THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

 Two body systems are responsible for sending and receiving sensory
information and coordinating body responses. These are the nervous system
and endocrine system.
 The endocrine system regulates body activities by releasing hormones
(chemical messengers) into the bloodstream, where they are carried
throughout the entire body.
 Hormonal responses may be almost instantaneous (sudden), or may occur
days later.

FUNCTIONS OF HORMONES
 Regulate the chemical composition and volume of the internal environment
(extracellular fluid)
 Help regulate metabolism and energy balance
 Help regulate contraction of smooth and cardiac muscle fibres and secretion
by glands.
 Help maintain homeostasis, despite disruptions such as infection, trauma,
emotional stress, dehydration, starvation, haemorrhage and temperature
extremes.
 Regulate certain activities of the immune system.
 Play a role in smooth, sequential integration of growth and development.
 Contribute to the basic processes of reproduction, including gamete
production, fertilization, nourishment of the embryo and foetus, delivery and
nourishment of the new born.

ENDOCRINE AND EXOCRINE GLAND

The body contains two kinds of glands:
 Exocrine glands secrete the secretions into body ducts, which carry the
products into body cavities, the lumen of an organ, or the outer surface of the
body. E.g., Sudoriferous glands, sebaceous glands, mucous glands, digestive
glands.
 Endocrine glands secrete hormones into the extra cellular space around the
secretory cells. The secretions diffuse into capillaries and are carried
throughout the body by the circulatory system.
 The endocrine system is composed of the body’s endocrine glands. These
include:
- the pituitary
- thyroid
- parathyroid
- adrenal
- pineal glands
- pancreatic islets
 There are also many organs that have cells which secrete hormones, but are
not exclusively endocrine organs. These include: the hypothalamus, thymus,
pancreas, ovaries, testes, kidneys, stomach, liver, small intestine, skin, heart
and placenta.

HORMONES
Hormones are chemical substances that are carried by a cell tissue and initiate
specific action. Hormones can be classified on the basis of:-
(A) Based on the distance of the target cells from the producer cells:
(I) Classical Hormones: the distance between producer cells and target
cells is long. Example of classical hormones- pituitary hormones,
thyroid hormones, adrenocortical hormones, sex hormones.
(II) Paracrine hormones: the chemical signal after being produced, diffuses
locally to reach the target cell which is a neighbouring cell.
(III) Autocrine: the chemical substance (the signal) is produced by the cell
but signal goes back into the very cell that produces and releases it, to
modify its action.
(IV) Intracrine: the chemical substance is not secreted by the cell and
without being secreted, it regulates the processes of the cell.
(B) Based on chemical nature:
(i) Peptide hormones- e.g., insulin, pituitary hormones
(ii) Steroids- e.g., sex hormones, corticosteroids
(iii) Derivatives of amino acids- e.g., adrenalin, nor adrenalin

 Hormones can have very powerful effects, even when present in very low
concentrations.
 There are approximately 50 different hormones produced in the human body.
 The specific cells which are affected by a hormone are called target cells.
 Hormones influence their target cells by binding to proteins or glycoproteins
in the cell membrane called receptors.

THE PITUITARY GLAND AND HYPOTHALAMUS

 The pituitary gland or hypophysis is attached to the hypothalamus at the base
of the brain.
 The hypothalamus is the major integrating link between the nervous and
endocrine systems.
 Together, the hypothalamus and pituitary gland regulate virtually all aspects
of growth, development, metabolism and homeostasis.
 The pituitary gland can be divided inti the posterior pituitary and anterior
pituitary.
 It is the size of a pea, weighs about 500mg and consists of two main parts that
originate from different types of cells.
 The anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) is an upgrowth of glandular
epithelium from the pharynx and the posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis) a
downgrowth of nervous tissue from the brain.
 There is a network of nerve fibres between the hypothalamus and the
posterior pituitary.
 Pituitary gland is a small structure at the base of the brain which releases a
wide variety of hormones that, in turn, control the activity of the body’s other
hormone glands.
Blood supply
Arterial blood. This is from branches of the internal carotid artery. The
anterior lobe is supplied indirectly by blood that has already passed through a
capillary bed in the hypothalamus but the posterior lobe is supplied directly.
The influence of hypothalamus on the pituitary gland
 The hypothalamus controls release of hormones from both the anterior and
posterior pituitary but in different ways

Hormones of the Pituitary gland:

 Anterior pituitary – GH
-TSH
-ACTH
-PRL
-FSH
-LH
* Posterior pituitary – ADH or vasopressin
- oxytocin

THE POSTERIOR PITUITARY

 The posterior pituitary works as a unit with the hypothalamus.
 Although the posterior pituitary does not synthesize its own hormones, it
does store and release oxytocin (OT) and antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
produced in the hypothalamus.
- OT controls uterine contractions during delivery and milk ejection during
breastfeeding
- ADH causes retention of water, controlling the body’s water balancing
mechanism.

THE ANTERIOR PITUITARY

 The anterior pituitary secretes hormones that control a wide range of bodily
activities.
 The hypothalamus regulates the anterior pituitary by producing releasing
hormones that stimulate release of anterior pituitary gland hormones and
inhibiting hormones that supress release of anterior pituitary gland hormones.
 The anterior pituitary has five principle types of cells which secrete seven
major hormones.
(1) GH: Which stimulates general body growth and regulates certain aspects
of metabolism.
(2) Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH): controls secretions and other
activities of the thyroid gland.
(3) Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH):
together FSH and LH stimulate the secretion of oestrogen and
progesterone and the maturation of oocytes in the ovaries and the
secretion of testosterone and sperm production in testes.
(4) Prolactin: initiates milk production in the mammary glands.
(5) Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and melanocyte stimulating
hormone (MSH): ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete
glucocorticoids, MSH affects skin pigmentation.
HORMONE FUNCTION
Growth Hormone (GH) Regulates metabolism, promotes tissue growth
specially of bones and muscles
Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) Stimulate growth and activity of thyroid gland,
secretion of T3 and T4
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) Stimulates the adrenal cortex to release
glucocorticoids
Prolactin (PRL) Stimulates growth of breast tissue and milk
production
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) Stimulates production of sperms in testes,
stimulates secretion of oestrogen in the
ovaries, maturation of ovarian follicles,
ovulation
Luteinising hormone (LH) Stimulates secretion of testosterone from the
testes, stimulates secretion of progesterone by
the corpus luteum

THE THYROID GLAND

 It is situated in the neck in front of the larynx and trachea at the level of the
5th, 6th and 7th cervical and 1st thoracic vertebrae.
 It is a highly vascular gland that weighs about 25g and is surrounded by a
fibrous capsule.
 It resembles a butterfly in shape, consisting of two lobes, one on either side of
the thyroid cartilage and upper cartilaginous rings of the trachea.
 The lobes are joined by a narrow isthmus, lying in front of the trachea.
 The arterial blood supply to the gland is through the superior (branch of
external carotid artery) and inferior (branch of subclavian artery) thyroid
arteries.
 The venous return is by the thyroid veins, which drain into the jugular veins.

THYROID HORMONES
 Thyroxin and tri-iodothyronine
 Iodine is essential for the formation of the thyroid hormones thyroxin (T4) and
tri-iodothyronine (T3)
 The thyroid gland selectively takes up iodine from the blood, a process called
iodine trapping.
 The release of T3 and T4 into the blood is stimulated by thyroid stimulating
hormone (TSH) from the pituitary.
 Secretion of TSH is stimulated by thyrotrophin releasing hormone (TRH) from
the hypothalamus and secretion of TRH is stimulated by exercise, stress,
malnutrition, low plasma glucose levels and sleep.
 Function of T3 and T4:
 T3 and T4 are essential for normal growth and development, especially of the
skeleton and nervous system.
 Most other systems and organs are also influenced by thyroid hormones.
Physiological effects of T3 and T4 on the heart, skeletal muscles, skin,
digestive and reproductive systems are more evident when there is
underactivity of the thyroid gland and can be profound in childhood.
Calcitonin
 This hormone is secreted by the parafollicular or C-cells in the thyroid gland.
 Calcitonin lowers raised blood calcium (Ca+2) levels.
 It does this by acting on:
- Bone cells promoting their storage of calcium
- Kidney tubules inhibiting the reabsorption of calcium.
 Release of calcitonin is stimulated by increased blood calcium levels.

THE PARATHYROID GLANDS

 There are 4 small parathyroid glands, each weighing around 50 g, two
embedded in the posterior surface of each lobe of the thyroid gland.
Function:
 These glands secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH, parathormone). Secretion is
regulated by blood calcium levels.
 The main function of the PTH is to increase blood calcium levels. This is
achieved by increasing the calcium absorption from the small intestine and
reabsorption from the renal tubules.

THE ADRENAL GLANDS