GLANDS AND BEHAVIOR

KADEEJA SAFNA C
INTRODUCTION
• The endocrine system along with the nervous system helps to
maintain homeostasis.
• There are various endocrine glands in the body which secrete their
hormones.
• A specific quantity of hormones is required for normal functioning of
the body.
Endocrine glands v/s Exocrine glands

• There are two types of glands, namely, endocrine glands and exocrine
glands.
• The glands that affect behavior are known as endocrine glands,
whereas, there are glands that do not affect behavior, like salivary
gland and sweat gland, which fall in the category of exocrine glands.
• Exocrine glands are glands with ducts and chemicals are released into
ducts
• Endocrine glands are ductless and secrete chemicals directly into the
bloodstream when stimulated.
UNDERSTANDING HORMONES
• The chemicals secreted by endocrine glands are known as hormones.
• The word hormone is derived from the Greek word “hormaein” which means to excite.
• These are those chemicals that are secreted directly into the bloodstream by certain
specialized cells .
• These chemicals travel in the body and bring about the physiological changes inside the body.
• There are target tissues or target organs with appropriate receptors to accept their specific
hormones.
• The effect of hormones are slow and persist for a longer period of time.
• As compared to synaptic communication (uses electrical impulse), endocrine communication
is slow (uses hormones).
• This is so because the hormones take time to travel to target organs.
• Endocrine glands are spread all over the body.
UNDERSTANDING HORMONES
• The hormones can be classified as tropic hormones (tropic means able to stimulate or
change something), when they have to perform a more generalized function.
• Tropic hormones act on other endocrine glands and stimulate them to secrete their
hormones.
• Hormones can also be classified according to their chemical structure as steroids and
non-steroids or protein hormones.
• The steroid hormones are made up of cholesterol (a type of fat molecule) and secreted
from gonads (testes and ovaries) or adrenal cortex, for example corticoids.
• Non-steroid hormones are amino acids, peptides or complete proteins.
• An example is epinephrine.
• Among both the categories, steroid hormones have a long-lasting impact on cellular
functioning.
UNDERSTANDING HORMONES
• The secretion of hormones is controlled by a negative feedback loop
that tends to reverse any deviation from the set point value that
maintains homeostasis.
• For example, when parathyroid hormone stimulates its target cells, it
produces more calcium in the blood. However, when the level of
calcium exceeds the set point value, this information is received by
the parathyroid cells and they automatically reduce the secretion of
parathyroid hormone.
• The information received from the nervous system also stimulates the
glands to secrete their hormones.
FUNCTIONS OF THE HORMONES
• Hormones are not involved in any biological processes, rather they tend to
regulate the processes that are already going on in the body.
• They are produced in response to the changing internal bodily environment.
• Hormones act very slowly on the body.
• Hormones can be produced in varying amounts and can influence different
tissues, organs and ultimately behavior.
• There are varying time periods during which the hormones work. For example,
some are secreted regularly in 24 hours while some follow the lunar or 28-day
cycle, others are secreted according to the demands of the body in response to
internal or external stimuli.
• Hormones are involved as catalysts in metabolic processes in some cells.
• Each hormone has a specific effect and also influence the action of other
hormone
ENDOCRINE GLANDS
• Hypothalamus
• Pituitary gland
• Pineal gland
• Thyroid gland
• Parathyroid gland
• Thymus gland
• Adrenal gland
• Pancreas
• Gonads
• Placenta
HYPOTHALAMUS
• The hypothalamus’ main role is to keep the body in homeostasis.
• Releasing hormones
• Growth hormone RH
• Thyrotropin RH
• Corticotrophin RH
• Gonadotropin RH
• Inhibiting hormones
• Vasopressin
• Oxytocin
PITUITARY GLAND
• Pituitary gland is also referred as the master gland because it controls other glands and as well as
other organs of the body.
• Most of its hormones are tropic hormones.
• The pituitary gland is a small structure weighing about 0.5 gms.
• It comes from the Latin word “pituita”.
• It is located at the base of the skull, attached to the hypothalamus
• Another name for it is hypophysis.
• It has a small stalk known as infundibulum that connects it to the hypothalamus in the brain.
• It has two distinct glands, the adenohypophysis or anterior pituitary gland, and the
neurohypophysis, or posterior pituitary gland, formed during embryonic development.
• Each gland secretes its own hormones which differ in functions.
Anterior (Adenohypophysis Pituitary)
• The anterior part of pituitary gland is known as adenohypophysis.
• It is composed of glandular tissues.
• The hypothalamus regulates the secretions of the adenohypophysis.
• Hence, even though pituitary gland is known as the master gland, it is controlled by the hypothalamus.
• Hypothalamus secretes hormones into the hypothalamus-pituitary portal system and regulates the hormone
secretion through the negative feedback mechanisms.
• Main secretions of the anterior pituitary, although the release is controlled by hypothalamus, are:
• 1) Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
• 2) Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)
• 3) Thyroid-stimulating Hormone (TSH)
• 4) Luteinizing stimulating hormone (LH)
• 5) Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
• 6) Growth hormone ( GH)
• 7) Prolactin (PRL )
Anterior (Adenohypophysis Pituitary)
• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): This controls the release of hormones of
the adrenal cortex which releases steroid hormones. ACTH promotes and
maintains growth and development of the cortex of the adrenal gland.
• Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH): This stimulates the production of
melanocytes in the skin which tends to darken the skin
• Thyroid-stimulating Hormone (TSH): Promotes the growth and development of
thyroid gland and release of thyroid hormones known as thyroxin.
• Luteinizing stimulating hormone (LH): It stimulates the formation and activity of
the corpus luteum of ovary. It stimulates the release of eggs from the ovary in
females and prepares the uterine lining for the implantation of a fertilized egg. It
increases the production of progesterone in females, while in males it stimulates
interstitial cell to produce testosterone.
 Anterior (Adenohypophysis Pituitary)
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): FSH stimulates the secretion of estrogen and maturation
of ovum in females and sperm production in males. It influences the growth and
maintenance of the gonads (ovaries and testes).
• Prolactin (PRL): It is also called as the lactogenic hormone as it initiates and promotes milk
production in female mammals. It also helps to maintain the corpus luteum of the ovary
during the menstrual cycle. Hypersecretion of PRL may cause non-nursing women to lactate
and also disrupt the menstrual cycle. It can also cause impotence in men. Hyposecretion of
PRL is generally of no significance.
• Growth Hormone (GH): This hormone is also known as somatotropin hormone (STH) or
somatotropic hormone. It influences the growth of fells and tissues all over the body.
• GH is released during some stages of sleep. It promotes the growth of bones, muscles and
other tissues. Thus, it controls and regulates the growth of a child from infancy to adulthood.
• During growing years, hypersecretion of GH causes an extraordinary skeletal growth
producing a condition known as gigantism. This also causes the formation of new bones
making the body disfigured with large hands, feet, jaw etc. This is known as acromegaly.
• If during growing years the GH is secreted in quantity that is less than what is desired, or
hyposecreted it results in reduced cell growth of the body leading to dwarfism.
The Posterior Pituitary
(Neuro hypophysis)
• The posterior pituitary is composed of neural tissue. The main hormones released are Antidiuretic
Hormone (ADH) or Vasopressin and Oxytocin.
• Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH):
• ADH, also known as vasopressin, helps the body to retain water and regulates sodium level in the
blood.
• In other words, it prevents the loss of water from the body through large urine volume.
• It helps the tubules of the kidney to reabsorb water from the excess amounts of urine that is
formed to be excreted.
• The osmotic pressure in the body increases when the body dehydrates. This triggers the release
of ADH, which in turn helps to reabsorb the water from the kidney and pour it into the blood. This
restores the water level in the body and reduces the osmotic pressure.
• The hypo secretion of ADH causes the excretion of large quantity of urine from the body, thus
leading to diabetes insipidus.
• This is generally taken care of by injecting ADH or vasopressin. ADH is also involved in learning
and memory though, the exact role is yet to be understood.
The Posterior Pituitary
(Neuro hypophysis)
• Oxytocin: The word is derived from Greek words, oxys meaning
‘rapid’ and tokos that means 'childbirth’.
• Oxytocin (OT) initiates the contraction of uterine muscles. Injections
of OT are given to induce labour and to speed-up childbirth.
• It also promotes lactation and ensures successful nursing. It also
controls certain aspects of parental behavior and sexual behavior.
 PINEAL GLAND
• Pineal Gland (Epiphysis)
• Structure: Pineal gland is a very small structure and is in shape of a cone. It is
placed on top of the brain stem. This gland is not a paired gland like other glands.
• Function: The hormone released by pineal gland is known as melatonin.
• This regulates the biological clock of the body which controls our sleeping,
waking, eating, reproductive cycle (menstrual cycle and onset of puberty) in
women and behavior.
• Pineal gland does not secrete melatonin in sunlight, this tends to influence a
persons’ mood. It keeps track of length of days and seasons. For example, in
seasonal affective disorder (SAD), patient suffers from severe depression during
winters.
• As days are small in winters, so there is less daylight, and as a result reduction in
the production of melatonin. When there is jet lag, then melatonin is also used to
treat it.
THYROID GLAND
• Structure: The thyroid gland is made up of two lobes that are connected by an isthmus in the neck region. It weighs about 30 gms in an average
adult.
• The gland has follicles which are filled with thyroid fluid. It secretes hormones as calcitonin, thyroxine and triiodothyronine (T3)
• Functions:
• Thyroid hormone regulates gene expression, metabolic processes, cell growth and tissue differentiation.
• The secretion of thyroxin depends upon the temperature of the environment. When it is cold then the secretion of thyroxin increases while
when it is warm it reduces.
• Hypersecretion of thyroid hormone or hyperthyroidism produces a disease known as Graves’ disease.
• This causes eyes to protrude, increased excitability, difficulty in sleeping, and inability to focus on a task. This condition may also cause lot of
weight loss, nervousness, and enhanced heart beat. This condition can be taken care of by surgically removing a part of the gland so as to reduce
the production of thyroxin.
• During growing years when there is deficiency of thyroxin i.e., hyposecretion in the body it causes a condition known as cretinism. Cretins suffer
from low metabolic rate, CNS and other systems of the body are maldeveloped, with retarded growth. In severe conditions it leads to dwarfism.
If hypothyroidism is detected early, then it can be rectified by injecting extra thyroxin and cretinism can be avoided. However, in adulthood,
hypothyroidism causes myxedema. In myxedema, the metabolic rate reduces, mental and physical vigor also decreases, skin becomes yellowish,
and there is gain in weight.
• When the level of iodine in the body is not sufficient, then there is a reduction in the release of thyroid hormones. This causes a swelling in the
neck producing a condition known as goitre. This is very common in mountain areas where the diet lacks sufficient amount of iodine.
• Calcitonin is another hormone secreted by the thyroid gland. It controls the calcium content of the blood by increasing the formation of bone.
PARATHYROID GLAND

• Structure: Parathyroid glands lie above the thyroid gland. They are four of
them and are round in shape. They secrete a hormone known as
parathyroid hormone (PTH) or parathormone.
• Functions: Parathormone regulates calcium, phosphorous and vitamin D in
the blood. It works opposite to calcitonin. It regulates calcium homeostasis
by acting on the bloodstream and maintains an optimal level of calcium in
the body. This then facilitates the functions of neurons, skeletal muscles
and acts on the bone, kidney and intestinal cells. When the level of calcium
is low in the blood, parathyroid gland secretes parathormone which helps
to increase the blood calcium. When the optimal level of calcium is
reached, then parathormone is not produced by the gland. When the level
of calcium drops, then the same cycle starts again.
PARATHYROID GLAND

• Parathyroid hormone activates Vitamin D in the body which helps in

absorbing calcium that is available in the food we eat.
• Hyposecretion of parathyroid hormone causes hypocalcemia which
produces irritability, muscle spasms and convulsions. In childhood, if
there is an extreme deficiency of Vitamin D, then the calcium
becomes very low.
• Hypersecretion, then it leads to too much calcium in the blood which
causes a bone disease known as osteitis fibrosa cystica.
THYMUS GLAND

• It’s located on the dorsal side of heart.

• It secret thymosins
• It helps in production of T lymphocytes and antibodies
• It degenerated in old individuals as a result the immune responses of
old persons become weak
ADRENAL GLAND

• Structure: The adrenal glands are placed like a cover on top of each
kidney. Renal is a Latin word that means ‘kidney’ and ad is a Latin
word for ‘to’, which means to or on the kidney. They have two parts,
the outer covering which is the major part of the gland is known as
adrenal cortex and is made up of endocrine tissue. The inner part of
the gland known as adrenal medulla is made up of neurosecretory
tissue. 30 different hormones are secreted to regulate salt intake,
deal with stress and also influences sexual changes during
adolescence (along with gonads).
Adrenal Cortex
• Adrenal cortex secretes corticosteroids as mineralocorticoids,
glucocorticoids and gonadocorticoids.
Mineralocorticoid
• Mineralocorticoids regulate the processing of mineral salts
(electrolytes) in the body. For example, aldosterone helps in the
maintenance of sodium balance in the body by reabsorbing it from
the kidney. This also leads to reabsorbing water in the body.
• GlucocorticoidsSource: [Link] main
glucocorticoid released by the adrenal cortex is known as cortisol along
with cortisone and corticosterone. Glucocorticoids speed up the
breakdown of proteins into amino acids. In liver, the amino acids are
converted into glucose. Glucocorticoids are necessary to maintain normal
blood pressure and working of the epinephrine and nor-epinephrine. If
there is excess of glucocorticoids in the blood, it tends to initiate tissue loss
or protein loss and causes hyperglycemia, when there is high level of blood
glucose in the body. Glucocorticoids help in the mobilization of lipids. High
concentration of glucocorticoids also causes a decrease in white blood
cells, which reduces the formation of antibodies in the body. Hence,
glucocorticoids help the body to cope with physical and psychological
stress.
• Gonadocorticoids
• The sex hormones released by the adrenal cortex are known as
gonadocorticoids. Under normal conditions, adrenal cortex releases
both male hormones androgen and female hormone estrogen. But
the quantity in which they are released is very small, so they do not
produce any significant effects. That is, the level of androgens in
females may only lead to the production of body hair but not produce
any masculine characteristics.
Adrenal Medulla
• The hormones secreted by adrenal medulla are known as catecholamines. They are non-steroid
hormones. Adrenalin or epinephrine is the major hormone secreted. The other hormone secreted
is noradrenalin or norepinephrine. Epinephrine and nor-epinephrine help to maintain the balance
in the body (when people are under stress) by increasing their effects on the sympathetic system.
•
• When the cortical hormones are hyper secreted it leads to Cushing’s Syndrome. The fat gets
deposited in the face, abdomen, shoulders instead of arms and legs. Face appears to be moon
shaped. Hypersecretion of aldosterone causes aldosteronism which causes water retention in the
body and loss of potassium causing muscle weakness. When there is hypersecretion of
androgens, the level of male hormones in the blood increases in women. This causes male
characteristics in women.
•
• Hyposecretion of mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids causes an increase in blood glucose and
potassium levels, dehydration, weight loss, causing Addison’s disease. Sometimes ointments
containing hydrocortisone are used to treat symptoms of skin allergies.
 PANCREAS

• Structure: Pancreas lies near the stomach and the small intestine. It is
a long gland, about 12 cms long and weighs about 100 gms. It is made
up of small cells known as islets of langerhans. These cells are joined
together by gap junctions. There are different kinds of pancreatic
cells. The A cell or alpha cells secrete the hormone glucagon, the Beta
cells (B cells) produce insulin and Delta cells (D cells) secrete
somatostatin. The pancreatic polypeptide cells (F, or PP cells) secrete
pancreatic polypeptide.
• Function: Alpha cells produce glucagon which converts the glycogen into glucose in the
blood. It thus increases the blood glucose level. Somatostatin, that is produced by the
delta cells regulates some cells of the pancreatic islets, inhibits the secretion of growth
hormone, glucagon, insulin and pancreatic polypeptide. The beta cells produce insulin
which helps to lower the blood glucose level and promotes [Link] an
inadequate or abnormally low level of insulin is produced, it causes diabetes. In
hyperglycemia, glucose is unable to enter the cells normally this increases the level of
glucose in the blood. Under normal conditions the tubules of the kidney reabsorb the
glucose from the blood but when the bold glucose level is too high then the tubules are
unable to reabsorb the excessive glucose. This produces a condition known as glycosuria
and extra sugar is released out through urine. This may cause a condition where the
frequency of urine production increases, that is polyuria. This happens because the body
needs more water to throw out the excess glucose. When too much water is excreted,
the body becomes dehydrated, and the person feels very thirsty all the time. This
condition is known as polydipsia. When the blood sugar level is high, the body also feels
hungrier, a condition known as polyphagia. Another name for diabetes is diabetes
mellitus. When diabetes is not treated properly it may cause a condition known as
diabetic ketoacidosis which leads to pain in the abdomen, nausea, coma and if not
treated then it can also lead to death. Hereditary factors play a key role in the
development of diabetes mellitus.
• Type I diabetes mellitus is a serious disorder that occurs early in
adolescence about 11 to 13 years. Since beta cells are destroyed, there is
deficiency in insulin. This increases blood glucose level and body
dehydrates. This effects the kidneys, eyes and there is reduced functioning
of the peripheral nerves (Powell, 1987). The patient has to take injections
of insulin to prevent ketosis and control hyper glycemia. About 10% of the
diabetics suffer from this [Link] II diabetes mellitus is little is less
serious form of diabetes that occurs after the age 40. The insulin produced
by the body is adequate but somehow it is not able to maintain the blood
glucose level. The treatment involves changes in eating behaviors, diet and
regular exercise. About 90% of all diabetics suffer from this disorder. Gain
in body weight makes one susceptible to [Link] diabetes is left untreated then
it may cause heart attack, decreased blood circulation to the extremities
causing tingling sensation, problems in vision and kidney disease.
 GONADS

• GonadsStructure: The primary sex organs are gonads. In males, they

are testes and in females they are ovaries. Both have different
structure and produce their own hormones. Testes are paired organs
having a sac called as scrotum. It produces hormones known as
testosterone and androgens. Ovaries are also a pair of glands that are
located in the pelvis of a female. They produce sex hormones as
estrogens and progestins.
• Functions: The hormones secreted by gonads regulate sexual
behavior and reproduction, along with the brain. Testosterone is
involved in making physical changes during puberty as changes in
voice, growth of facial hair, chest and pubic hair, promotes sperm
production and male sexual characteristics. Estrogens are responsible
for the sexual development of the female body such as shape of the
body, development of the breast, and female reproductive cycle.
Progesterone is secreted during pregnanc and helps in it.
 PLACENTA

• Human placental lactogen

• Human chorionic gonadotropin
• Estrogen
• Progesterone
Thank you!