• Campbell Biology

• Eleventh Edition

• Chapter 7
Cell structure and function

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 Cell is the basic unit of structure and function
Cells are microscopic

Types of microscopes:
1) Light
2) Electron

Types of cells
1) Prokaryotic
2) Eukaryotic
 Cell
Fractionation

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 Eukaryotic cells have internal membranes that compartmentalize
their functions

 The basic structural and functional unit of every organism is one of two
types of cells: prokaryotic or eukaryotic

 Only organisms of the domains Bacteria and Archaea consist of

prokaryotic cells

 Protists, fungi, animals, and plants all consist of eukaryotic cells

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Basic features of all cells

 Plasma membrane

 Semifluid substance called cytosol

 Chromosomes (carry genes)

 Ribosomes (make proteins)

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Prokaryotic cells are characterized by having

 No nucleus

 DNA in an unbound region called the nucleoid

 No membrane-bound organelles

 Cytoplasm bound by the plasma membrane

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Prokaryotic cell

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Eukaryotic cells are characterized by having

 DNA in a nucleus that is bounded by a membranous nuclear

envelope

 Membrane-bound organelles

 Cytoplasm in the region between the plasma membrane and

nucleus

 Eukaryotic cells are generally much larger than prokaryotic cells

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The plasma membrane is a selective barrier that allows sufficient passage
of oxygen, nutrients, and waste to service the volume of every cell

The general structure of a biological membrane is a double layer of

phospholipids
Carbohydrate side chains

Hydrophilic
region

Hydrophobic
region
Hydrophilic Phospholipid Proteins
region
Structure of the plasma membrane
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 Metabolic requirements set upper limits on the size of cells

 The surface area to volume ratio of a cell is critical

 As the surface area increases by a factor of n2, the volume increases by a

factor of n3

 Small cells have a greater surface area relative to volume

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  The cell is compartmentalized (Compartments = Organelles)
 Each organelle has specific structure and function
 Cell size is affected by two factors: 1. Surface area 2. Volume
 Smaller cell size, more efficient in working and better functioning

 Examples:
1) Intestine and the microvilli
2) Lungs and the alveoli

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 Surface area increases while
total volume remains constant

5
1
1

Total surface area

[sum of the surface areas
(height  width) of all box 6 150 750
sides  number of boxes]

Total volume
[height  width  length
 number of boxes] 1 125 125

Surface-to-volume
(S-to-V) ratio
[surface area  volume] 6 1.2 6
 A eukaryotic cell has internal membranes that partition the cell into
organelles

 Plant and animal cells have most of the same organelles

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Animal cell

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Plant cell

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 Organelles & Cytoskeleton of the cell

Nucleus & Nucleolus

Ribosomes
Endoplasmic reticulum (Smooth & Rough)
Golgi apparatus
Lysosomes
Vacuoles
Mitochondria
Chloroplast
Peroxisomes
Cytoskeleton

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The eukaryotic cell’s genetic instructions are
housed in the nucleus and carried out by the
ribosomes

The nucleus contains most of the DNA in a eukaryotic cell

Ribosomes use the information from the DNA to make proteins

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 The Nucleus: Information Central

The nucleus contains most of the cell’s genes and is usually the most
conspicuous organelle

The nuclear envelope encloses the nucleus, separating it from the cytoplasm

The nuclear membrane is a double membrane; each membrane consists of a

lipid bilayer

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 Nucleus & Nucleolus

 The eukaryotic cell’s genetic instructions are housed in the

nucleus and carried out by the ribosomes

The nucleus contains most of the DNA in a eukaryotic cell

Ribosomes use the information from the DNA to make proteins

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The nucleus contains most of the cell’s genes and is usually the most
conspicuous organelle

The nuclear envelope encloses the nucleus, separating it from the cytoplasm

The nuclear membrane is a double membrane; each membrane consists of a

lipid bilayer

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Pores regulate the entry and exit of molecules from the nucleus

The shape of the nucleus is maintained by the nuclear lamina, which is

composed of protein (Intermediate filaments)

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In the nucleus, DNA is organized into discrete units called chromosomes

Each chromosome is composed of a single DNA molecule associated with

proteins

The DNA and proteins of chromosomes are together called chromatin

Chromatin condenses to form discrete chromosomes as a cell prepares to

divide

The nucleolus is located within the nucleus and is the site of ribosomal RNA
(rRNA) synthesis
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Nucleus & Nucleolus

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Phospholipid
bilayer

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Ribosomes

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Ribosomes are particles made of ribosomal RNA and protein

Ribosomes carry out protein synthesis in two locations

 In the cytosol (free ribosomes)
 On the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or the nuclear envelope
(bound ribosomes)

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 The endomembrane system regulates protein traffic
and performs metabolic functions in the cell

Components of the endomembrane system

 Nuclear envelope
 Endoplasmic reticulum
 Golgi apparatus
 Lysosomes
 Vacuoles
 Plasma membrane

These components are either continuous or connected via transfer by vesicles

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The Endoplasmic Reticulum: Biosynthetic Factory

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) accounts for more than half of the
total membrane in many eukaryotic cells

The ER membrane is continuous with the nuclear envelope

There are two distinct regions of ER

 Smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes
 Rough ER, surface is studded with ribosomes

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Functions of Smooth ER

The smooth ER

 Synthesizes lipids
 Metabolizes carbohydrates
 Detoxifies drugs and poisons
 Stores calcium ions

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Functions of Rough ER

 The rough ER

 Has bound ribosomes, which secrete glycoproteins (proteins covalently

bonded to carbohydrates)
 Distributes transport vesicles, proteins surrounded by membranes
 Is a membrane factory for the cell

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Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough & Smooth)

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The Golgi Apparatus: Shipping and Receiving Center

The Golgi apparatus consists of flattened membranous sacs called cisternae

Functions of the Golgi apparatus

 Modifies products of the ER
 Manufactures certain macromolecules
 Sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles

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Golgi apparatus

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Lysosomes: Digestive Compartments

A lysosome is a membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that can digest

macromolecules
Lysosomal enzymes can hydrolyze proteins, fats, polysaccharides, and
nucleic acids
Lysosomal enzymes work best in the acidic environment inside the
lysosome

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Some types of cell can engulf another cell by phagocytosis; this forms a
food vacuole

A lysosome fuses with the food vacuole and digests the molecules

Lysosomes also use enzymes to recycle the cell’s own organelles and
macromolecules, a process called autophagy

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Lysosomes

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 Vacuoles: Diverse Maintenance Compartments

 A plant cell or fungal cell may have one or several vacuoles, derived
from endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus

• Food vacuoles are formed by phagocytosis

• Contractile vacuoles, found in many freshwater protists, pump excess
water out of cells
• Central vacuoles, found in many mature plant cells, hold organic
compounds and water

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 Vacuoles

 Types of vacuoles

1. Food
2. Contractile
3. Central

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The Endomembrane System: A Review

• The endomembrane system is a complex and dynamic player in the

cell’s compartmental organization

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Mitochondria and chloroplasts change energy from one
form to another

• Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration, a metabolic process that

uses oxygen to generate ATP
• Chloroplasts, found in plants and algae, are the sites of photosynthesis
• Peroxisomes are oxidative organelles

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 Mitochondria: Chemical Energy Conversion

 Mitochondria are in nearly all eukaryotic cells

 They have a smooth outer membrane and an inner membrane folded
into cristae
 The inner membrane creates two compartments: intermembrane space
and mitochondrial matrix
 Some metabolic steps of cellular respiration are catalyzed in the
mitochondrial matrix
 Cristae present a large surface area for enzymes that synthesize ATP

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Mitochondria

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 Chloroplasts: Capture of Light Energy

• Chloroplasts contain the green pigment chlorophyll, as well as

enzymes and other molecules that function in photosynthesis
• Chloroplasts are found in leaves and other green organs of plants and
in algae
• Chloroplast structure includes
– Thylakoids, membranous sacs, stacked to form a granum
– Stroma, the internal fluid
• The chloroplast is one of a group of plant organelles, called plastids

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Chloroplast

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The Evolutionary Origins of Mitochondria and Chloroplasts
• Mitochondria and chloroplasts have similarities with bacteria
 Enveloped by a double membrane
 Contain free ribosomes and circular DNA molecules
 Grow and reproduce somewhat independently in cells
• The Endosymbiont theory
 An early ancestor of eukaryotic cells engulfed a non-photosynthetic
prokaryotic cell, which formed an endosymbiont relationship with its host
 The host cell and endosymbiont merged into a single organism, a eukaryotic
cell with a mitochondrion
 At least one of these cells may have taken up a photosynthetic prokaryote,
becoming the ancestor of cells that contain chloroplasts
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Endosymbiont Theory

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 Peroxisomes: Oxidation

• Peroxisomes are specialized metabolic compartments bounded by a single

membrane
• Peroxisomes produce hydrogen peroxide and convert it to water
• Peroxisomes perform reactions with many different functions
• How peroxisomes are related to other organelles is still unknown

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 Peroxisomes as in liver cells, contain enzymes that remove hydrogen atoms
from alcohol & other poisonous harmful compounds (detoxification) by
transferring them to oxygen (O2), producing H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide) as a by-
product.

 H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide) is toxic itself, peroxisomes contain also catalase

enzymes that convert H2O2 to H2O and O2

 Peroxisomes contain both enzymes that make H2O2 & others that convert H2O2
to water

 Glyoxysomes ( specialized peroxisomes) are found in fat storing tissues of plant

seeds. These organelles contain enzymes that initiates the conversion of fatty
acids to sugars.

 Sugars are used for growing seedlings and is used also as fuel for cellular
respiration. 70
 Peroxisomes grow larger (increase in size) & increase in number by
splitting in two when reach certain size

The increase in size is due to protein incorporation made in cytosol and

endoplasmic reticulum, as well as lipids made in endoplasmic
reticulum and within the peroxisome itself.

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Peroxisomes

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 Cytoskeleton
 Cytoskeleton is a network of fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm

 Types of cytoskeleton:
1) Microtubules
2) Microfilaments
3) Intermediate filaments

 Functions of cytoskeleton
1) Mechanical support
2) Anchorage for organelles
3) Change the shape of the cell
4) Cell motility

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 Components of the Cytoskeleton

• Three main types of fibers make up the cytoskeleton

 Microtubules are the thickest of the three components of the
cytoskeleton
 Microfilaments, also called actin filaments, are the thinnest
components
 Intermediate filaments are fibers with diameters in a middle
range

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Microtubules

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 Microtubules

• Microtubules are hollow rods about 25 nm in diameter and about 200 nm

to 25 microns long
• Functions of microtubules
1) Shaping the cell
2) Guiding movement of organelles
3) Separating chromosomes during cell division

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Centrosomes and Centrioles
 In many cells, microtubules grow out from a centrosome near the nucleus
 The centrosome is a “microtubule-organizing center”
 In animal cells, the centrosome has a pair of centrioles, each with nine
triplets of microtubules arranged in a ring

Chromosome movements in cell division

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 Cilia and Flagella
• Microtubules control the beating of cilia and flagella, locomotor appendages
of some cells
• Cilia and flagella differ in their beating patterns

 Beating of flagella and Cilia

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• Cilia and flagella share a common structure
– A core of microtubules sheathed by the plasma membrane
– A basal body that anchors the cilium or flagellum
– A motor protein called dynein, which drives the bending movements of a
cilium or flagellum

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Structure of flagellum or motile cilium

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Structure of flagellum or motile cilium

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Microfilaments

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 Microfilaments (Actin Filaments)

• Microfilaments are solid rods about 7 nm in diameter, built as a twisted

double chain of actin subunits
• The structural role of microfilaments is to bear tension, resisting pulling
forces within the cell
• They form a 3-D network called the cortex just inside the plasma
membrane to help support the cell’s shape
• Bundles of microfilaments make up the core of microvilli of intestinal
cells

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• Microfilaments that function in cellular motility contain the protein
myosin in addition to actin
• In muscle cells, thousands of actin filaments are arranged parallel to one
another
• Thicker filaments composed of myosin interdigitate with the thinner actin
fibers

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• Localized contraction brought about by actin and myosin also drives
amoeboid movement
• Pseudopodia (cellular extensions) extend and contract through the
reversible assembly and contraction of actin subunits into microfilaments

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• Cytoplasmic streaming is a circular flow of cytoplasm within cells
• This streaming speeds distribution of materials within the cell
• In plant cells, actin-myosin interactions and sol-gel transformations
drive cytoplasmic streaming

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Intermediate filaments

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 Intermediate Filaments
• Intermediate filaments range in diameter from 8–12 nanometers, larger
than microfilaments but smaller than microtubules
• They support cell shape and fix organelles in place
• Intermediate filaments are more permanent cytoskeleton fixtures than the
other two classes

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 Anchorage of certain organelles

 Formation of nuclear lamina

 Anchorage of nucleus

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Extracellular components and connections between cells
help coordinate cellular activities

• Most cells synthesize and secrete materials that are external to the plasma
membrane
• These extracellular structures include
 Cell walls of plants
 The extracellular matrix (ECM) of animal cells
 Intercellular junctions

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 Cell Walls of Plants

• The cell wall is an extracellular structure that distinguishes plant cells from
animal cells
• Prokaryotes, fungi, and some protists also have cell walls
• The cell wall protects the plant cell, maintains its shape, and prevents
excessive uptake of water
• Plant cell walls are made of cellulose fibers embedded in other
polysaccharides and protein

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• Plant cell walls may have multiple layers
– Primary cell wall: relatively thin and flexible
– Middle lamella: thin layer between primary walls of adjacent cells
– Secondary cell wall (in some cells): added between the plasma
membrane and the primary cell wall
• Plasmodesmata are channels between adjacent plant cells

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Extracellular components and connections between
cells help coordinate cellular activities

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 The Extracellular Matrix (ECM) of Animal Cells

• Animal cells lack cell walls but are covered by an elaborate

extracellular matrix (ECM)
• The ECM is made up of glycoproteins such as collagen,
proteoglycans, and fibronectin
• ECM proteins bind to receptor proteins in the plasma membrane
called integrins

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The Extracellular Matrix (ECM) of Animal Cells

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• Functions of the ECM
 Support
 Adhesion
 Movement
 Regulation

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 Cell Junctions

Neighboring cells in tissues, organs, or organ systems often adhere,

interact, and communicate through direct physical contact

• There are several types of intercellular junctions

Types of intercellular junctions

 Plasmodesmata (plant cell)

 Tight junctions (Animal cell)
 Desmosomes (Animal cell)
 Gap junctions (Animal cell)

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 Plasmodesmata in Plant Cells

• Plasmodesmata are channels that perforate plant cell walls

• Through Plasmodesmata, water and small solutes (and sometimes
proteins and RNA) can pass from cell to cell

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 Plasmodesmata

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 Tight Junctions, Desmosomes, and Gap Junctions in
Animal Cells
• At tight junctions, membranes of neighboring cells are pressed together,
preventing leakage of extracellular fluid
• Desmosomes (anchoring junctions) fasten cells together into strong sheets
• Gap junctions (communicating junctions) provide cytoplasmic channels
between adjacent cells

Desmosomes Gap Junctions101

Tight Junctions
 Tight junctions

 Desmosomes

 Gap junctions

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