Endocrine System

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 Exocrine versus Endocrine glands
 Exocrine glands
• release secretions to tissue by ducts
• e.g., sweat glands, salivary glands, mammary glands,
mucous gland.

 Endocrine glands
• ductless, release into blood
• other organs not usually considered endocrine glands
• e.g., brain and heart, releasing important substances

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Physiology
 The Endocrine System
• Endocrine system
• Composed of glands and cells that secrete hormones
• Helps coordinate functions between cells
• Critical for maintaining homeostasis
• Helps regulate
• growth and development
• metabolism and water balance
• reproduction and stress responses

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 The Endocrine System

• Endocrinology
• Study of endocrine system
• Diagnosis and treatment of its disorders

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 What is the endocrine system?
The primary endocrine glands are:

1. pituitary (the master gland).

2. Pineal.
3. Thyroid.
4. Parathyroid.
5. Islets of Langerhans.
6. Adrenals.
7. Ovaries in the female.
8. Testes in the male.

The function of the endocrine system is the

production and regulation of chemical substances
called hormones.
 Functions of Endocrine System
 Controls homeostasis
 Maintains water balance
 Controls uterine contractions
 Controls milk production
 Regulates ions (calcium, sodium, potassium)
 Regulates metabolism and growth
 Regulates heart rate and blood pressure
 Monitors blood glucose levels
 Aids the immune system
 Reproductive functions
 Hormones…

 A hormone is a chemical transmitter.

It is released in small amounts from
glands
 transported in the bloodstream to
target organs or cells with receptors.
 Hormones are chemical messengers,
transferring information and
instructions from one set of cells to
another.
 Hormones…  Hormones regulate growth,
development, mood, tissue
 Hyposecretion or function, metabolism, and
Hypersecretion of sexual function.
any hormone can be
harmful to the body.

 Controlling the
production of
hormones can treat
many
hormonal disorders
in the body.
 Components of Hormones
Receptor site:
location on a cell where hormone binds
(lock)

Target tissues:
group of cells that respond to specific
hormones

Specificity:
specific hormones bind to specific
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receptor sites
 How does Hormones
work?
Hormones are secreted by endocrine glands directly into
bloodstream
Hormones travel to all parts of body
Hormones (key) bind to receptor site (lock) on target tissue
Response occurs
 How do Hormones cause change?

Alter cell activity of target tissues by increasing or

decreasing cell’s normal processes

Change permeability of cell membrane by opening or

closing ion channels

Synthesis of proteins

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 Pituitary Gland …

The pituitary gland has 2

lobes…

 The endocrine system and nervous system work

together to help maintain homeostasis… balance.
 The hypothalamus is a collection of specialized cells
located in the brain, and is the primary link between
the two systems.
Anterior Pituitary
Gland
Secretions from the anterior pituitary gland…
Growth Hormone (GH):
essential for the growth
and development of
bones, muscles, and other
organs. It also enhances
protein synthesis,
decreases the use of
glucose, and promotes fat
destruction.
Secretions from the anterior pituitary gland…

Adrenocorticotropin
(ACTH): essential for
the growth of the
adrenal cortex.

Thyroid-Stimulating
Hormone (TSH):
essential for the growth
and development of the
thyroid gland.
Secretions from the anterior pituitary gland…
Follicle-Stimulating
Hormone (FSH): is a
gonadotropic hormone.

It stimulates the growth

ovarian follicles in the
female and the
production of sperm in
the male.
Secretions from the anterior pituitary gland…
Luteinizing Hormone (LH):
is a gonadotropic hormone
stimulating the development
of corpus luteum in the
female ovarian follicles and
the production of
testosterone in the male.

The yellow corpus luteum

remains after ovulation; it
produces estrogen and
progesterone.
Secretions from the anterior pituitary gland…
Prolactin (PRL): stimulates
the development and growth of
the mammary glands and milk
production during pregnancy.

The sucking motion of the

baby stimulates Prolactin
secretion.
Secretions from the anterior pituitary gland…
Melanocyte-stimulating
hormone (MSH): regulates skin
pigmentation and promotes the
deposit of melanin in the skin
after exposure to sunlight
Posterior Pituitary
Gland
 Secretions from the posterior lobe of the
pituitary gland…

Antidiuretic Hormone
(ADH): stimulates the
reabsorption of water by
the renal tubules.
Hyposecretion of this
hormone can result in
diabetes insipidus.
 Secretions from the posterior lobe of the
pituitary gland…
Oxytocin: stimulates the
uterus to contract during
labor, delivery, and
parturition. A synthetic
version of this hormone, used
to induce labor, is called
Pitocin. It also stimulates the
mammary glands to release
milk.
 Secretions from the pineal gland…
The pineal gland is pine-cone-shaped
and only about 1 cm in diameter.

Melatonin: communicates
information about environmental
lighting to various parts of the
body. Has some effect on
sleep/awake cycles and other
biological events connected to
them, such as a lower production
of gastric secretions at night.
 Secretions from the pineal gland…
Serotonin: a neurotransmitter that
regulates intestinal movements and
affects appetite, mood, sleep,
anger, and metabolism.
 Secretions of the thyroid gland…
The thyroid gland plays a
vital role in metabolism
and regulates the body’s
metabolic processes.

Calcitonin: influences bone

and calcium metabolism;
maintains a homeostasis of
calcium in the blood plasma
 Secretions of the thyroid gland…
Thyroxine (T4) and
Triodothyronine (T3): essential
to BMR – basal metabolic rate
(the rate at which a person’s
body burns calories while at
rest); influences physical/mental
development and growth
Hyposecretion of T3 and T4 = cretinism,
myxedema, Hashimoto’s disease

Hypersecretion of T3 and T4 = Grave’s disease,

goiter, Basedow’s disease
 Secretions of the parathyroid gland…

 The two pairs of parathyroid

glands are located on the dorsal
or back side of the thyroid
gland.
 They secrete parathyroid (PTH)
which plays a role in the
metabolism of phosphorus.
 Too little results in cramping;
too much results in osteoporosis
or kidney stones.
 Abnormalities of Thyroid Gland
• Hypothyroidism: • Hyperthyroidism:

• Decreased metabolism • Increased metabolism

• Weight gain, reduced • Weight loss, increased
appetite, fatigue appetite, nervousness
• Low temp. and pulse • Higher temp. and
• Dry, cold skin pulse
• Myxedema in adults • Warm, flushed skin
• Cretinism in infants • Graves’ disease (leads
to goiter)
 The Islets of Langerhans…

The islets of Langerhans are small clusters of

cells located in the pancreas.
 Secretions from the islets of Langerhans…
 Beta cells secrete the hormone
 Alpha cells secrete
insulin, which is essential for the
the hormone maintenance of normal blood sugar
Glucagon, it facilitate levels. Inadequate levels result in
the breakdown of diabetes mellitus.
glycogen to glucose.
This elevates the blood
sugar.

 Delta cells suppress

the release of glucagon
and insulin.
 The Adrenal glands…
 The triangular-
shaped adrenal
glands are located
on the top of each
kidney.
 The inside is called
the medulla and the
outside layer is
called the cortex.
 Secretions from the adrenal cortex…

Cortisol: regulates carbohydrate,

protein, and fat metabolism; has an
anti-inflammatory effect; helps the
body cope during times of stress

Hyposecretion results in:

Addison’s disease; Corticosterone: like
Hypersecretion results in: cortisol, it is a steroid;
Cushing’s disease influences potassium and
sodium metabolism
 Secretions from the adrenal cortex…
Aldosterone: essential in regulating
electrolyte and water balance by
promoting sodium and chloride
retention and potassium excretion.

Androgens: several
hormones including
testosterone; they promote
the development of
secondary sex
characteristics in the male.
Secretions from the
adrenal Medulla…

Dopamine is used to
treat shock. It dilates the
arteries, elevates systolic
blood pressure, increases
cardiac output, and
increases urinary output.
Secretions from the
Adrenal Medulla…

Epinephrine is also called adrenalin. It elevates systolic blood

pressure, increases heart rate and cardiac output, speeds up the
release of glucose from the liver… giving a spurt of energy,
dilates the bronchial tubes and relaxes airways, and dilates the
pupils to see more clearly. It is often used to counteract an
allergic reaction.
Secretions from the
adrenal medulla…

Norepinephrine, like epinephrine, is released when

the body is under stress. It creates the underlying
influence in the fight or flight response. As a drug,
however, it actually triggers a drop in heart rate.
 Secretions of the ovaries…
The ovaries produce several
estrogen hormones and
progesterone. These hormones
prepare the uterus for pregnancy,
promote the development of
mammary glands, play a role in sex
drive, and develop secondary sex
characteristics in the female.

Estrogen is essential for the growth, development,

and maintenance of female sex organs.
 Secretions of the Testes…
The Testes produce the
male sex hormone called
Testosterone. It is essential
for normal growth and
development of the male sex
organs. Testosterone is
responsible for the erection
of the penis.
 Secretions of the placenta…
During pregnancy, the
placenta serves as an
endocrine gland.

It produces
chorionic
gonadotropin
hormone,
estrogen, and
progesterone.
 Secretions of the gastrointestinal mucosa…

The mucosa of the

pyloric area of the
stomach secretes the
hormone Gastrin,
which stimulates the
production of gastric
acid for digestion.
 Secretions of the gastrointestinal
mucosa…
The mucosa of the
duodenum and jejunum
secretes the hormone
Secretin, which
stimulates pancreatic
juice, bile, and intestinal
secretion.
 Secretions of the Thymus…

 The Thymus gland has two

lobes, and is part of the
lymphatic system.
 It is a ductless gland, and
secretes Thymosin.
 This is necessary for the
Thymus’ normal production
of T cells for the immune
system.
 Causes of Endocrine Disorders
Endocrine disorders are typically grouped into two
categories:

 Endocrine disease that results when a gland produces too

much or too little of an endocrine hormone, called a
hormone imbalance.
 Endocrine disease due to the development of lesions
(such as nodules or tumors) in the endocrine system,
which may or may not affect hormone levels.
Increased or decreased levels of endocrine hormone may
be caused by:

 A problem with the endocrine feedback system

 Disease
 Failure of a gland to stimulate another gland to release hormones
 A genetic disorder
 Infection
 Injury to an endocrine gland
 Tumor of an endocrine gland
 Thyroid Gland
• Regulates Metabolism
• Parathyroid
• Regulates Ca+
• Hypothyroidism
• Not enough hormone
• Hyperthyroidism
• Too much hormone
 Hyperthyroidism
• Overactive Thyroid
• Causes:
• Graves’ Disease
• Excessive Intake of Thyroid Hormones
• Thyroiditis
• Excessive Iodine Intake
• Significantly Accelerated
Metabolism
Observation & Reporting
 Hypothyroidism
• Not enough hormone
• Lack of Iodine
• Pituitary disease
• Advancing age
 Hypothyroidism
Observation & Reporting
• Facial Myxoedema
• Weak/Fatigue
• Depression
• Wt. Gain
• Cold Intolerances
• Constipation
• Dry, Thick Skin
 Pancreas
• Regulates Blood Glucose and Insulin
 Diabetes Mellitus
• Three Types
• Type 1
• Onset early in life
• Pancreas not producing enough insulin
• Insulin injections
• Type 2
• Adults
• Body doesn’t use insulin well
• Diet/exercise/PO meds
• Gestational (GDM)
• During pregnancy
• Generally goes away after birth
 Hypoglycemia
Observations & Reporting
• Blood Sugar < 60
• Cold, clammy skin
• Irritability
• Rapid, shallow breathing
• Rapid pulse
• Vision Changes
• Convulsions
• Faintness
 Hyperglycemia
Observation & Reporting
• CBG>125
• Polydipsia
• Polyphagia
• Polyuria
• Weakness
• Low BP
• Kussmaul
Breathing
 Diabetic Ketoacidosis:
DKA
• Dangerous Complication
• Too Many Ketones
• Body Acidic
• CBG > 400
• Up to 1000
• Mostly in ICU
Observations & Reporting
 Diabetes Insipidus
• Excessive Urination
• 5-15L/day
• May be from
• Rx’s
• Head Trauma
• Pituitary Disorders
• Treated with Meds
Observations & Reporting
• Urinary Frequency
• Thirst
• Dehydration