Chapter 6:

A Tour of the Cell

Cell Overview
• All organisms are made of cells
• The cell is the simplest collection of matter that can be alive
• All cells are related by their descent from earlier cells
• Cells can differ substantially from one another but share common
features
 Microscopy
• Due to the small size of most cells (although quite complex), microscopes
must be used to aid in study

• Light microscope—visible light passes through a specimen and then through

glass lenses, which magnify the image
• Lenses refract (bend) light so that the image is magnified
• Quality of image depends on
• Magnification: ratio of an object’s image size to its real size
• Resolution: minimum distance to distinguish two points as separate and distinct
• Contrast: visible differences in brightness between parts of the sample
• LMs can magnify effectively to about 1,000 times the size of the actual specimen
• Most subcellular structures, including organelles, are too small to be resolved by a LM
The scale shows measurements
from largest to smallest (top to
bottom); notice the range of the
unaided eye, light microscope, and
electron microscope.
 Electron Microscopes
• 2 basic types used to study Electron Microscopy (EM)
subcellular structures
• Scanning electron microscope
(SEM) focuses a beam of electrons
onto the surface of a specimen—
produces 3-D like images
• Transmission electron microscope
(TEM) focuses a beam of electrons
through a specimen—used to
study internal structure of cells
Why So Small?
• Logistics of carrying out cellular metabolism sets limits on the size of
cells
• Surface area to volume ratio of a cell is critical
• As a cell increases in size, its volume grows proportionately more than its
surface area.
• Small cells have a greater surface area relative to volume
As surface area increases by a
factor of n2, the volume increases
by a factor of n3.
• Area=length x width
• Volume=length x width x height

*Notice that the left and right

cubes have very different surface
area and volume values BUT their
surface-to-volume ratio is the
same!
Types of Cells
• Every organism will have one of two types of cells—
• Prokaryotic –bacteria and archaea
• Eukaryotic—protists, animals, fungi, plants

• ALL cells have—

• Plasma membrane/ Cell membrane
• Semifluid substance called cytosol
• Chromosomes (carry genes)
• Ribosomes (make proteins)
 Prokaryotic Cells
• No nucleus
• DNA in an unbound region called
the nucleoid
• No membrane-bound organelles
• Cytoplasm bound by the plasma
membrane
Eukaryotic Cells
• DNA in a nucleus, bound by a double membrane
• Membrane-bound organelles
• Cytoplasm: region between the plasma membrane and nucleus
• Usually much larger than prokaryotic cells
Plasma Membrane
• Plasma membrane is a selective
barrier that allows sufficient
passage of oxygen, nutrients,
and waste to service the volume
of every cell

• General structure of double layer

of phospholipids (more in Ch. 7)
A View of the Eukaryotic Cell
• Eukaryotic cell has internal membranes that partition the cell into
organelles
• Plant and animal cells have most of the same organelles

• **Be able to identify the organelles and label them on the following
two pictures.**
• *Know the organelles specific to animal cells (three) and those
specific to plant cells (four).* The rest are the same for both.
Animal Cell

Specific to an animal cell:

1. Lysosomes
2. Centrosomes
3. Flagellum (s.)/ Flagella (pl.)
Plant Cell

Specific to a plant cell:

1. Chloroplasts
2. Central vacuole
3. Cell wall
4. Plasmodesmata
Nucleus
• The nucleus contains most of the cell’s genes and is usually the most
conspicuous organelle.

• The nuclear envelope encloses the nucleus, separating it from the

cytoplasm.

• The nuclear envelope is a double membrane, each consisting of a

phospholipid bilayer.
• Nuclear pores regulate the entry and exit of molecules from the
nucleus

• Shape of nucleus is maintained by nuclear lamina on the nuclear side

of the envelope—composed of proteins called intermediate filaments

• Chromosomes contain DNA and proteins and form chromatin

• Chromatin condenses to form discrete chromosomes as cell prepares
to divide
• The nucleolus is located within the nucleus and is the site of
ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis
Ribosomes: Protein Factories
• Ribosomes are complexes made of ribosomal RNA and protein
• Composed of large and small subunits

• Carry out protein synthesis in two locations

• In the cytosol (free ribosomes)
• On surface of endoplasmic reticulum or nuclear envelope (bound ribosomes)
Endomembrane System
• Regulates protein movement through a cell and performs metabolic
functions in the cell
• Components:
1. Nuclear envelope
2. Endoplasmic reticulum
3. Golgi apparatus
4. Lysosomes
5. Vacuoles
6. Plasma membrane
• These components are either continuous or connected via transfer by
vesicles
Endoplasmic Reticulum
• The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) accounts for more than ½ of
the total membrane in many eukaryotic cells
• The ER membrane is continuous with the nuclear envelope
• There are two distinct regions of ER:
• Smooth ER—lacks ribosomes
• Rough ER—ribosomes studding its surface
Functions of Smooth ER
• Synthesizes lipids
• Metabolizes carbohydrates
• Detoxifies drugs and poisons
• Stores calcium ions
Functions of Rough ER
• Has bound ribosomes, which produce secreted glycoproteins
(proteins covalently bonded to carbohydrates)

• Distributes transport vesicles, secretory proteins surrounded by

membranes

• Is a membrane factory for the cell

 The Golgi Apparatus
• The Golgi apparatus consists of
flattened membranous sacs called
cisternae

• Functions of the Golgi apparatus

• Modifies products of ER
• Manufactures certain macromolecules
• Sorts and packages materials into
transport vesicles

• “Shipping and Receiving” center of

the cell
Progression of proteins or lipids from nuclear envelope to plasma membrane or becoming a lysosome.
Lysosome
• A lysosome is a membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes (digestive
enzymes) that can break down macromolecules
• Hydrolytic enzymes and lysosomal membranes are made by the rough ER and
then sent to the Golgi apparatus for further processing

• Lysosomal enzymes can hydrolyze proteins, fats, polysaccharides, and

nucleic acids

• “Digestive Compartments”
Lysosome Functioning
• Some types of cells can engulf another cell by phagocytosis (“cell
eating”)—this forms a food vacuole
• A lysosome fuses with the food vacuole and digestive enzymes in the
lysosome activate to hydrolyze the molecules
• Lysosomes also use enzymes to recycle the cell’s own organelles and
macromolecules, a process called autophagy (“self eating”)
• Used when the organelle or cell is old, damaged, etc.
Vacuoles
• Vacuoles are large vesicles derived from the ER and Golgi apparatus and
perform a variety of functions in cells
• A plant cell or fungal cell may have one or several vacuoles

• Food vacuoles are formed by phagocytosis

• Contractile vacuoles, found in many freshwater protists, pump excess water
out of cells
• Central vacuoles, found in many mature plant cells, hold inorganic
compounds, water, and/or toxins

• “Diverse maintenance compartments”

*Found in mature plant cells
Energy Transformers
• Mitochondria—the sites of cellular respiration, a metabolic process
that uses oxygen to generate ATP

• Chloroplasts—found in plants and algae, are the sites of

photosynthesis

• Peroxisomes—are oxidative organelles

Endosymbiont Theory
• Mitochondria and Chloroplasts have similarities with bacteria:
• Have a double membrane
• Have proteins made by free ribosomes
• Contain their own circular DNA
• Grow and reproduce somewhat independently in cells

• Theory states: “Eukaryotes evolved through a process whereby

different types of free-living prokaryotes became incorporated inside
larger prokaryotic cells and eventually developed into mitochondria,
chloroplasts, and possibly other organelles.”

• **FYI: Neither are part of the endomembrane system!!

Mitochondria
• Found in nearly all eukaryotic cells

• Have a smooth outer membrane and an inner membrane folded into

cristae
• Cristae present a large surface area for enzymes that synthesize ATP
• This inner membrane creates two compartments: intermembrane
space and mitochondrial matrix
• Some metabolic steps of cellular respiration are catalyzed in the
mitochondrial matrix

• “Chemical Energy Conversion”

Chloroplasts
• Chloroplast is a member of the family of organelles called plastids

• Chloroplasts contain the green pigment chlorophyll, as well as

enzymes and other molecules, that function in photosynthesis
• Chloroplasts are found in leaves and other green organs of plants and
in algae – capture light energy

• “Light Energy Conversion”

 Chloroplasts Structures
• Thylakoids—membranous sacs, stacked to form a granum (s.)/ grana (pl.)
• Stroma—the internal fluid
Peroxisomes
• Specialized metabolic compartments bound by a single membrane

• Peroxisomes produce hydrogen peroxide (as a byproduct) and

convert it to water
• Contain enzymes that remove hydrogen atoms from various substances and
transfer them to oxygen

• Oxygen is used to break down different types of molecules—oxidation

Cytoskeleton
• A network of fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm that organize
structures and activities in the cell
• Anchors many organelles

• Roles:
• Support the cell and maintain its shape
• Motility—interacts with motor proteins to produce motility. Vesicles can
travel along tracks provided by the cytoskeleton
• Regulation—recent evidence suggests that the cytoskeleton may help
regulate biochemical activities
Cytoskeleton Components
• Composed of three types of molecular structures:
1. Microtubules—thickest of the three components
2. Microfilaments—also called actin filaments, the thinnest component
3. Intermediate filaments—fibers with diameters in middle range
Table 6-1a
10 µm

• Provides
compression
resistance
• Cell motility via cilia
or flagella
Column of tubulin
dimers

25 nm

  Tubulin dimer
Cytoskeleton: Microtubules
• Hollow rods about 25 nm in diameter and about 200 nm to 25 μm
long
• Made of tubulin: dimer protein, made of α-tubulin and β-tubulin

• Functions of microtubules:
• Shaping the cell
• Guiding movement of organelles via interactions with motor proteins
• Separating chromosomes during cell division
Cytoskeleton: Microtubules
Microtubules in Cell Division
• Separate chromosomes during cell division
• Centrosomes and Centrioles
• In many cells, microtubules grow out from a centrosome near the nucleus
• Centrosome is a “microtubule-organizing center”
• In animal cells, the centrosome has a pair of centrioles, each with nine
triplets of microtubules in a ring
• Yellow and blue structures = centrioles
• Centrioles – always 2 present;
always at right angles to each other;
NOT in plant cells

• Yellow around centrioles = centrosome;

“microtubule organizing center”
• Microtubules: Cilia and Flagella
• Microtubules control the beating of cilia
and flagella, microtubule-containing
extensions that project from some cells
• Used by many unicellular eukaryotes to
move through water
• Cilia and flagella differ in their beating
patterns
• Share a common ultrastructure
• A core of microtubules (9 + 2 microtubule
arrangement) covered by an extension of
the plasma membrane
• A basal body anchors the cilium or
flagellum
• A motor protein, called dynein, drives the
bending movements of a cilium or
flagellum
• Cilia and flagella use a
wave-like motion to
move these appendages
and propel a cell forward

• Dynein has two “feet”

that “walk” along
microtubules
• Movements of the feet
cause the
microtubules to bend,
rather than slide
Table 6-1b
10 µm

• Provides ability to
bear tension
• Cell motility, such as
amoeboid
movement

Actin subunit

7 nm
Cytoskeleton: Microfilaments –Actin
Filaments
• Microfilaments are solid rods about 7 nm in diameter, built as a
twisted double chain of actin subunits

• The structural role of microfilaments is to bear tension, resisting

pulling forces within the cell

• They form a 3-D network called the cortex just inside the plasma
membrane to help support the cell’s shape
Microfilament: Motility
Actin-Myosin • Cytoplasmic streaming
• Function in cellular motility • Circular flow of cytoplasm within
contain the protein myosin in cells
addition to actin • In plant cells, actin-myosin
• In muscle cells, thousands of actin interactions drive cytoplasmic
filaments are arranged parallel to streaming
one another • This streaming speeds distribution
• Thicker filaments composed of of materials within the cell
myosin interdigitate with the
thinner actin fibers

• Pseudopodia
• Cellular extension that allows
amoeboid cells to extend part of
cell body then move forward
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
Table 6-1c
5 µm

• Provides ability to
bear tension

Keratin proteins
Fibrous subunit (keratins
coiled together)

8–12 nm
Cytoskeleton: Intermediate
Filaments
• Range in diameter from 8-12 nanometers, larger than microfilaments
but smaller than microtubules
• Made of protein, keratin

• They support cell shape and fix organelles in place

• More permanent cytoskeleton fixtures than the other two classes

Extracellular Components &
Connections
• Help coordinate cellular activities

• Most cells synthesize and secrete materials to the outside of cell

• Extracellular structures include:

• Cell walls (plants)
• Extracellular matrix (ECM) of animal cells
• Intercellular junctions
Cell Walls
• Cell wall is an extracellular structure that distinguishes plant cells
from animal cells
• Prokaryotes, fungi, and some unicellular eukaryotes also have cell walls

• The cell wall protects the plant cell, maintains its shape, and prevents
excessive uptake of water

• Plant cell walls are made of cellulose fibers embedded in other

polysaccharides and proteins
Plant Cell Walls
• May have multiple layers:
• Primary cell wall: relatively thin and flexible, secreted first
• Middle lamella: thin layer between primary cell walls of adjacent cells; made
of polysaccharides (very sticky)
• Secondary cell wall (in some cells): added between the plasma membrane
and the primary cell wall; can be very thick

• Plasmodesmata are channels between adjacent plant cells—connect

plant cells and allow water and small solutes (sometimes proteins and
RNA) to pass from cell to cell
Animal Cell Extracellular Matrix
(ECM)
• Animal cells lack cell walls but are covered by an elaborate extracellular
matrix (ECM)
• Made up of glycoproteins, such as collagen, proteoglycans, & fibronectins

• ECM proteins bind to receptor proteins in the plasma membrane called

integrins

• ECM Functions:
1. Support – contributes to cell shape
2. Adhesion – includes carbohydrates which help cells stick together
3. Movement – contribute to cellular motility
4. Regulation – signals pass via integrins into the cell and control cell behavior by
influencing the activity of genes in the nucleus
Cell Junctions
• Neighboring cells in tissues, organs, or organ systems often adhere,
interact, and communicate through direct physical contact

• Common animal cell junctions:

1. Tight junctions, membranes of neighboring cells are pressed together,
preventing leakage of extracellular fluid (almost like vacuum sealing)
2. Desmosomes (anchoring junctions) fasten cells together into strong sheets
(have proteins that link together like the teeth on a zipper to hold together
strongly, even after cell death)
3. Gap junctions (communicating junctions) provide cytoplasmic channels
between adjacent cells (small molecules, ions, water, etc. can pass through)
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Cell: A living unit greater than the sum of its
parts
• Cells rely on the integration of structures and organelles in order to
function
• Ex: A macrophage’s ability to destroy bacteria involves the whole cell
coordinating components, such as the cytoskeleton, lysosomes, and
plasma membrane