, but retain aspects that are
unique; this process is on the unconscious level.
 While our parents are key figures who can influence us, other factors such as ethnicity and
cultural and national factors can also play a role in our identity-building.
Tiedeman, O’Hara and Miller-Tiedeman’s
Life- career Decision-making Theory:
p. 160-162
• The theory :
• aims at providing a model for describing
the inner experience in decision-making;
• is based on Erikson’s view that ego-
identity develops over stages in the life
span.
• Ego-identity, in this theory, is viewed as a
self-organising system that develops
through the mechanisms of differentiation
and reintegration.
• Differentiation- allows the individual to
distinguish between themselves and the
environment and separate different aspects
of the self.
• Reintegration- enables the individual to
structure the different aspects of the self
into meaningful whole that contribute to the
wholeness of the self.
Decision-Making Process: p.
161
Differentiation and reintegration
constitute a decision-making process
where new knowledge and experiences
are constantly formed, reformed and
integrated into ego-identity.
The decision-making process is divided
into two phases with various steps as
follows:
Anticipation:
Implementation:
- Exploration
- Induction,
- Crystallisation,
- Reformation, and
- Choice, and
- Reintegration.
- Clarification.
Decision-Making
Process (cont’d)
• An expansion of the theory
includes an incorporation of two
types of realities to the decision-
making process. The two
realities are:
– personal reality; and
– common reality.
• In advancing their careers
individuals must become aware
of the differences between the
realities and must realise the
importance of their personal
reality in decision-making.
5. Relational
Approaches to Career
Development: p. 162

• Concentrate on the involvement of

parents and families in career
decision-making of children,
adolescents and adults.
• Roe’s theory of parent-child relations
uses Maslow’s hierarchy of needs as a
framework for understanding the
relevance of needs to occupational
behaviour.
• Work can satisfy needs in various
ways.
• The parent-child relations determine
the relative strength of needs and the
mode of satisfying them.
 Roe’s Theory of Parent-Child
Relations: p. 162-165
• Roe conceptualised three parental
behaviours in the parent-child
relationship resulting in basic
orientations, namely:
• emotional concentration on the child;
• avoidance of the child; and
• acceptance of the child.
• Roe further developed a classification
system consisting of eight occupational
groups,
Roe’s Classification System

The nature and order of the Levels of difficulty and

occupational groups responsibility required in the
occupations

Service Professional and managerial I

Business contact Professional and managerial II

Organisation Semi-professional and small business

Technology Skilled

Outdoors Semi-skilled

Science unskilled

General culture

Arts and entertainment

6. Person-in-Environment
Perspectives: p. 165
• View career and career
development as embedded
in the larger context of
social and environmental
interaction and
relationship.
• The focus is on contextual
interaction over the life-
span.
• Career counselling
procedures attempt to
uncover both internal and
external variables that
contribute to career
development.
 Cook, Heppner and O’Brien’s
Race/Gender Ecological Theory: P. 166

• The model argues that everyone has both a gender and a race and that
these factors decisively shape the individual’s career throughout life. They
also encounter opportunities and obstacles because of their race and
gender.
• Career behaviour is an “act-in-context” where the context is essential in
the explanation and meaningfulness of the individual’s behaviour.
• There are four systems making up the environment, namely, the
microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and the macrosystem.
• Career behaviour, therefore, is determined by the interrelationship
between the four subsystems of the larger ecosystem.
• The focus, therefore, of the career counsellor is on changing the
individual’s interactions with the environment.
Brown’s Theory of Values: p. 167

This model of career development stresses the

importance of values in career decision-making.
Values incorporate cognitive, affective and
behavioural components and serve as standards
by which individuals evaluate their own actions
and those of others.
The central argument is that individuals function
holistically; therefore, the career counsellor needs
to incorporate the interactions of various life roles
in the whole life space.
 Brown’s theory of values (cont’d)

The model is based on six propositions, namely:

1.values in the value system are acquired from society;
2.values with high priorities are the most important determinants of life
role choices;
3.culture, gender, socio-economic status, opportunities and social
interaction influence the development of values;
4.life roles that satisfy all prioritised values are essential to life satisfaction;
5.the significance of a role is determined by the degree to which it is
expected to satisfy prioritised values; and
6.success in any role depends on the abilities and aptitudes required to
perform the function of the role.
Post-Modern
Perspectives: P. 167
Perspectives are underpinned by the belief
that individuals construct or perceive their
own reality or truth and that there is no fixed
truth (constructivism).
Focus is on the subjective experience of their
career development and individuals are seen
as agents of their careers, which is in line with
the assumption of constructivist who focus on
how the individuals think and how they
process what they learn.
Career counsellors using this perspective
focus on both the meaning that their clients
give to their problems and see problems as
meaningful options that are no longer helpful.
Savakis's career construction theory and
Frankl’s Logo therapy
Savickas’s Career
Construction Theory: p.
168-177
• Career construction theory argues that
individuals construct their careers by
attaching meaning to their vocational
behaviour and occupational experiences.
• Career represents a subjective construction
that imposes personal meaning on past
memories, present experiences, and future
aspirations by using a life theme that patterns
the individual’s work life.
• Career counsellors using career construction
theory to listen to client’s narratives for:
• life structure issues;
• vocational personality style;
• career adaptability; and
• thematic life stories/life themes.
Frankl’s Theory of Existential
Guidance (Logotherapy): p.
177-178

• Existential guidance (based on principles of

logotherapy) is used to help clients recognise the
role of the human spirit in finding meaning in life.
• Career counsellors, therefore, help clients to find
meaning in their lives and efforts and guide them in
advancing their human dignity and discovering life’s
meaning and purpose.
• By applying logotherapeutic techniques, such as the
Socratic dialogue, career counsellors guide
individuals to find meaning in their lives and efforts.
• The Socratic dialogue involves a provocative
question or challenging statement on the part of the
counsellor or therapist, eliciting from the client
hidden meanings and a realisation or a grasp of
their existence.
• The logotherapist’s approach is therefore
confrontational rather than prescriptive.
The Diagnostic
Framework for Career
Services: p. 178
• The Framework is based on Savickas’s model of
coherent career services, where each of the
career services draws upon different career
theories.
• vocational self consists of the individual's
attitudes and behavioural responses that are
related to their vocational tasks and situations;
• subjective sense of career refers to self-
awareness that the individual has of their own
career behaviour, self-concepts and identities;
• career self allows the individual to make
meaning and to use this meaning to direct their
own behaviour in a mature manner;
• the environment- constitutes type various life
roles and related career/life tasks and challenges
that the individual has to deal with in their carer
journey;
The Diagnostic
Framework for Career
Services (P. 179 - 187)
• Career counselling: To crystallize vocational
identity and envision a subjective career by
facilitating self-reflection and cognitive
restructuring, elaboration of self-concept through
introspection & discussion of subjective career.
Use reflective techniques developed by, for
example, person-centred counselling. (Post-
modern theories)
• Career guidance: To translate self-concepts into
occupational titles for clients who possess clear
and stable vocational identities but have no
vocational destiny in mind. (Trait-and-factor
theories)
• Career placement: To reduce employment-
seeking anxiety, increase assertiveness, counter
mistaken beliefs, coach exploratory behaviour,
increase social skills and refine self-presentation
behaviour by assisting clients who are ready to
implement a choice with information gathering,
writing resumes, networking, searching for forms
of employment and preparing for
interviews/guidance on
self-employment/learnerships (Social learning
theories)
 Diagnostic framework (cont.)

 Career therapy: To help clients who experience motivational

problems (e.g. job loss/career transitions/midlife/late life/quarter-life
crises), excessive indecisiveness, anxiety and conflicts to develop a
clear and stable vocational identity by examining personal motives
and recurring problems & modifying distorted motives. Need to feel
secure, it focuses on facilitating career adaptation (Psychodynamic
approaches and Post-modern approaches).
 Career education: To assist the development of self-management
attitudes(foresight/ autonomy) and competencies (planning/decision-
making) and readiness to cope with vocational development tasks
(life/career stages developmental tasks), fostering coping attitudes
and competencies ( Psychological education, cognitive-behavioural
and developmental counselling).
 Career coaching: To teach adaptive mechanisms through
mentoring and coaching (skills training). Assist individuals who
encounter problems adjusting to occupational positions (Ecological
systems and cognitive-behavioural theories, organisational-
developmental theory and theory of Work adjustment/person-
environment correspondence)
PsySSA’s Ethical Code for
Psychologists: p. 188-189
• The Psychologist must :

• recognise the worth and dignity of the individual

irrespective of race, gender, creed, status, language,
and other personal factors;
• use research knowledge, methods and skills
objectively and without bias to understand human
behaviour and to improve the welfare of others;
• maintain high standards by reflecting their
qualifications and experience accurately, keeping up
to date in their methods of practice and performing
tasks professionally and in a planned and responsible
way;
• adhere to moral and legal standards by ensuring that
psychological tests and other processes and decisions
involving people are fair and undiscriminating;
• honour confidentiality and informed consent;
• ensure the welfare of the individual or group;
PsySSA’s Ethical code for
Psychologists (cont’d)
• The Psychologist must:
• ensure that no action, procedure or
type of relationship will harm the
integrity of the professional
contract between himself/herself
and the client;
• be open with clients about fees and
termination of services if no
progress is being made;
• ensure that professional relations
are always upheld.
 Chapter 3: REVIEW AND DISCUSSION
QUESTIONS

1 What are the differences and commonalities Study chapter 3

between the various career theories and
approaches?
2 What are the required career competencies for Study section 3.1
CDPs?
3 How are Holland’s and Super’s theories applied in Study sections 3.2; 3.3; 3.8
postmodern/contemporary career theory and
intervention?
4 What are the ethical considerations when using Study section 3.9
career tests and inventories?
5 Discuss the Diagnostic Framework for Career Study section 3.9
Services. How could you apply the framework with
regard to your own career?